Sean Ferguson
PSY101 Lab Section #
Spring 2013
Blair, R. J. R., Mitchell, D. G. V., Richell, R. A., Kelly, S., Leonard, A. & Newman, C. (2002). Turning a deaf ear to fear: Impaired recognition of vocal affect in psychopathic individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 682-686. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.682.
Introduction
Psychopathy is a severe personality disorder marked by a distinct pattern of antisocial behavior and emotional characteristics. These include “callousness, a diminished capacity for remorse, and superficial charm as well as impulsivity and poor behavioral controls” (Blair, Mitchell, Richell, Kelly, Leonard, & Newman, 2002, p. 682). Perhaps most importantly, psychopaths seem to lack an intrinsic sense of morality. As a result, many are capable of horrific crimes for which they feel no guilt. Although psychopathic individuals have been extensively studied, they are still not well understood.
Recent studies have attempted to explain why psychopaths exhibit such extreme emotional dysfunction. Currently, there are two popular perspectives used to address this question. One explanation, the low-fear model, suggests that much of a psychopath’s aberrant behavior can be attributed to an impaired ability to experience fear (Blair et al., 2002). Basically, psychopaths never learn to avoid dangerous situations because they fail to feel fear in dangerous situations. They tend to put themselves in threatening positions (by starting a fight, for example) because they do not fear the consequences for themselves or others. In support of this explanation, previous studies have suggested that psychopathic individuals lack appropriate fear and startle reflexes in comparison with normal individuals. The second explanation, the violence inhibition mechanism (VIM) model, posits that the ability to read expressions of fear or sadness on other people’s faces is what allows people to develop morality. Normal people learn to avoid behaviors that tend to cause other people to feel and appear sad or afraid. The VIM model argues that psychopaths have an impaired ability to identify sad and fearful expressions, and so they do not learn to avoid immoral behaviors that cause others to feel negative emotions (Blair et al., 2002).
Many previous studies have looked into psychopaths’ ability to identify facial expressions. However, none have investigated the ability of psychopathic individuals to identify the emotional intonation of spoken words. The purpose of this study was “to explore the ability of psychopathic individuals to recognize emotional vocal intonalities” (Blair et al., 2002, p. 683).
Methods
The study took place in a London prison. Potential participants were screened using the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised, a measure of psychopathic tendencies. Nineteen men were identified as psychopaths. Twenty other men who did not meet the criteria for psychopathy also took part in the study (Blair et al., 2002).
Each partic.
Write a two-page double spaced, 12 pt font paper on critical contr.docxnealralix138661
Write a two-page double spaced, 12 pt font paper on critical contractual concerns. That is what are the basics of any contract that should be included to protect, you, your business and the other party.
You will enter into many contracts over the course of your personal and professional life. What are the important concerns that will keep you and your assets safe?
Why are contracts important?
Name three (3) possible contracts that a restaurant company may enter into with another organization. Name two issues important for each contract. (Not the same issues)
Self-Doubt During Emerging Adulthood:
The Conditional Mediating Influence
of Mindfulness
Justin W. Peer
1
and Pamela McAuslan
1
Abstract
Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for identity exploration and making decisions regarding the future. Although most
thrive, some emerging adults struggle with the prominent developmental features of this time. Little is known about factors that
may positively influence development during EA. This study examined the mediating impact of mindfulness on the relationship
between normative emerging adult processes (identity exploration, experimentation/possibilities, negativity/instability, self-focus,
and feeling in-between) and self-doubt, while simultaneously considering the moderating effect of age and gender. Using data from
the EA Measured at Multiple Institutions project, reports from 1,293 participants were utilized. Mindfulness mediated the
relationship between various aspects of development (negativity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between) and self-doubt with
age and gender moderating aspects of these relationships. The findings highlight the importance of mindfulness during this
important developmental period.
Keywords
emerging adulthood, self-doubt, mindfulness, mental health, well-being
Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for exploring vari-
ous life directions (Arnett, 2000; Reifman & Grahe, 2015) and
forming a coherent sense of identity (Schwartz et al., 2010).
During this time, the ability to consider life’s possibilities is
greater than it will be at any other point (Arnett, 2000), making
this a unique and important point in life span development. EA
is a time that has been reflected upon by adults ‘‘as the most
impactful and impressionable of their lives’’ (Gottlieb, Still, &
Newby-Clark, 2007, p. 132). Arnett (2007) stresses that EA is
a distinct period of development and not merely a transitional
period in life.
Various features related to the developmental challenges
associated with EA exist (Arnett, 2004). These features, includ-
ing identity exploration and possessing feelings of instability,
distinguish this period of life from others. Although these fea-
tures are prominent during EA, Arnett (2004, 2006) suggests
that they are not necessarily universal due to the heterogeneity
of individuals within this group. However, he believes that
these features are what makes EA a distinct p.
O R I G I N A L P A P E RSelf-Reported Depressive Symptoms.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Have Minimal Effect
on Executive Functioning Performance in Children
and Adolescents
Benjamin D. Hill • Danielle M. Ploetz •
Judith R. O’Jile • Mary Bodzy • Karen A. Holler •
Martin L. Rohling
Published online: 9 May 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract The relation between mood and executive
functioning in children and adolescents has not been previ-
ously reported. This study examined the association between
self-reported depressive symptoms in both clinical outpa-
tient and psychiatric inpatient samples to the following
measures of executive functioning: the Controlled Oral
Word Association Test, Animal Naming, Trail Making Test,
and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Records from children and
adolescents aged 7–17 years old with an IQ [ 70 were
examined. Data were gathered at either an outpatient neu-
ropsychology clinic (n = 89) or an inpatient psychiatric
hospital setting (n = 81). Mood was measured with the
Children’s Depression Inventory. Generally, statistical
associations between self-reported depressive symptoms and
executive functioning were small and non-significant. The
variance predicted by mood on measures of executive
functioning was minimal (generally less than 2 %) for the
total sample, the outpatient group, inpatient group, and a
subgroup who endorsed elevated mood symptoms. These
results suggest that impaired performance on measures of
executive functioning in children and adolescents is mini-
mally related to self-reported depressive symptoms.
Keywords Executive functioning � Mood � Depression �
Cognitive ability � Neuropsychological assessment
Introduction
There is a long standing debate that has generated a con-
siderable amount of research in adults concerning the
relationship between levels of emotional disturbance and
their effects on performance on standard neuropsycholog-
ical tests. It appears that when the literature is taken as a
whole, adults diagnosed with psychiatric disorders tend to
perform worse than individuals without diagnoses (Basso
and Bornstein 1999; Cassens et al. 1990; Kindermann and
Brown 1997; Sackeim et al. 1992; Sherman et al. 2000;
Sweet et al. 1992; Tancer et al. 1990; Veiel 1997).
Depression, the most common mood disorder, is generally
associated with dysfunctional memory performance in the
adult literature (Burt et al. 1995; Christensen et al. 1997).
However, adult studies have shown conflicting patterns of
results across other neuropsychological domains. Some
researchers have reported depression to also be associated
with executive dysfunction (McDermott and Ebmeier
2009; Reppermund et al. 2007; Merriam et al. 1999; Martin
et al. 1991). However, others studies have reported no
effect of depression on executive functioning (Castaneda
et al. 2008; Miller et al. 1991; Rohling et al. 2002, Markela-
Lerenc et al. 2006).
While many different adult populations have been
.
1Developmental Disorders, Learning, and MeEttaBenton28
1
Developmental Disorders, Learning, and Memory
Antonai Fitzgerald
Southern New Hampshire University
PSY-300-H1419 Biopsychology
October 3, 2021
Developmental Disorders, Learning, and Memory
Critical improvements and milestones in the research in the field of biopsychology, seeking to establish ways through which the brain and nervous functions influence human behavior. Developments that have been made are far-reaching, demonstrating the importance of understanding whether defects in the brain and nervous systems could the reason behind some development disorders, their impact on working memory and learning. To narrow down the complex issue of biopsychology, two development disorders have been selected, hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia, which are assessed to establish how they are related to the brain and nervous system. Scholarly articles that have extensively covered select development disorders are reviewed, and research design developed.
Literature Review
According to Moreau and Waldie (2016), development learning disorders affect children, impairing their experience of learning in the classroom. Dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are two learning disorders that are evaluated by Moreau and Waldie (2016), where they claim they cannot be linked to the inadequate learning environment or the intellectual ability of the children but rather to the underlying brain function. Maturation of the prefrontal areas enables and support executive function such as reading and cognitive processes. In the early stages, neural activity may be disorganized and inefficient which eventually transit to a better efficient system but when the transition phase is defective, it leads to ADHD and dyslexia. Further, variation in the cerebral lateralization related to language processing and executive functions is another mechanism responsible for dyslexia and ADHD, which influences learning and working memory (Moreau & Waldie, 2016).
Applying a data-driven, and transdiagnostic approach, Holmes et al. (2020) assessed cognitive dimensions to the children aged 5-18 years that had been identified to have problems in attention, learning and working memory. It was established that learning-related problems and working memory was stronger and higher for the students with ADHD which are linked to defective executive function, controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain (Holmes et al, 2020). Ethical approval was granted to the researchers, and guardians were involved in providing written informed consent while verbal assent was obtained from the children. Therefore, Holmes et al. (2020) provide rich information demonstrating the influence of the brain and nervous system on human behaviors such as reading and learning.
In another study which entailed meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies, it was established that the differences in the gray matter overlap are associated with dyslexia and ADHD, and partic ...
Mind-wandering-in-children--Examining-task-unrelated-thou_2019_Journal-of-Ex.pdf
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 179 (2019) 276–290
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ jecp
Mind wandering in children: Examining
task-unrelated thoughts in computerized
tasks and a classroom lesson, and the
association with different executive functions
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
0022-0965/� 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E.H.H. Keulers).
1 Both authors contributed equally to this work.
Esther H.H. Keulers a,⇑,1, Lisa M. Jonkman b,1
aDepartment of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University,
6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
bDepartment of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University,
6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 8 June 2018
Revised 16 November 2018
Available online 15 December 2018
Keywords:
Educational setting
Executive function
Inhibition/interference control
Mind wandering
Task-unrelated thought
Typically developing children
Mind wandering is associated with worse performance on cogni-
tively demanding tasks, but this concept is largely unexplored in
typically developing children and little is known about the relation
between mind wandering and specific executive functions (EFs).
This study aimed, first, to measure and compare children’s mind
wandering in controlled computerized tasks as well as in an educa-
tional setting and, second, to examine the association between
mind wandering and the three core EFs, namely inhibition, work-
ing memory, and set shifting/switching. A total of 52 children aged
9–11 years performed a classroom listening task and a computer-
ized EF battery consisting of flanker, running span, and attention
switching tasks. Mind wandering was measured using online
probed and/or retrospective self-reports of task-unrelated
thoughts (TUTs) during task performance. Children reported TUTs
on 20–25% of the thought probes, which did not differ between
classroom and EF tasks. Regression models, hierarchically adding
the three core EFs, accounted for a small but significant portion
of variance in TUT frequency when measured in class and retro-
spectively after EF tasks, but not when measured online in EF tasks.
Children with worse inhibition were more prone to mind wander
during classroom and EF tasks. Lower attention switching accuracy
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013&domain=pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
mailto:[email protected]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00220965
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jecp
E.H.H. Keulers, L.M. Jonkman / Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 179 .
Write a two-page double spaced, 12 pt font paper on critical contr.docxnealralix138661
Write a two-page double spaced, 12 pt font paper on critical contractual concerns. That is what are the basics of any contract that should be included to protect, you, your business and the other party.
You will enter into many contracts over the course of your personal and professional life. What are the important concerns that will keep you and your assets safe?
Why are contracts important?
Name three (3) possible contracts that a restaurant company may enter into with another organization. Name two issues important for each contract. (Not the same issues)
Self-Doubt During Emerging Adulthood:
The Conditional Mediating Influence
of Mindfulness
Justin W. Peer
1
and Pamela McAuslan
1
Abstract
Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for identity exploration and making decisions regarding the future. Although most
thrive, some emerging adults struggle with the prominent developmental features of this time. Little is known about factors that
may positively influence development during EA. This study examined the mediating impact of mindfulness on the relationship
between normative emerging adult processes (identity exploration, experimentation/possibilities, negativity/instability, self-focus,
and feeling in-between) and self-doubt, while simultaneously considering the moderating effect of age and gender. Using data from
the EA Measured at Multiple Institutions project, reports from 1,293 participants were utilized. Mindfulness mediated the
relationship between various aspects of development (negativity/instability, self-focus, and feeling in-between) and self-doubt with
age and gender moderating aspects of these relationships. The findings highlight the importance of mindfulness during this
important developmental period.
Keywords
emerging adulthood, self-doubt, mindfulness, mental health, well-being
Emerging adulthood (EA) is a critical time for exploring vari-
ous life directions (Arnett, 2000; Reifman & Grahe, 2015) and
forming a coherent sense of identity (Schwartz et al., 2010).
During this time, the ability to consider life’s possibilities is
greater than it will be at any other point (Arnett, 2000), making
this a unique and important point in life span development. EA
is a time that has been reflected upon by adults ‘‘as the most
impactful and impressionable of their lives’’ (Gottlieb, Still, &
Newby-Clark, 2007, p. 132). Arnett (2007) stresses that EA is
a distinct period of development and not merely a transitional
period in life.
Various features related to the developmental challenges
associated with EA exist (Arnett, 2004). These features, includ-
ing identity exploration and possessing feelings of instability,
distinguish this period of life from others. Although these fea-
tures are prominent during EA, Arnett (2004, 2006) suggests
that they are not necessarily universal due to the heterogeneity
of individuals within this group. However, he believes that
these features are what makes EA a distinct p.
O R I G I N A L P A P E RSelf-Reported Depressive Symptoms.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Have Minimal Effect
on Executive Functioning Performance in Children
and Adolescents
Benjamin D. Hill • Danielle M. Ploetz •
Judith R. O’Jile • Mary Bodzy • Karen A. Holler •
Martin L. Rohling
Published online: 9 May 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract The relation between mood and executive
functioning in children and adolescents has not been previ-
ously reported. This study examined the association between
self-reported depressive symptoms in both clinical outpa-
tient and psychiatric inpatient samples to the following
measures of executive functioning: the Controlled Oral
Word Association Test, Animal Naming, Trail Making Test,
and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Records from children and
adolescents aged 7–17 years old with an IQ [ 70 were
examined. Data were gathered at either an outpatient neu-
ropsychology clinic (n = 89) or an inpatient psychiatric
hospital setting (n = 81). Mood was measured with the
Children’s Depression Inventory. Generally, statistical
associations between self-reported depressive symptoms and
executive functioning were small and non-significant. The
variance predicted by mood on measures of executive
functioning was minimal (generally less than 2 %) for the
total sample, the outpatient group, inpatient group, and a
subgroup who endorsed elevated mood symptoms. These
results suggest that impaired performance on measures of
executive functioning in children and adolescents is mini-
mally related to self-reported depressive symptoms.
Keywords Executive functioning � Mood � Depression �
Cognitive ability � Neuropsychological assessment
Introduction
There is a long standing debate that has generated a con-
siderable amount of research in adults concerning the
relationship between levels of emotional disturbance and
their effects on performance on standard neuropsycholog-
ical tests. It appears that when the literature is taken as a
whole, adults diagnosed with psychiatric disorders tend to
perform worse than individuals without diagnoses (Basso
and Bornstein 1999; Cassens et al. 1990; Kindermann and
Brown 1997; Sackeim et al. 1992; Sherman et al. 2000;
Sweet et al. 1992; Tancer et al. 1990; Veiel 1997).
Depression, the most common mood disorder, is generally
associated with dysfunctional memory performance in the
adult literature (Burt et al. 1995; Christensen et al. 1997).
However, adult studies have shown conflicting patterns of
results across other neuropsychological domains. Some
researchers have reported depression to also be associated
with executive dysfunction (McDermott and Ebmeier
2009; Reppermund et al. 2007; Merriam et al. 1999; Martin
et al. 1991). However, others studies have reported no
effect of depression on executive functioning (Castaneda
et al. 2008; Miller et al. 1991; Rohling et al. 2002, Markela-
Lerenc et al. 2006).
While many different adult populations have been
.
1Developmental Disorders, Learning, and MeEttaBenton28
1
Developmental Disorders, Learning, and Memory
Antonai Fitzgerald
Southern New Hampshire University
PSY-300-H1419 Biopsychology
October 3, 2021
Developmental Disorders, Learning, and Memory
Critical improvements and milestones in the research in the field of biopsychology, seeking to establish ways through which the brain and nervous functions influence human behavior. Developments that have been made are far-reaching, demonstrating the importance of understanding whether defects in the brain and nervous systems could the reason behind some development disorders, their impact on working memory and learning. To narrow down the complex issue of biopsychology, two development disorders have been selected, hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia, which are assessed to establish how they are related to the brain and nervous system. Scholarly articles that have extensively covered select development disorders are reviewed, and research design developed.
Literature Review
According to Moreau and Waldie (2016), development learning disorders affect children, impairing their experience of learning in the classroom. Dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are two learning disorders that are evaluated by Moreau and Waldie (2016), where they claim they cannot be linked to the inadequate learning environment or the intellectual ability of the children but rather to the underlying brain function. Maturation of the prefrontal areas enables and support executive function such as reading and cognitive processes. In the early stages, neural activity may be disorganized and inefficient which eventually transit to a better efficient system but when the transition phase is defective, it leads to ADHD and dyslexia. Further, variation in the cerebral lateralization related to language processing and executive functions is another mechanism responsible for dyslexia and ADHD, which influences learning and working memory (Moreau & Waldie, 2016).
Applying a data-driven, and transdiagnostic approach, Holmes et al. (2020) assessed cognitive dimensions to the children aged 5-18 years that had been identified to have problems in attention, learning and working memory. It was established that learning-related problems and working memory was stronger and higher for the students with ADHD which are linked to defective executive function, controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain (Holmes et al, 2020). Ethical approval was granted to the researchers, and guardians were involved in providing written informed consent while verbal assent was obtained from the children. Therefore, Holmes et al. (2020) provide rich information demonstrating the influence of the brain and nervous system on human behaviors such as reading and learning.
In another study which entailed meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies, it was established that the differences in the gray matter overlap are associated with dyslexia and ADHD, and partic ...
Mind-wandering-in-children--Examining-task-unrelated-thou_2019_Journal-of-Ex.pdf
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 179 (2019) 276–290
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ jecp
Mind wandering in children: Examining
task-unrelated thoughts in computerized
tasks and a classroom lesson, and the
association with different executive functions
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
0022-0965/� 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E.H.H. Keulers).
1 Both authors contributed equally to this work.
Esther H.H. Keulers a,⇑,1, Lisa M. Jonkman b,1
aDepartment of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University,
6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
bDepartment of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University,
6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 8 June 2018
Revised 16 November 2018
Available online 15 December 2018
Keywords:
Educational setting
Executive function
Inhibition/interference control
Mind wandering
Task-unrelated thought
Typically developing children
Mind wandering is associated with worse performance on cogni-
tively demanding tasks, but this concept is largely unexplored in
typically developing children and little is known about the relation
between mind wandering and specific executive functions (EFs).
This study aimed, first, to measure and compare children’s mind
wandering in controlled computerized tasks as well as in an educa-
tional setting and, second, to examine the association between
mind wandering and the three core EFs, namely inhibition, work-
ing memory, and set shifting/switching. A total of 52 children aged
9–11 years performed a classroom listening task and a computer-
ized EF battery consisting of flanker, running span, and attention
switching tasks. Mind wandering was measured using online
probed and/or retrospective self-reports of task-unrelated
thoughts (TUTs) during task performance. Children reported TUTs
on 20–25% of the thought probes, which did not differ between
classroom and EF tasks. Regression models, hierarchically adding
the three core EFs, accounted for a small but significant portion
of variance in TUT frequency when measured in class and retro-
spectively after EF tasks, but not when measured online in EF tasks.
Children with worse inhibition were more prone to mind wander
during classroom and EF tasks. Lower attention switching accuracy
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013&domain=pdf
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
mailto:[email protected]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.013
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00220965
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jecp
E.H.H. Keulers, L.M. Jonkman / Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 179 .
Emotional intelligence-as-an-evolutive-factor-on-adult-with-adhdRosa Vera Garcia
ADHD adults exhibit deficits in emotion recognition, regulation, and expression. Emotional intelligence (EI) correlates with better life performance and is considered a skill that can be learned and developed. The aim of this study was to assess EI development as ability in ADHD adults, considering the effect of comorbid psychiatric disorders and previous diagnosis of ADHD. Method: Participants (n = 116) were distributed in four groups attending to current comorbidities and previous ADHD diagnosis, and administered the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test version 2.0 to assess their EI level. Results: ADHD adults with comorbidity with no previous diagnosis had lower EI development than healthy controls and the rest of ADHD groups. In addition, ADHD severity in childhood or in adulthood did not influence the current EI level. Conclusion: EI development as a therapeutic approach could be of use in ADHD patients with comorbidities.
HOMEWORK 5 (Total 100 points – 25 points each)
1. (Chapter 9, Question 2) Select an industry and analyze its regionalization
drivers as they were five years ago, as they are today, and as they are likely to be in
five years’ time.
2. (Chapter 9, Question 3) How should a company decide when to use regional
rather than global strategies?
3. (Chapter 10, Question 2) Which industry globalization drivers are the easiest to
measure, and which are the most difficult? What is the basis for your assertion?
4. (Chapter 10, Question 3) How often and by whom should measures of
globalization and global strategy be made?
Mindfulness Research in Social Work:
Conceptual and Methodological
Recommendations
Eric L. Garland
Mindfulness refers to a set of practices as well as the psychological state and trait produced
by such practices. The state, trait, and practice of mindfulness may be broadly characterized
by a present-oriented, nonjudgmental awareness of cognitions, emotions, sensations, and
perceptions without fixation on thoughts of past or future. Research on mindfulness has
proliferated over the past decade. Given the explosion of scientific interest in this topic,
mindfulness-based therapies are attracting the attention of clinical social workers, who seek
to implement these interventions in numerous practice settings. Concomitantly, research on
mindfulness is now falling within the scope and purview of social work scholars. In response
to the growing interest in mindfulness within academic social work, the present article
outlines six conceptual and methodological recommendations for the conduct of future
empirical studies on mindfulness. These recommendations have practical importance for
advancing mindfulness research within and beyond social work.
KEY WORDS: evidence-based practice; meditation; mindfulness; randomized controlled trial; research methods
Mindfulness is linked with a set of cross-cultural principles and practices origi-nating in Asia more than 2,500 years
ago that have parallel manifestations in numerous
cultures around the world. With regard to its cur-
rent academic usage, mindfulness refers to a psycho-
logical phenomenon that is now being studied for
its relevance to mental and physical health in fields
such as medicine, psychology, and neuroscience.
Across these fields, there is a growing body of litera-
ture that attests to the efficacy of mindfulness-based
therapies for a wide range of biobehavioral disorders.
According to a search of PubMed and CRISP data-
bases conducted on October 4, 2009, there were
1,614 peer-reviewed journal articles on mindfulness
published in the scientific literature and 320 research
grants on mindfulness funded by the National Insti-
tutes of Health between 1998 and 2009. Indeed,
there is mounting empirical evidence of the role of
mindfulness in reducing stress and improving clinical
outcomes across diverse conditions such as depres-
sion (Teasdale et al., 2002), relations ...
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
ORIGINAL RESEARCHpublished 12 January 2018doi 10.3389.docxvannagoforth
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 January 2018
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02324
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2018 | Volume 8 | Article 2324
Edited by:
Damien Brevers,
Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Reviewed by:
Charles W. Mathias,
University of Texas Health Science
Center San Antonio, United States
Caroline Quoilin,
Université Catholique de Louvain,
Belgium
*Correspondence:
Ana P. G. Jelihovschi
[email protected]
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Psychopathology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 22 December 2016
Accepted: 20 December 2017
Published: 12 January 2018
Citation:
Jelihovschi APG, Cardoso RL and
Linhares A (2018) An Analysis of the
Associations among Cognitive
Impulsiveness, Reasoning Process,
and Rational Decision Making.
Front. Psychol. 8:2324.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02324
An Analysis of the Associations
among Cognitive Impulsiveness,
Reasoning Process, and Rational
Decision Making
Ana P. G. Jelihovschi*, Ricardo L. Cardoso and Alexandre Linhares
Fundacao Getulio Vargas, Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Impulsivity may lead to several unfortunate consequences and maladaptive behaviors for
both clinical and nonclinical people. It has a key role in many forms of psychopathology.
Although literature has discussed the negative impact of impulsivity, few have
emphasized the relationship between cognitive impulsiveness and decision making. The
aim of this study is to investigate the effects of cognitive impulsiveness on decision
making and explore the strategies used by participants to solve problems. For this
purpose, we apply two measures of impulsivity: the self-report Barratt Impulsiveness
Scale (BIS-11) and the performance based Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). Moreover, we
evaluate participants’ reasoning processes employed to answer CRT questions based on
the calculation expressions, data organization, and erasures they made while answering
the CRT (note that we utilized the instruments using pen and paper). These reasoning
processes are related to the role of executive functions in decision making, and its
relationship with impulsiveness. The sample consists of 191 adults, who were either
professionals or undergraduate students from the fields of business, management, or
accounting. The results show that cognitive impulsiveness may negatively affect decision
making, and that those who presented the calculation to answer the CRT questions
made better decisions. Moreover, there was no difference in the strategies used by
impulsive vs. nonimpulsive participants during decision making. Finally, people who
inhibited their immediate answers to CRT questions performed better during decision
making.
Keywords: impulsivity, BIS-11, reflectivity, CRT, executive functions, dual process, reasoning process, decision
making
1. INTRODUCTION
Cognitive impulsiveness may lead ...
You are the Nursing Director for the medical-surgical area of a .docxkenjordan97598
You are the Nursing Director for the medical-surgical area of a large
hospital. Nurses at this hospital to “self-scheduling”. The managers of the
units have brought to your attention that a severe staffing shortage for the
winter holiday schedule is apparent. Using two different types of leadership
styles, how would you handle this situation?
.
You are the newly appointed director of the Agile County Airport.docxkenjordan97598
You are the newly appointed director of the Agile County Airport System. The characteristics of your organization include:
It is a Local Government Department
Consists of 4 Airports – International, Mather, Executive, Franklin Field
There are 400 employees at all four airports
The airport board of directors has decided to move to an Agile Lean process for all projects.
You quickly recognize that you need to undertake a cultural transformation in order for the Agile Lean process to take hold. The current organization has the following culture characteristics:
No Mission Statement
No Sense of Direction
Militaristic/Top-Down Leadership Model
No Accountability
No Communication
Staff focused on Empire Building
Organization Viewed Itself as Regulators
Focused on catching people doing something wrong
Publicly Belittled
Focus on “Turf”
Process Oriented
Problem Oriented
Growth Without a Long-Term Plan
Employees Not Engaged
Staff consists mostly of generalists
The board of directors has asked you to prepare an overview presentation for their next meeting on your ideas for a organizational culture transformation plan. To complete this assignment you are to design a 5 to 10 slide PowerPoint presentation with notes, that addresses the following key elements:
What makes up organizational culture?
What do you see as the benefits of a culture transformation
What would your Culture Transformation Plan consist of? Describe the high level steps you would take to accomplish this transformation.
What questions would you ask to help in defining a new culture?
What characteristics would you envision the “new” organizational culture to exhibit? Develop a list based upon the current organizational culture
.
More Related Content
Similar to Sean FergusonPSY101 Lab Section #Spring 2013Blair, R. J. R.docx
Emotional intelligence-as-an-evolutive-factor-on-adult-with-adhdRosa Vera Garcia
ADHD adults exhibit deficits in emotion recognition, regulation, and expression. Emotional intelligence (EI) correlates with better life performance and is considered a skill that can be learned and developed. The aim of this study was to assess EI development as ability in ADHD adults, considering the effect of comorbid psychiatric disorders and previous diagnosis of ADHD. Method: Participants (n = 116) were distributed in four groups attending to current comorbidities and previous ADHD diagnosis, and administered the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test version 2.0 to assess their EI level. Results: ADHD adults with comorbidity with no previous diagnosis had lower EI development than healthy controls and the rest of ADHD groups. In addition, ADHD severity in childhood or in adulthood did not influence the current EI level. Conclusion: EI development as a therapeutic approach could be of use in ADHD patients with comorbidities.
HOMEWORK 5 (Total 100 points – 25 points each)
1. (Chapter 9, Question 2) Select an industry and analyze its regionalization
drivers as they were five years ago, as they are today, and as they are likely to be in
five years’ time.
2. (Chapter 9, Question 3) How should a company decide when to use regional
rather than global strategies?
3. (Chapter 10, Question 2) Which industry globalization drivers are the easiest to
measure, and which are the most difficult? What is the basis for your assertion?
4. (Chapter 10, Question 3) How often and by whom should measures of
globalization and global strategy be made?
Mindfulness Research in Social Work:
Conceptual and Methodological
Recommendations
Eric L. Garland
Mindfulness refers to a set of practices as well as the psychological state and trait produced
by such practices. The state, trait, and practice of mindfulness may be broadly characterized
by a present-oriented, nonjudgmental awareness of cognitions, emotions, sensations, and
perceptions without fixation on thoughts of past or future. Research on mindfulness has
proliferated over the past decade. Given the explosion of scientific interest in this topic,
mindfulness-based therapies are attracting the attention of clinical social workers, who seek
to implement these interventions in numerous practice settings. Concomitantly, research on
mindfulness is now falling within the scope and purview of social work scholars. In response
to the growing interest in mindfulness within academic social work, the present article
outlines six conceptual and methodological recommendations for the conduct of future
empirical studies on mindfulness. These recommendations have practical importance for
advancing mindfulness research within and beyond social work.
KEY WORDS: evidence-based practice; meditation; mindfulness; randomized controlled trial; research methods
Mindfulness is linked with a set of cross-cultural principles and practices origi-nating in Asia more than 2,500 years
ago that have parallel manifestations in numerous
cultures around the world. With regard to its cur-
rent academic usage, mindfulness refers to a psycho-
logical phenomenon that is now being studied for
its relevance to mental and physical health in fields
such as medicine, psychology, and neuroscience.
Across these fields, there is a growing body of litera-
ture that attests to the efficacy of mindfulness-based
therapies for a wide range of biobehavioral disorders.
According to a search of PubMed and CRISP data-
bases conducted on October 4, 2009, there were
1,614 peer-reviewed journal articles on mindfulness
published in the scientific literature and 320 research
grants on mindfulness funded by the National Insti-
tutes of Health between 1998 and 2009. Indeed,
there is mounting empirical evidence of the role of
mindfulness in reducing stress and improving clinical
outcomes across diverse conditions such as depres-
sion (Teasdale et al., 2002), relations ...
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
ORIGINAL RESEARCHpublished 12 January 2018doi 10.3389.docxvannagoforth
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 January 2018
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02324
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2018 | Volume 8 | Article 2324
Edited by:
Damien Brevers,
Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Reviewed by:
Charles W. Mathias,
University of Texas Health Science
Center San Antonio, United States
Caroline Quoilin,
Université Catholique de Louvain,
Belgium
*Correspondence:
Ana P. G. Jelihovschi
[email protected]
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Psychopathology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 22 December 2016
Accepted: 20 December 2017
Published: 12 January 2018
Citation:
Jelihovschi APG, Cardoso RL and
Linhares A (2018) An Analysis of the
Associations among Cognitive
Impulsiveness, Reasoning Process,
and Rational Decision Making.
Front. Psychol. 8:2324.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02324
An Analysis of the Associations
among Cognitive Impulsiveness,
Reasoning Process, and Rational
Decision Making
Ana P. G. Jelihovschi*, Ricardo L. Cardoso and Alexandre Linhares
Fundacao Getulio Vargas, Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Impulsivity may lead to several unfortunate consequences and maladaptive behaviors for
both clinical and nonclinical people. It has a key role in many forms of psychopathology.
Although literature has discussed the negative impact of impulsivity, few have
emphasized the relationship between cognitive impulsiveness and decision making. The
aim of this study is to investigate the effects of cognitive impulsiveness on decision
making and explore the strategies used by participants to solve problems. For this
purpose, we apply two measures of impulsivity: the self-report Barratt Impulsiveness
Scale (BIS-11) and the performance based Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). Moreover, we
evaluate participants’ reasoning processes employed to answer CRT questions based on
the calculation expressions, data organization, and erasures they made while answering
the CRT (note that we utilized the instruments using pen and paper). These reasoning
processes are related to the role of executive functions in decision making, and its
relationship with impulsiveness. The sample consists of 191 adults, who were either
professionals or undergraduate students from the fields of business, management, or
accounting. The results show that cognitive impulsiveness may negatively affect decision
making, and that those who presented the calculation to answer the CRT questions
made better decisions. Moreover, there was no difference in the strategies used by
impulsive vs. nonimpulsive participants during decision making. Finally, people who
inhibited their immediate answers to CRT questions performed better during decision
making.
Keywords: impulsivity, BIS-11, reflectivity, CRT, executive functions, dual process, reasoning process, decision
making
1. INTRODUCTION
Cognitive impulsiveness may lead ...
You are the Nursing Director for the medical-surgical area of a .docxkenjordan97598
You are the Nursing Director for the medical-surgical area of a large
hospital. Nurses at this hospital to “self-scheduling”. The managers of the
units have brought to your attention that a severe staffing shortage for the
winter holiday schedule is apparent. Using two different types of leadership
styles, how would you handle this situation?
.
You are the newly appointed director of the Agile County Airport.docxkenjordan97598
You are the newly appointed director of the Agile County Airport System. The characteristics of your organization include:
It is a Local Government Department
Consists of 4 Airports – International, Mather, Executive, Franklin Field
There are 400 employees at all four airports
The airport board of directors has decided to move to an Agile Lean process for all projects.
You quickly recognize that you need to undertake a cultural transformation in order for the Agile Lean process to take hold. The current organization has the following culture characteristics:
No Mission Statement
No Sense of Direction
Militaristic/Top-Down Leadership Model
No Accountability
No Communication
Staff focused on Empire Building
Organization Viewed Itself as Regulators
Focused on catching people doing something wrong
Publicly Belittled
Focus on “Turf”
Process Oriented
Problem Oriented
Growth Without a Long-Term Plan
Employees Not Engaged
Staff consists mostly of generalists
The board of directors has asked you to prepare an overview presentation for their next meeting on your ideas for a organizational culture transformation plan. To complete this assignment you are to design a 5 to 10 slide PowerPoint presentation with notes, that addresses the following key elements:
What makes up organizational culture?
What do you see as the benefits of a culture transformation
What would your Culture Transformation Plan consist of? Describe the high level steps you would take to accomplish this transformation.
What questions would you ask to help in defining a new culture?
What characteristics would you envision the “new” organizational culture to exhibit? Develop a list based upon the current organizational culture
.
You are working on an address book database with a table called Cont.docxkenjordan97598
You are working on an address book database with a table called Contacts and fields for first name, last name, address, and phone number. Describe how you would implement a Python method that prompted the user to add new address entries into the database table. The table should have no duplicates. Include the necessary code and code descriptions.
.
You are the new Security Manager for a small bank in Iowa. They are .docxkenjordan97598
You are the new Security Manager for a small bank in Iowa. They are growing exponentially and are planning to add the ability for customers to access their accounts via the web and mobile devices. They have a basic DR plan which was made from a template found on the Internet. Now that there is going to be more exposure to the bank's network and data, several updates need to be made to policies and procedures. The CISO has requested that you create an Incident Response plan and submit communication plan for how internal stakeholders and external stakeholders will be notified of incidents. Please create a plan that identifies 2 internal stakeholders, the communication type, and the information which will be included in that plan and 2 external stakeholders, the communication type for each, and the information that will be included in the communication
.
You are working in a rural Family Planning Health clinic and a 16 y.docxkenjordan97598
You are working in a rural Family Planning Health clinic and a 16 y/o presents with complaints of vaginal pain, discharge, odor x 4 days. Pain is getting worse. Her mother relates she has a cognitive learning delay and has tried to talk to her about her consensual sexual behavior with multiple partners. She tells you she has "felt some 'bumps' down there." She relates multiple sexual partners because she is now popular and it is part of the 'game' to stay popular with her new friends. Diagnosis: HPV with several condyloma lesions, a vaginal yeast infection, and chlamydia.
She is given a prescription for Chlamydia, and the vulvar lesions, told to follow up in 2 weeks.
How do you approach her and begin the conversation regarding safe sexual practices? What are your thoughts about this young lady? How do you feel about her game? How would you proceed to give her education?
.
You are working in a family practice when your newly diagnosed T.docxkenjordan97598
You are working in a family practice when your newly diagnosed Type 1 diabetic patient comes in. He is a 15-year-old male and is accompanied by his mother.
The mother and patient report that he is "devastated" by his new diagnoses and that he hasn't been going out with his friends or participating in any of his previous activities. You suspect that he might be experiencing depression.
Please locate two resources specific to this situation that you would refer this parent/patient to for further support. Provide a brief description for each resource and explain why you chose them.
.
You are working for the Chief of Staff (CoS) for a newly elected Gov.docxkenjordan97598
You are working for the Chief of Staff (CoS) for a newly elected Governor. The governor asked the CoS to research and prepare a 5- to 7-paragraph background briefing (
backgrounder
) that addresses the below question. The CoS will use this background briefing to prepare the Governor and his appointed cybersecurity director as they answer questions from the press and general-public.
You are
not
answering the questions as the governor, rather you are providing the governor the information s/he needs to answer the question.
The question:
As governor, how will your administration improve cybersecurity for the state's Critical Infrastructures?
The CoS asked you to research and prepare a draft for the background briefing. Your draft must provide enough information that the CoS and the Governor understand key terms that you use in your explanations. To that end, your draft briefing must answer the following questions:
What is meant by "cybersecurity" for critical infrastructures?" Give examples of critical infrastructure associated with a specific state.
What is meant by "Threats" (i.e. individual hackers, politically motivated hacktivists, criminal enterprises, and unfriendly "nation state" actors), countermeasures, and safeguards? Explain technical terms and examples.
What are the three most important actions that the governor's administration should take to help improve the security of critical infrastructures in the state? (You should identify and discuss these in greater detail than your response to the first two bullet points.)
Provide in-text citations and references for 3 or more authoritative sources. Put the reference list at the end of your posting.
.
You are working at Johnson and Cohen law firm and have recently .docxkenjordan97598
You are working at Johnson and Cohen law firm and have recently been assigned to lead the appeal of a man convicted of first degree murder and sentenced to death.
The defendant has never had an IQ test, but friends and family insist that he has always been a little “slow“ his entire life. He was also diagnosed with autism earlier in his life and many of his former acquaintances thought he had psychiatric problems when they knew him.
These factors were never brought up at trial by the defendant's previous defense team because they wanted to focus on mitigating circumstances surrounding the crime that was committed rather than confusing the issue with too many different defenses.
Based on the Case Study for this week, submit a 6 page case analysis using Microsoft Word that answers the following questions:
How would your team argue during the appeal that the defendant's constitutional rights were violated?
What evidence would be required for your defendant to be considered mentally retarded under
Atkins v. Virginia
and
Penry v. Lynaugh (1989)
?
Assess whether or not that evidence can be presented in this case.
What evidence would be required for your defendant to be considered insane under
Ford v. Wainwright (1986)
? Assess whether or not that evidence can be presented in this case.
Do you believe that bringing up the defendant's diagnosis of autism could have aided in the defense in the sentencing phase? Would the contention that he was mentally slow have helped? Provide rationale for your answers.
Identify other aspects of the case not mentioned in the scenario that could benefit the defendant. For instance, consider whether the Supreme Court has found it unconstitutional to apply the death penalty in other circumstances.
If you succeed in your appeal, what would be the next steps to occur?
.
You are working for a community counseling agency, and you are taske.docxkenjordan97598
You are working for a community counseling agency, and you are tasked with training new counseling interns on effective counseling skills.
Create
a 1- to 2-page informational training paper on the role of effective counseling skills on the counseling relationship. Describe how each of the following affects the counseling relationship:
Characteristics of an effective helper
Attending and observation skills
Initiation of client-counselor rapport and trust
Maintaining boundaries and self-awareness
Transference and countertransference
Factors associated with age, culture, and diversity
.
You are working as the software tester for a big enterprise comp.docxkenjordan97598
You are working as the software tester for a big enterprise company. Your company is working on the following architecture:
(Daniel, 2016)
Address the following, and complete all of the sections based on the above architecture:
Submit a System Test Plan document that contains the following:
Purpose of the document
Functional scope
Testing strategy
System testing entrance criteria
Test data
Suspension criteria
Execution plan
Defect reporting
Test schedule
Environment
Risks
Assumption
Who-to-call list
.
You are working as HelpDesk Support for an organization where your u.docxkenjordan97598
You are working as HelpDesk Support for an organization where your usual duty involves providing remote users with various IT related supports. The majority of these users are placed in locations where high-speed LAN (10Mbpds) are not available. Assume they are using the Darwin VM at their end, and you have Canberra VM at your end. Now you will have to set up a Remote Desktop Connection from Canberra to Darwin; so that you, with the physical access to Canberra VM, can remotely connect to Darwin VM. You also have to ensure the connection is optimized for low-speed broadband networks. Follow the submission format and before starting this task ensure VMs can ping each other
.
You are working as an APRN in your local primary care office. Th.docxkenjordan97598
You are working as an APRN in your local primary care office. The rural town of Maynard has 300 people, a post office, doctor’s office, and a gas station. The primary source of income is farming or driving 45 minutes to a somewhat larger town. With the blizzard coming, all your patients except two have cancelled for the morning. Jose is scheduled at 0900; he is a nine-year-old Hispanic male born in Mexico. He and his family (Mom, Dad, and six siblings, ages six months to 14 years) moved into the area just a few months ago. Jose’s mother reported that he had nearly died at two months after contracting pertussis.
Your final patient of the morning is Irena, a 15-year-old teenage female who lives with her aunt in Maynard. Irena is Romanian and barely speaks any English. Her aunt has been your patient for the past few years, and she told you that Irena had been abducted in Romania at the age of 10. Irena’s parents found her quite by accident when a sex trafficking ring dumped all their “product” in a refugee camp in Serbia just a few months ago. Irena’s parents are still in Romania, but they sent Irena here to live with her aunt.
Having discussed many guidelines throughout this term, consider the content you have explored. Using this knowledge, answer the following questions related to your chosen scenario. Note: please try to choose a topic for your initial post that you did not choose previously during the semester or aren’t as familiar with so you can gain additional knowledge as we finish up this course
Discuss the guidelines assigned with your scenario.
Will both patients be treated in the same manner? Why or why not?
What would your treatment plan be for each of the individuals in your scenario?
Please include at least three scholarly sources within your initial post.
.
You are the new Public Information Officer (PIO) assigned by the.docxkenjordan97598
You are the new Public Information Officer (PIO) assigned by the Chief of Police. You work for a mid-sized metropolitan police agency that has always relied on the utilization of a city information officer for any media or public communication. Until now, your agency never had an assigned public information officer specifically for the police department. Your agency is growing and is expected to add an additional 25 patrol officers in the next two years.
These added officer positions are in addition to a newly created Federal Task Force, where two new detective positions were added. These positions will create a larger budget for the police department and you have been informed that taxpayers are not necessarily receptive to these costs. As the new PIO, you are required to submit a written communication plan to the Chief of Police detailing how you would draft public notification of the departmental growth and change, reassignments of patrol areas, and overall agency changes occurring in relation to these positions.
Write
a 1,400- to 1,750-word paper that addresses the following:
Describe the genre of communication you would use such as a paper format, social media, public announcement, press release, or a televised media conference.
If increased social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, required for the departmental growth.
How far ahead of these positions being hired would you relay the message?
What do you do with citizens who communicate an opposition the hiring of additional officer causing extra taxes?
Who are your stakeholders in this public notice?
What are the differing concerns of internal communication versus external communication on this issue?
How often would you follow up on the notification? Quarterly, monthly, or annually?
Cite
at least one source other than the textbook.
Format
your paper in proper APA format.
.
You are welcome to go to the San Diego Zoo any time you would li.docxkenjordan97598
You are welcome to go to the San Diego Zoo any time you would like to work on your project. However, you would have to pay for a student ticket or buy a membership. However, I will make an announcement soon about a couple of dates where we get in for a discounted price if we enter as a class. Once inside, you can go off on your own to work on your projects.
1. First, make note of the day(s) you attended the San Diego Zoo, the time you spent there (specific hours), and the weather conditions.
2. Select a
total of 5 primates
from the following list to observe. Please note: not all of these primates will be on display all of the time. You do not need to choose one from each group...you can focus on ANY five species.
3. Focusing on the 5 primates you have selected, note the following aspects about each of them.
Scientific name & common name
Where the species is found at the SD Zoo (Monkey Trail, etc.)
Taxonomic category (prosimian, NW monkey, OW monkey, or ape)
Geographic location
Diet
Dental formula
Sexual dimorphism
Locomotor style
Type of nose
Body size
Any unusual features
Endangered status
4.
Focusing on the 5 primates you have selected, describe and analyze the primates’ behaviors you witnessed during your visit. This is the part you should spend the most time on!!
5. Finally, you should note what you personally gained from the experience, and what your attitude is regarding the Zoo and the care of the animals.
Request
Weather, time, and date of visit
Bullet point answers for 5 primate species (2 points per species)
Analysis of behaviors observed...why are the animals doing what they're doing (5 points per species)
Concluding thoughts of the zoo and the project
.
You are visiting one of your organization’s plants in a poor nation..docxkenjordan97598
You are visiting one of your organization’s plants in a poor nation. You discover a young girl (under the age of 16) is working on the factory floor. The company has a strict prohibition on child labor. You remind the plant manager of the policy and insist that she should go back to the local school. The plant manager tells you the girl is an orphan, has no other means of support, and the country has no social services to provide for her. As the executive, what should you do? Explain your answer with a well-constructed and cogent response.
.
You are to write a four-page (typed, double-spaced) essay addressing.docxkenjordan97598
You are to write a four-page (typed, double-spaced) essay addressing the following question. The exam is open-book, open notes.
Discuss the impact of geography on the civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, China, sub-Saharan Africa, and pre-Colombian America
(please write on a doc. and do please make sure give me on time)
.
You are to write a 7-page Biographical Research Paper of St Franci.docxkenjordan97598
You are to write a 7-page Biographical Research Paper of
St Francis of Assisi or St Clare
:
*Include a Title Page (not counted as one of the 7 pages)
*Include a “Sources Cited” page (not counted as one of the 7 pages)
*MLA Format or Professor approved format
Use the following Outline: (St Francis of Assisi or St Clare)
I. The Major Events of their life
II. Their Impact on society and the church in their lifetime
III. Their Legacy today…how they still inspire us
IV. Your personal reflections
.
You are to write a 1050 to 1750 word literature review (in a.docxkenjordan97598
You are to write a
1050 to 1750 word literature review
(in addition to the title page and references page) on the articles you selected for Week 2, synthesizing the findings in the articles that you found on your topic. You may incorporate other articles or references to support your discussion, as needed. Use APA citation and reference guidelines.
What is a literature review?
A literature review is a synthesis and critique of the published research in a given area of research. Your focus is on the findings of the studies you are exploring – their methods, approach, results, and implications – rather than the broad topic overall. It should synthesize findings in specific areas. Thus, you should look for themes in the range of articles and write about them as you group common themes.
Synthesize the material you found. In other words, find connected themes in the different areas you cover. Occasionally you might discuss individual articles, but only if the article is very unique and no other article has similar findings. The synthesis should focus strictly on existing, published research.
What else should you include besides a synthesis of research?
Be sure to include in your review other potential areas that still need to be explored. What unanswered questions are there? What holes are in the research that you have not yet found answers to? What contradictions are in the research will you seek to explore?
Examples of Synthesized Findings for Literature Review:
College students were found to have a large number of conflicts with roommates (Darsey, 2003; Smith, 2001; Yarmouth, 2005). Researchers also found that roommate conflicts were most frequent during the first semester of college (Lotspiech, 2004; Nominskee, 2001; Zackarov, 2000). Morissey (2004) found a reduction of roommate conflicts continued as students progressed from freshman to seniors, with seniors having the fewest roommate conflicts. However, Ellensworth (2001) found no correlation with year in school and frequency of roommate conflict. The contradiction between Ellensworth’s and Morissey’s findings suggest that additional research is needed in this area.
Ellensworth’s (2001) research was strictly quantitative, lacking a full picture of the contexts or reasons for the specific conflicts. It asked people to mark the frequency of their conflicts and types of people with whom they typically disputed. Morissey (2004) conducted interviews that allowed participants to provide an explanation for the reasons for the conflicts, and the contexts (dorm roommates, apartment roommates, house roommates, etc.). However, she interviewed far fewer people than Ellensworth surveyed.
Combining Ellensworth’s surveys with Morissey’s interview questions and utilizing a research team to increase the number of interviews could provide more details about the conflicts and contexts, and allow us to further look into the question of year in school and conflict behavior.
DeSoto (2005) and Craig (2.
You are to take the uploaded assignment and edit it. The title shoul.docxkenjordan97598
You are to take the uploaded assignment and edit it. The title should be changed for better clarification, something like SCHOOL DISTRICTS TRAINING THEIR TEACHERS WHO ARE ALREADY IN SERVICE.
Include more expressions of how these children have been failed in the past.
Change up wording and use stronger and more concise word choices.
AGAIN ALL THIS WILL BE DONE FROM OFF THE ASSIGNMENT THAT'S BEEN UPLOADED.
.
You are to use a topic for the question you chose.WORD REQUIRE.docxkenjordan97598
You are to use a topic for the question you chose.
WORD REQUIREMENT IS 300 Words
1. Jean Jacque Rousseau was a Frenchman who wrote the Rights of Man. After viewing the film on the French Revolution, how much of the Rights of Man were followed, especially during the Reign of Terror? Give examples.
2. This week, we read about liberalism and conservatism, two terms that are by no means new to use today. Per your readings discuss the premise of liberalism. Has this ideology changed over time? Can we see elements of this in today’s society? Examples.
3. Per your readings this week, discuss the views of conservatism. Has this ideology changed over time? Do we see some elements of this in today’s society? Examples.
4. Doyle discusses the reasons for the French Revolution. In your mind, which do you believe is the most important and why. Examples.
5. Discuss the issues that led to the American Revolution. Example.
6. Prior to its revolution, Haiti was one of the wealthiest colonies in the world. The French reaped those rewards. So what happened? Why a revolution? Why a violent revolution? Give examples.
7. Discuss Polverel’s interpretation of the French giving Haitian slave emancipation and discuss what he hoped to accomplish. Examples.
8. Agriculture Revolution had a great impact on European society, it has many great accomplishments but there were a few downfalls. Discuss these downfalls. Examples.
9. There was a change in Dynasties in China, the Manchu’s came to power. Discuss the organization of the Manchu Dynasty. Was this effective? Examples.
10. Discuss the foreign relations of the Chinese Empire with its European counter parts. Discuss whether or not this experience was positive or negative. Give examples.
11. Discuss the most important issue that was the foundation for the 1848 Revolutions. Examples.
.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Sean FergusonPSY101 Lab Section #Spring 2013Blair, R. J. R.docx
1. Sean Ferguson
PSY101 Lab Section #
Spring 2013
Blair, R. J. R., Mitchell, D. G. V., Richell, R. A., Kelly, S.,
Leonard, A. & Newman, C. (2002). Turning a deaf ear to fear:
Impaired recognition of vocal affect in psychopathic
individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 682-686.
doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.682.
Introduction
Psychopathy is a severe personality disorder marked by a
distinct pattern of antisocial behavior and emotional
characteristics. These include “callousness, a diminished
capacity for remorse, and superficial charm as well as
impulsivity and poor behavioral controls” (Blair, Mitchell,
Richell, Kelly, Leonard, & Newman, 2002, p. 682). Perhaps
most importantly, psychopaths seem to lack an intrinsic sense of
morality. As a result, many are capable of horrific crimes for
which they feel no guilt. Although psychopathic individuals
have been extensively studied, they are still not well
understood.
Recent studies have attempted to explain why psychopaths
exhibit such extreme emotional dysfunction. Currently, there
are two popular perspectives used to address this question. One
explanation, the low-fear model, suggests that much of a
psychopath’s aberrant behavior can be attributed to an impaired
ability to experience fear (Blair et al., 2002). Basically,
psychopaths never learn to avoid dangerous situations because
they fail to feel fear in dangerous situations. They tend to put
themselves in threatening positions (by starting a fight, for
example) because they do not fear the consequences for
themselves or others. In support of this explanation, previous
studies have suggested that psychopathic individuals lack
appropriate fear and startle reflexes in comparison with normal
2. individuals. The second explanation, the violence inhibition
mechanism (VIM) model, posits that the ability to read
expressions of fear or sadness on other people’s faces is what
allows people to develop morality. Normal people learn to
avoid behaviors that tend to cause other people to feel and
appear sad or afraid. The VIM model argues that psychopaths
have an impaired ability to identify sad and fearful expressions,
and so they do not learn to avoid immoral behaviors that cause
others to feel negative emotions (Blair et al., 2002).
Many previous studies have looked into psychopaths’
ability to identify facial expressions. However, none have
investigated the ability of psychopathic individuals to identify
the emotional intonation of spoken words. The purpose of this
study was “to explore the ability of psychopathic individuals to
recognize emotional vocal intonalities” (Blair et al., 2002, p.
683).
Methods
The study took place in a London prison. Potential
participants were screened using the Psychopathy Checklist -
Revised, a measure of psychopathic tendencies. Nineteen men
were identified as psychopaths. Twenty other men who did not
meet the criteria for psychopathy also took part in the study
(Blair et al., 2002).
Each participant took the Vocal Affect Recognition Test,
which consisted of 60 neutral stimulus words spoken in an
emotional vocal tone. Each tone reflected happiness, disgust,
anger, sadness, or fear. Participants were asked to listen to
each of the words and then identify the emotional tone of the
word. The independent variable in this study was psychopathy
(whether or not psychopathy was present in the individual), and
the dependent variable was performance on the Vocal Affect
Recognition Test (Blair et al., 2002).
Results/Discussion
The results showed that the psychopathic participants were
far less able to correctly identify fearful voices than the
nonpsychopathic participants. They were also less accurate
3. than the nonpsychopathic participants at identifying sad voices.
These findings correspond with previous findings that
psychopathic individuals have difficulty recognizing facial
expressions of fear and sadness. The findings also show that
psychopathic individuals’ inability to recognize these negative
emotions applies to auditory information in addition to visual
information (Blair et al., 2002).
The authors do not explicitly mention any weaknesses of their
study, but the small sample size is a drawback and should be
considered. In addition, the authors mentioned that these
results relate to previous findings of dysfunctional activity of
the amygdala in the brains of psychopathic individuals. They
suggest that further research involving brain imaging should be
done to discover more about the structural brain abnormalities
that may contribute to psychopathy (Blair et al., 2002).
How Quickly They Forget: The Relationship Between
Forgetting
and Working Memory Performance
Donna M. Bayliss
University of Western Australia
Christopher Jarrold
University of Western Australia and University of Bristol
This study examined the contribution of individual differences
in rate of forgetting to variation in
working memory performance in children. One hundred and
twelve children (mean age 9 years 4 months)
completed 2 tasks designed to measure forgetting, as well as
measures of working memory, processing
efficiency, and short-term storage ability. Individual differences
in forgetting rate accounted for unique
4. variance in working memory performance over and above
variance explained by measures of processing
efficiency and storage ability. In addition, the nature of the
variation in forgetting was more consistent
with a nonexecutive forgetting parameter than an executive
ability associated with resistance to inter-
ference. These findings indicate that individual differences in
the rate at which information is lost from
memory is an important constraint on children’s working
memory performance, which has implications
for current models of working memory that do not incorporate
such a factor.
Keywords: working memory, forgetting rate, executive ability
The construct of working memory is of considerable interest to
researchers because of the well-established relationship between
performance on tasks designed to assess the capacity of working
memory and cognitive skills such as reasoning ability (Kyllonen
&
Christal, 1990), language comprehension (Daneman & Merikle,
1996), reading and mathematics ability (Hitch, Towse, &
Hutton,
2001), and general fluid intelligence (Oberauer, Schulze,
Wilhelm,
& Süß, 2005). Recent research has explored this relationship
both
directly, by examining the factors that influence the predictive
relationship between working memory and cognition (Friedman
&
Miyake, 2004; Lépine, Barrouillet, & Camos, 2005; Unsworth &
Engle, 2005, 2007b), and also indirectly, by identifying the
factors
that constrain working memory performance and thus are likely
to
be important for higher level cognitive skills (Barrouillet,
5. Portrat,
& Camos, 2011; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003;
Kane,
Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001; Unsworth & Engle, 2007a).
This has led to the development of a number of theories about
the
nature of working memory and its relationship to higher order
cognition.
Many of these theories have postulated the involvement of a
central executive or attentional control system in working
memory
(Cowan, 1999; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999). For example,
Engle and colleagues (Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999; Kane et
al.,
2001) argued that working memory consists of a short-term
stor-
age component and a controlled attention component, which
they
likened to the central executive in Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974)
original working memory model. The controlled attention
compo-
nent was thought to be a limited-capacity mechanism
responsible
for focused, goal-directed processing in the face of interference
or
distraction. Engle and colleagues (Engle, Kane, & Tuholski,
1999;
Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001) argued that individual
differences in the capacity for controlled attention were
responsi-
ble for the strong relationship between working memory perfor-
mance and higher level cognition. In support of this, Engle,
Tuhol-
ski, Laughlin, and Conway (1999) showed that residual variance
from a working memory variable that remained once variance
6. common to short-term memory was removed was significantly
correlated with a fluid intelligence variable (see also Conway,
Cowan, Bunting, Therriault, & Minkoff, 2002; Towse &
Houston-
Price, 2001). They suggested that this residual variance in
working
memory performance reflected the controlled attention or
execu-
tive component of working memory (though see Colom,
Rebollo,
Abad, & Shih, 2006). Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, and Baddeley
(2003)
have also shown that residual variance in working memory span
performance that remains once variance associated with the pro-
cessing and storage operations involved in the working memory
span task is removed reliably predicts reading and mathematics
performance in both children and adults (see also Towse &
Houston-Price, 2001). These findings indicate that this residual
variance does not simply reflect measurement error (see also
Jarrold & Bayliss, 2007) but instead indexes an additional
factor
that is important for higher level cognitive performance. In line
with the suggestion of Engle and colleagues, Bayliss et al.
attrib-
This article was published Online First August 4, 2014.
Donna M. Bayliss, Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of
Psy-
chology, University of Western Australia; Christopher Jarrold,
Neurocog-
nitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, University of
Western
Australia, and School of Experimental Psychology, University
of Bristol.
7. This research was supported by Economic and Social Research
Council
(ESRC) Grant RES-000-22-0606 and Australian Research
Council (ARC)
Discovery Project DP0988288. We would like to thank all the
schools and
children who made this research possible and Klaus Oberauer,
Nelson
Cowan, and Emily Elliot for comments and suggestions on an
earlier
version of the manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Donna M.
Bayliss, School of Psychology, Mailbag M304, The University
of Western
Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
E-mail:
[email protected]
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12. 0278-7393/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037429
163
mailto:[email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037429
uted this residual variance to an executive ability that is
involved
in working memory span performance (see also Bunting, 2006;
Conway et al., 2002; Towse & Houston-Price, 2001; Unsworth
&
Spillers, 2010).
However, the interpretation of this residual variance as
executive
has been purely speculative, and to date, there have been few
direct
attempts to specify exactly what it is that this residual variance
captures. One possibility is that it does indeed reflect domain-
general executive attention as Engle and his colleagues
suggested.
In support of this, Kane et al. (2004) derived a single domain-
general executive-attention factor and two domain-specific
storage
factors from a battery of verbal and visuospatial working
memory
and short-term memory tasks and showed that the executive-
attention factor was closely associated with a fluid intelligence
variable. The executive-attention variable elicited high loadings
from the verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks and
lower
loadings from the short-term memory tasks, providing support
for
the claim that it represented a domain-general factor associated
13. with higher level cognition. Kane et al. argued that the variance
captured by this factor reflected the ability to maintain
information
in an active state, particularly in the presence of interference
and/or
competition between response alternatives that must be
resolved.
The finding that individuals with low working memory capacity
suffer from proactive interference to a greater extent than
individ-
uals with high working memory capacity when asked to recall a
series of lists with overlapping memory items is consistent with
this executive-attention account (Kane & Engle, 2000). More
recent versions of this account have argued that the extent to
which
executive attention is required to maintain and/or recover access
to
memoranda is determined by the amount of conflict, distraction,
or
interference present in the task context (Kane, Conway,
Hambrick,
& Engle, 2007). Thus, the residual variance captured by
working
memory tasks could be thought of as reflecting the executive-
attention resources required to prevent the deleterious effects of
interference on working memory performance.
A potentially related suggestion is that the residual variance in
working memory performance is associated with individual
differ-
ences in the degree to which information is lost during the
working
memory task due to forgetting. Forgetting from short-
term/work-
ing memory has typically been attributed to one of two main
causes, namely, a passive process of decay over time
14. (Barrouillet,
Bernardin, & Camos, 2004; Barrouillet, Bernardin, Portrat, Ver-
gauwe, & Camos, 2007; Barrouillet, De Paepe, & Langerock,
2012; Ricker & Cowan, 2010) or some form of interference that
could be either retroactive, as in interference from subsequent
events within the task (Lewandowsky, Duncan, & Brown, 2004;
Lewandowsky, Geiger, Morrell, & Oberauer, 2010), or
proactive,
as in interference that builds up between memoranda across suc-
cessive trials (Bunting, 2006; Keppel & Underwood, 1962). Re-
gardless of which of these factors is responsible for forgetting
from
working memory, there is some evidence to suggest that
individ-
uals may indeed vary in the rate or degree to which they forget
information. For example, Cowan and colleagues (Cowan,
Nugent,
Elliott, & Saults, 2000; Saults & Cowan, 1996) have shown
age-related differences in the rate of forgetting of auditory
mem-
ory. Using an ignored speech paradigm, Cowan et al. (2000)
found
that younger children showed more rapid forgetting of
unattended
information across a filled retention interval than older
children.
Crucially, however, this difference was limited to the last item
in
the unattended list, with no such age differences found for
earlier
serial positions or for the attended speech condition. Cowan et
al.
argued that the final serial position was free from retroactive
interference from other list items, and so, age differences in
degree
15. of forgetting localized to this serial position were best
accounted
for in terms of a developmental increase in the retention of
audi-
tory sensory memory. Moreover, this aspect of memory
develop-
ment was argued to be independent of attention. In adults, Un-
sworth, Brewer, and Spillers (2011) have also shown that
individual differences in working memory capacity are
associated
with differences in forgetting. In their study, high working
mem-
ory capacity participants showed better memory for paired asso-
ciates than low working memory participants across a range of
retention intervals but performed comparably when tested
imme-
diately after presentation of a given pair. Unsworth et al. argued
that variation in working memory capacity could be explained
in
terms of differences in controlled retrieval processes that act to
limit the size of the search set at retrieval and ultimately
influence
the amount of information that individuals forget across a
retention
interval. Thus, there is some evidence that individuals may vary
in
the rate at which they lose information from memory.
One might ask whether this variation in forgetting rate is simply
a reflection of variation in the opportunity to engage in
refreshing
or reactivation of memory traces that in turn follows from
differ-
ences in the speed with which individuals complete processing
operations. Barrouillet and colleagues (2004, 2007; Barrouillet,
Gavens, Vergauwe, Gaillard, & Camos, 2009; see also Bayliss,
16. Jarrold, Baddeley, Gunn, & Leigh, 2005; Jarrold & Bayliss,
2007)
argued that engaging in the processing activity of the working
memory span task prevents individuals from carrying out active
maintenance of the to-be-remembered items (cf. Barrouillet &
Camos, 2001; Towse, Hitch, & Hutton, 2002). As a consequence
of this, the speed with which individuals complete the
processing
operations leads to variation in the time during which forgetting
can occur while maintenance activities are prevented. Evidence
to
support this suggestion comes from a recent study by
Barrouillet et
al. (2012), who showed that lengthening the duration of the pro-
cessing activity while maintaining a constant time between the
end
of each processing activity and presentation of the subsequent
storage item (i.e., the time available for restoring or refreshing
the
memory trace) resulted in poorer memory performance,
consistent
with the idea that longer processing leads to greater forgetting
(see
also Bayliss et al., 2005, who showed that age-related changes
in
a speed of processing variable accounted for unique variance in
working memory span performance). In addition, by systemati-
cally manipulating the amount of time during which children
were
engaged in processing and the time they had available for
refresh-
ing memory items, Barrouillet et al. (2009) were able to show
that
the slope relating the time available for refreshing memory
items
with working memory span performance was steeper in older
17. relative to younger children. They argued that this provided evi-
dence of a faster rate of reactivation in older children (see also
Bayliss et al., 2005; Gaillard, Barrouillet, Jarrold, & Camos,
2011;
Tam, Jarrold, Baddeley, & Sabatos-DeVito, 2010).
However, variation in the time available for forgetting and the
time available for refreshing cannot explain the residual
variance
found by Bayliss et al. (2003), as the variation in working
memory
span associated with individual differences in processing speed
and storage ability was statistically removed in this earlier
work.
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164 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
Similarly, Ricker and Cowan (2010) argued that models that
propose an equilibrium between forgetting and reactivation pro-
cesses cannot explain the pattern of forgetting observed in their
study. They presented adult participants with either three
uncon-
ventional visual characters or six English letters in a memory
22. array, followed by a retention interval of either 1,500, 3,000, or
6,000 ms. The retention interval was either unfilled (i.e., a no-
load
condition) or filled with a distractor activity that varied in diffi-
culty (i.e., in Experiment 1, repeating digits vs. performing sub-
traction). For the English letter condition, no forgetting across
retention intervals was evident for the no-load condition, in
which
participants were free to use maintenance strategies, whereas
sig-
nificant forgetting was observed across retention intervals when
maintenance strategies were blocked by the inclusion of a
distrac-
tor activity. Crucially, in the unconventional character
condition,
while introducing a distractor activity significantly impaired
per-
formance in the load conditions relative to the no-load
condition,
the rate of forgetting that was observed across the measured
retention intervals was equivalent for all conditions. Ricker and
Cowan suggested that for certain stimuli—in this case, the
uncon-
ventional visual stimuli—some features of the stimulus are
inev-
itably lost over time and cannot be refreshed via attentional or
rehearsal mechanisms. This finding is significant as it demon-
strates a time-based loss of information that is independent of
any
cognitive load. In relation to the Bayliss et al. study, this leads
to
the possibility that individuals may vary in the extent to which
they
forget information while engaged in the processing activity of a
working memory task and that this is what the residual variance
in
23. working memory span performance represents. To our
knowledge,
the extent to which individual differences in the rate with which
individuals forget information contribute to working memory
per-
formance, independently of storage and processing ability, has
never been studied before.
The first aim of this study was, therefore, to examine whether
residual variance in working memory span performance, which
remains once variance associated with the processing and
storage
operations has been removed, is related to individual
differences in
rate of forgetting. Evidence to support this claim would have
important implications for current theories of working memory,
most of which do not incorporate a forgetting rate factor
indepen-
dent of other storage and processing abilities. If an independent
contribution of forgetting rate to working memory span perfor-
mance can be established, the next logical question is what
under-
lies this variation in forgetting rate. The literature offers a
number
of possible answers to this question that could be broadly
classified
into either controlled, strategic, executive-type factors on the
one
hand or more basic, automatic, nonexecutive factors on the
other.
For example, Engle and colleagues would suggest that variation
in
rate of forgetting is mediated by an executive ability associated
with resisting interference either from subsequent events that
occur
within the trial (i.e., distractor activity) or from similar memory
24. items presented in previous trials (i.e., proactive interference;
see
also, Unsworth et al., 2011). However, other possible causes of
variation in forgetting rate include individual differences in
more
basic parameters such as decay or interference effects that are
not
executive in nature. It has certainly been suggested that
individuals
may vary in the rate at which information decays from memory
during processing (Barrouillet et al., 2009; Cowan, Saults, &
Nugent, 1997; Hitch, Towse, & Hutton, 2001; Oberauer &
Kliegl,
2001; Portrat, Camos, & Barrouillet, 2009), and the rate of such
trace decay could vary between individuals independently of
any
attentional control processes that might serve to offset it.
Similarly,
it is plausible that individuals may differ in their susceptibility
to
interference effects, such as feature overwriting (e.g., Nairne,
1990), that occur simply by virtue of representations sharing
overlapping features. The second aim of this research was,
there-
fore, to systematically manipulate the factors expected to
contrib-
ute to the rate of forgetting to examine which, if any, of these
possibilities best accounted for the residual variation in working
memory span performance.
To address these goals, two interpolated tasks were designed to
measure rate of forgetting in children. Children were the chosen
sample for this study for two reasons. First, there is
considerable
variation in working memory and executive abilities in a sample
25. of
children, partly because these processes are still undergoing de-
velopment. As a result, the range of abilities evident in a
sample of
children is usually larger than in a typical sample of
undergraduate
students, which makes a child sample ideal for individual-
differences studies. Second, in our previous work, we
successfully
developed a method for fractionating the sources of variance
contributing to working memory performance in children
(Bayliss
et al., 2003, 2005), and we employed the same approach here.
This
study extends that work by including additional measures of
for-
getting. In these forgetting rate tasks, participants were
presented
with three to-be-remembered words and were then required to
complete a continuous processing activity for either a short or
long
duration before recalling the to-be-remembered items. These
tasks
were designed to measure the amount of information that people
forget when maintenance activities are prevented by a
continuous
processing activity. It was expected that recall performance
would
be poorer in the long-duration conditions relative to the short-
duration conditions as maintenance activities would be
prevented
for longer, thus allowing more forgetting to occur (cf. Brown,
1958; Peterson & Peterson, 1959; Towse et al., 2002). If
residual
variation in working memory span performance reflects
individual
26. differences in forgetting, then we would expect to see a
relation-
ship between the residual variance derived from working
memory
span tasks and performance on the two forgetting tasks.
To address the second aim of this study and to characterize the
nature of any variation in forgetting rates that might be related
to
residual variance in working memory, the amount of
interference
encountered in the two forgetting tasks was manipulated by (a)
systematically varying the interpolated processing activity in-
volved in each task and (b) deriving measures of proactive
inter-
ference effects by contrasting performance on the first half
versus
the second half of trials. The relationship between each of these
measures and residual variation in working memory span was
then
examined. If the residual variation in working memory span re-
flects variation in an executive factor associated with resistance
to
interference, then we would expect to see a stronger association
between the residual variance and performance on the forgetting
task that involved a greater degree of interference, whether that
was from increased interference from the interpolated distractor
activity or from increased interference from previous trials (i.e.,
proactive interference). In contrast, if the residual variance best
reflects a basic forgetting rate parameter, then the association
between the residual variance and the measures of forgetting
should be comparable.
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165FORGETTING AND WORKING MEMORY SPAN IN
CHILDREN
Method
Participants
A total of 117 children participated in the study with full
parental consent. Of these children, the data from four children
were excluded because they did not complete all the tasks in the
battery due to absence on the final days of testing or to moving
out
of the area. The data from one additional child were excluded
because the school identified the child as having difficulties
asso-
ciated with an autistic spectrum disorder. The mean age of the
remaining 112 participants was 9 years 4 months (range 8;9 –
10;2).
Design
Each child completed the battery of tasks in four separate
sessions on different days. In the first session, each child com-
pleted the object speed task followed by the object working
mem-
ory span task. The order of presentation of the forgetting tasks
32. was
counterbalanced across participants in the second and third ses-
sions. Half of the children completed the color forgetting task
and
the digit span task in the second session and the object
forgetting
task and the counting speed task in the third session. For the
remaining participants, the order of presentation of these
sessions
was reversed. In the fourth session, all children completed the
counting working memory span task followed by the word-span
task.
Tasks and Procedure
All tasks were presented on a 15-in. Elo USB Touchscreen
controlled by a laptop computer.
Forgetting tasks. Each participant completed two forgetting
tasks: the color forgetting task and the object forgetting task. In
both tasks, a trial commenced with the sequential presentation
of
three to-be-remembered words in black 48-point Helvetica font
on
a white background. Each word was presented for 1 s, followed
by
a 300-ms interstimulus interval during which the screen was
blank.
To counteract any difficulties with word reading, each word was
simultaneously presented auditorily in a female voice.
Following
the presentation of the last word, the display screen changed to
signal the beginning of the continuous processing activity. The
display screen used for the processing activity consisted of nine
different colored squares (red, blue, green, yellow, pink,
orange,
33. purple, white, and brown) measuring 35 mm each side,
presented
in a random arrangement on a grey background.
In the color forgetting task, the processing activity involved the
auditory presentation of color names in a male voice. The
children
were required to locate the appropriately colored square and
touch
it as quickly as they could. In the object forgetting task, the
processing activity involved the auditory presentation of object
names that reliably cued one of the nine colors (i.e., banana �
yellow). The children were asked to think of the color typically
associated with the object and then touch the appropriately
colored
square on the screen as quickly as possible. As soon as the child
responded by touching the screen, the next processing item was
presented. To prevent articulatory rehearsal, the children were
also
required to name the color of each square as they touched it.
Once
the processing activity had been performed for a specified dura-
tion, the children were presented with a blank screen,
simultane-
ously heard a brief tone to signal the end of the trial, and were
then
asked to recall the three to-be-remembered words in correct
serial
order.
Each forgetting task consisted of 16 trials, half of which were
presented with a short-duration processing activity of 4,000 ms
(short) and half of which were presented with a long-duration
processing activity of 8,000 ms (long). However, as the
continuous
34. processing activity did not end until the child made a response
to
the final processing item, these processing durations varied
slightly
(mean duration � 4,020.39 ms and 7,950.64 ms in the short and
long conditions, respectively). The trials were counterbalanced
so
that there were two short-duration and two long-duration
process-
ing activities presented within each consecutive set of four
trials.
The order of presentation of the trials was the same for each
participant. An additional four trials were presented at the start
of
each task as practice.
A pool of 60 single-syllable concrete nouns were selected from
the MRC Psycholinguistic Database on the basis that they were
high frequency (Kucera-Francis written frequency [K-F Freq] �
20) and had low age of acquisition (AOA � 500), high concrete-
ness (Conc � 400), and high imageability (Imag � 400) ratings
(see the Appendix). In addition, all words had a frequency
rating
from the Celex database of greater than 20. These words were
used
to form two pools of 30 words that were closely matched on the
variables above, Celex, t(58) � .52, K-F Freq, t(58) � .19,
AOA,
t(58) � �.01, Conc, t(58) � �.02, Imag, t(58) � .37, p � .10 in
all cases. One of these pools of words was assigned to the short-
duration condition, and the other was assigned to the long-
duration
condition. The same words were used in both the color and the
object forgetting tasks, but the order of presentation of these
words
varied.
35. To manipulate the amount of interference encountered in the
two forgetting tasks, the items used for the processing activity
of
each task varied (cf. Conlin, Gathercole, & Adams, 2005). The
items used in the processing activity of the color forgetting task
were the nine color names already described above, which were
expected to be relatively distinct from the storage items. In con-
trast, the processing items used in the object forgetting task
con-
sisted of 69 object names, which were expected to interfere with
the retention of the storage items to a greater extent as both sets
of
items were concrete nouns. The object names were selected
from
those used in Bayliss et al. (2005) on the basis that they reliably
cued one of the nine colors presented in the display screen (i.e.,
snow � white). In the color forgetting task, a nonexhaustive list
of
color names was created by randomizing consecutive lists of the
nine color names. Similarly, for the object forgetting task, a
nonexhaustive list of object names was created by randomizing
consecutive lists of the 69 object names. The same list of color
names and list of object names were then presented to all partic-
ipants. However, as the presentation of the processing items was
determined by the speed of each child’s responses, some
children
were able to complete more of these processing items within
each
processing activity than others. The timing and accuracy of re-
sponses to each processing item were recorded by the computer,
and participants’ recall responses were recorded by the experi-
menter. Items were scored correct if they were recalled in the
correct serial position, and the overall proportion correct was
calculated for each duration condition within each task.
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166 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
Working memory span tasks. Two working memory span
tasks were completed by each participant: the object working
memory span task and the counting working memory span task.
Both tasks involved a series of processing and storage episodes.
In
the object working memory span task, participants were
presented
with a display screen similar to that used in the processing
activity
of the forgetting tasks. Nine different colored squares
measuring
35 mm each side were presented on a grey background, with the
numbers 1 to 9 presented in the center of the squares in black.
At
the start of each processing episode, participants were presented
with a verbal object name that reliably cued one of the nine
colors
and were required to think of the color typically associated with
that object and then touch the appropriately colored square on
the
screen as quickly as possible. As they touched the square,
41. partic-
ipants were required to verbalize the number that was in the
center
of the square and remember that number for recall at the end of
the
trial. Following a set number of processing and storage
episodes,
participants were asked to verbally recall the numbers that they
had named during the trial in correct serial order. Trials
increased
from two to a maximum of six processing and storage episodes,
with four trials at each span length. Testing continued until a
child
failed all four trials at a given span length. An additional three
trials at Span Length 2 were given at the start of the task as
practice.
The 86 processing items used in the object working memory
span task were taken from Bayliss et al. (2003). All items were
recorded in a male voice and adjusted to 1 s in length by adding
silence to the start of the shorter items. To control for
differences
in processing difficulty across span lengths, trials were
organized
so that the mean reaction time to items within each span length
was
equated across span lengths, F(4, 220) � .57, p � .10, based on
response times to each item taken from previous work (Bayliss
et
al., 2003). In addition, each colored square in the display was
cued
approximately equally often in each serial position, and each of
the
digits 1–9 was cued approximately equally often in each serial
position.
42. The counting span task was adapted from one used by Towse,
Hitch, and Hutton (1998). The display screen consisted of an
array
of blue squares and red triangles presented in a random arrange-
ment in a white rectangle measuring 144 mm � 108 mm that
was
centered on the screen. To the left and right of this rectangle,
two
smaller rectangles measuring 47 mm � 65 mm were displayed
with the words Odd and Even presented in the center of the left
and
right rectangles, respectively. At the onset of each processing
and
storage episode, participants were presented with one of these
screens and were required to count the number of blue squares,
pointing to each square as they counted it, and to decide
whether
the total number of squares was an odd or even number. They
then
responded by touching the odd or even rectangle on the screen,
at
which point the squares and triangles disappeared and a digit
between 1 and 9 was presented in the center of the screen in
black.
Participants were asked to name the digit and remember it for
later
recall. After a series of processing and storage episodes, the
children were asked to recall the digits that they had named in
correct serial order. As with the object working memory span
task,
trials increased from two to a maximum of six processing and
storage episodes in length, with four trials at each span length
and
three additional trials presented at the start of the task as
practice.
43. Testing was terminated when a child failed all four trials at a
given
span length.
Eighty-six different counting arrays were created with 20 arrays
each consisting of 2, 3, 4, or 5 blue squares presented among
eight
red triangles, plus an additional six arrays that were created for
practice. An equal number of each of these array sizes were
presented at each span length, and the number of times an odd
counting array was followed by an odd or even digit and vice
versa
was approximately equal. In addition, each digit was presented
approximately equally often in each serial position.
The timing of the processing and storage episodes in both tasks
was carefully controlled. Participants were given 4,000 ms to
respond to the processing episode of each task (i.e., to find the
appropriately colored square or to count the blue squares and
make
an odd or even judgment). If a participant responded within this
time, the storage item was presented and remained on the screen
until a total of 5,000 ms had elapsed, at which point the next
processing episode was presented. If a child failed to respond
within 4,000 ms, the storage item was automatically presented
for
a further 1,000 ms before the presentation of the next
processing
episode. The accuracy and timing of participants’ responses to
the
processing items were recorded by the computer, and
participants’
recall responses were recorded by the experimenter at the time
of
testing. Trials were scored correct if items were recalled in the
correct serial position, and span scores were calculated by aver-
44. aging the last four correctly recalled trials (i.e., two trials
correctly
recalled at 2, one at 3, and one at 4 would give a span score of
2.75).
Storage tasks. Each participant completed two storage tasks:
a digit span task (which corresponded to the storage
requirements
of the working memory span tasks) and a word-span task. In the
digit span task, participants were visually presented with digits
between 1 and 9 in the center of the screen in black. The digits
were presented for 1,000 ms, followed briefly by a blank screen
before the presentation of the next digit. Participants were
asked to
name each digit as it was presented and then recall the digits in
correct serial order at the end of the trial. Trials increased from
three to a maximum of eight digits in length, with four trials at
each length. An additional two trials were given at the start of
the
task as practice. Each digit was cued approximately equally
often
in each serial position. Testing continued until a child failed all
four trials at a given span length. Span scores were calculated
as an
average of the last four correctly recalled trials.
In the word-span task, participants were visually presented with
words in black 48-point Helvetica font on a white background.
Each word was presented for 1,000 ms, followed by a blank
screen
for 300 ms and then the next word. As with the forgetting tasks,
each word was simultaneously presented auditorily in a female
voice. Trials increased from two to six words in length, with
four
trials at each span length and an additional two trials given at
the
45. start of the task as practice. The 84 words used in the word-span
task consisted of the 60 words used in the forgetting tasks plus
an
additional 24 words that also met the criteria described above.
Trials were organized so that any semantic associations between
the words within each trial were avoided as much as possible.
Testing continued until a child failed all four trials at a given
span
length, and span scores were calculated in the same way as in
the
digit span task.
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167FORGETTING AND WORKING MEMORY SPAN IN
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Processing-efficiency tasks. Independent measures of pro-
cessing efficiency were taken using an object association task
and
a counting speed task. In the object association task,
participants
were presented with a display screen similar to that used in the
working memory span task but without any digits on the screen.
To
50. provide a measure of each child’s color knowledge and also as a
check for color blindness, participants were first presented with
each of the nine color names auditorily and were required to
touch
the appropriately colored square as quickly as possible. Once a
response was made, the screen was cleared, and a start button
was
presented. Children were asked to touch the start button when
they
were ready to proceed to the next trial. Following this, 36 of the
object names used in the working memory span task (four of
each
color) were presented auditorily, and participants were asked to
think of the color typically associated with each object and then
touch the appropriately colored square as quickly as possible.
This
corresponded to the processing activity of the working memory
span task, but without any storage requirements. Participants
were
then presented with each of the color names again and were
asked
to touch the correct square as quickly as possible.
In the counting speed task, participants were presented with 36
of the counting arrays (nine of each array size) used in the
counting
working memory span task and were asked to count the number
of
blue squares, ignoring the red triangles, and decide if the
number
was odd or even. They were then required to indicate their re-
sponse by touching either the Odd or Even button as quickly as
possible. If they responded correctly, they heard a boing noise,
the
screen was cleared, and a start button was presented to enable
them
51. to continue to the next trial. If they responded incorrectly, they
heard a low pitch tone, and the count array remained on the
screen
until they had responded correctly. Accuracy and response times
were recorded by the computer. Instructions and practice
examples
were given prior to the task using a card displaying a count
array.
Results
Preliminary Analysis
Response times in the processing-efficiency tasks were trimmed
to remove any extraneous responses. Initially, any response
times
greater than 10 s were removed. The remaining response times
were then Windsorized, in line with the recommendations of
Ratcliff (1993), by replacing any response times more than 2.5
standard deviations above the mean for each individual item
with
the cutoff value for that item. Participants’ response times to
the 36
object names in the object association task were then averaged
to
provide a measure of each individual’s object processing effi-
ciency. In the counting speed task, response times were
averaged
across the 36 counting arrays.
To ensure that the fixed list length of three items presented in
the forgetting rate tasks was within the capacity of each partici-
pant, an estimate of immediate recall performance was
calculated
from the four trials presented at List Length 3 as part of the
word-span task (i.e., a baseline measure of immediate recall
52. per-
formance at 0 ms). Only those participants who showed perfect
recall on these trials were included in the subsequent analyses
(n �
88).1 This has the added advantage of making sure that
estimates
of forgetting were derived relative to the same baseline level of
immediate recall across participants (see below). Of course,
indi-
viduals who are performing at ceiling on the baseline measure
may
have immediate recall capacities that extend beyond three items,
and so, even at this level of performance, there may be
differences
in the strength of encoding of the memory items across
individuals.
However, we would assume these to be collinear with individual
differences in storage capacity, which has been controlled for in
the subsequent analyses. Descriptive statistics for all measures
are
presented in Table 1.
Forgetting Tasks
Recall scores on the two forgetting tasks were subjected to a 2
�
2 repeated measures analysis of variance, with task (color,
object)
and duration (short, long) as the factors. This revealed a
significant
effect of task, F(1, 87) � 60.03, p � .001, �p2 � .41, reflecting
poorer performance on the object task relative to the color task.
There was also a significant effect of duration, F(1, 87) �
215.12,
p � .001, �p2 � .71, indicating that recall performance was
53. better
in the short conditions than the long conditions, and no
significant
interaction between task and duration, F(1, 87) � 0.05, p � .82,
�p
2 � .00. Thus, recall performance in the color and object condi-
tions was not differentially affected by the increase in retention
duration from 4,000 ms to 8,000 ms.
As the duration of the processing activity involved in the color
and object forgetting tasks varied slightly depending on the
point
at which participants made their final response within the pre-
scribed time window, it is possible that the task effect may have
been inflated by differences in the actual retention interval in
each
task. To examine this, a second analysis was conducted in which
slope and intercept values were derived for each participant,
based
on their average processing durations in the short and long
condi-
tions of both tasks, respectively. Processing durations were
taken
as the time between the onset of the processing activity and the
child’s response on the final processing item immediately prior
to
recall. The intercept values for the color and object forgetting
tasks
were then subjected to a paired-sample t test, which was signifi-
cant, t(87) � 2.43, p � .02, indicating that even when any
differences in processing duration were taken into account,
recall
performance in the object forgetting task was still worse than in
the
54. 1 Analyses performed with the sample as a whole produced the
same
pattern of results. Specifically, the analysis of performance on
the forget-
ting rate tasks showed significant effects of task, F(1, 111) �
59.24, p �
.001, and duration, F(1, 111) � 253.04, p � .001, and no
interaction
between task and duration, F(1, 111) � 1.66, p � .20. Analysis
of the first
half of trials compared to the last half also revealed significant
effects of
trials, F(1, 111) � 15.30, p � .01, and task, F(1, 111) � 74.60,
p � .01,
and no interaction between task and trials (F � 1). An
exploratory factor
analysis showed a similar four-factor structure and, importantly,
a struc-
tural equation modeling analysis showed that the model
presented in Figure
1 also provided a good fit to the data from the larger sample,
�2(14) �
12.52, p � .57, with the storage ability, processing speed, and
forgetting
rate variables all significantly predicting the working memory
variable (all
ps � .05). Finally, the 0 – 4,000-ms object forgetting measure
did not
contribute any additional variance to the object or counting
working
memory span tasks (all ps � .10) over and above the significant
contri-
bution of the color forgetting measure but did contribute
significant vari-
ance when entered on the first step of the analyses, F(1, 108) �
5.65 and
55. 10.29, p � .05, respectively. The only difference identified was
that the
unique contribution of the low proactive interference measures
to the
counting working memory span task was significant. Data are
available
from the first author on request.
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168 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
color forgetting task. In addition, analysis of the slope values
derived for each task revealed a nonsignificant difference,
t(87) � �0.28, p � .78, confirming the previous finding that
there
was no difference between the two tasks in the rate of forgetting
between 4,000 ms and 8,000 ms.
To provide a measure of the degree or rate of forgetting
across each task, two proportional difference scores were ob-
tained for each task by calculating the proportion decrease in
recall performance from a baseline measure (calculated as the
proportion correct on the four trials presented at List Length 3
as part of the word-span task) to performance at 4,000 ms
60. (0 – 4,000) and the proportion decrease in recall performance
from performance at 4,000 ms to performance at 8,000 ms
(4,000 – 8,000).2 Analysis of the estimates of forgetting (i.e.,
the
proportional difference scores) revealed a significant difference
between the 0 – 4,000-ms estimates from the color and object
tasks (Ms � .38 and .50, respectively), t(87) � �5.83, p �
.001, and between the 4,000 – 8,000-ms estimates from the
color
and object tasks (Ms � .35 and .45, respectively), t(86) � 2.35,
p � .02.
To provide an estimate of the amount of forgetting experi-
enced due to the buildup of proactive interference, two addi-
tional scores were obtained for each forgetting task by calcu-
lating the proportion correct on the first half of trials and
proportion correct on the second half of trials. Any evidence of
greater forgetting in the second as opposed to the first half of
trials would be consistent with the suggestion that proactive
interference builds up over trials and is maximal at the end of
the task. Consistent with this idea, a 2 � 2 repeated measures
analysis of variance, with task (color, object) and trials (first
half, second half) as the factors, revealed a significant effect of
trials, F(1, 87) � 12.14, p � .01, �p2 � .12, with poorer
performance in the second half of trials (M � 0.42, SD � 0.17)
relative to the first half of trials (M � 0.47, SD � 0.17). There
was also a significant effect of task, F(1, 87) � 82.80, p � .01,
�p
2 � .49, but no significant interaction between task and trials,
F(1, 87) � 0.51, p � .48, �p2 � .01.
Is Performance on the Forgetting Tasks Related to
Residual Variance in Working Memory
Span Performance?
61. To examine this initial question, we first explored the pattern of
correlations between the estimates of forgetting for each task,
the
working memory span measures, the storage measures, and the
measures of processing speed (see Table 2). The correlations
presented in Table 2 show that the two 0 – 4,000-ms forgetting
measures were closely related to each other, indicating that
there
was some shared variance between these two variables. These
two
forgetting measures were also associated with the working
mem-
ory span measures, suggesting that there may be a relationship
between these indices of performance. The two 4,000 – 8,000-
ms
forgetting measures were significantly correlated with each
other
but showed no reliable associations with the two 0 – 4,000-ms
forgetting measures or the two working memory span measures.
Finally, the working memory span measures showed significant
correlations with the independent measures of storage ability
and
the independent measures of processing efficiency.
These relationships were further examined by an exploratory
factor analysis performed using a maximum-likelihood
extraction
on the data from the four forgetting measures, the two working
memory span tasks, the two storage tasks, and the two measures
of
processing efficiency. This revealed a four-factor structure that
accounted for 71.01% of the total variance. The four-factor
solu-
tion was rotated using a direct oblimin procedure to facilitate
the
interpretation of the factors. The loadings from the pattern
62. matrix
are presented in Table 3. The two 0 – 4,000-ms forgetting
measures
loaded on the first factor, suggesting that this factor
corresponded
to a forgetting rate factor associated with the first 4,000-ms
period
of the forgetting tasks. The second factor appeared to represent
a
forgetting rate factor associated with the 4,000 – 8,000-ms
period,
2 A 4,000 – 8,000-ms forgetting rate estimate could not be
calculated for
one child as this child failed to recall any items correctly in the
short
condition of the object forgetting rate task. Thus, all analyses
involving this
variable are based on 87 participants.
Table 1
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for All Measures
Measure M SD Minimum Maximum Reliability Skew Kurtosis
Forgetting rate tasks
Color short .62 .20 .25 1.00 .64 �0.11 �1.06
Color long .39 .19 .00 .92 .68 0.54 0.21
Object short .50 .20 .00 .96 .68 �0.22 �0.06
Object long .27 .18 .00 .79 .64 0.49 �0.40
Working memory span
Object 4.32 0.77 2.25 5.75 .74 �0.43 �0.29
Counting 4.23 0.92 2.00 6.00 .76 �0.32 �0.44
Storage tasks
63. Digit span 4.66 0.62 3.25 7.00 .72 0.97 2.08
Word span 4.08 0.53 3.25 5.50 .69 0.52 �0.14
Processing efficiency
Object 2,680.34 425.24 1,636.57 3,476.79 .83 �0.12 �0.64
Counting 2,130.47 511.12 1,179.63 3,558.51 .92 0.77 0.50
Note. Values are proportion correct for forgetting rate tasks,
span scores for working memory and storage
tasks, and response times in ms for processing-efficiency tasks.
n � 88.
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169FORGETTING AND WORKING MEMORY SPAN IN
CHILDREN
with loadings from the two 4,000 – 8,000-ms forgetting
measures,
and the third factor corresponded to a storage-related factor
with
loadings from the two working memory span measures and the
two
measures of storage ability. The fourth factor appeared to
represent
68. a processing speed factor with loadings from the two measures
of
processing efficiency and a smaller loading from the counting
working memory span task. The 0 – 4,000-ms forgetting rate
factor
showed some association with the storage-related factor (.27)
and
the processing-efficiency factor (�.35), which were themselves
correlated (�.45). However, the 4,000 – 8,000-ms forgetting
rate
factor showed little association with any of the other three
factors
(�.05, .05, and .05, respectively). The fact that the 0 – 4,000-
ms
and the 4,000 – 8,000-ms forgetting measures loaded on
different
factors suggests that they are not measuring the same
constructs.
Moreover, given that the 4,000 – 8,000-ms forgetting rate factor
showed no association with the other factors, which was
consistent
with the correlational analysis, this factor was not included in
any
further analyses.
To examine the extent to which the 0 – 4,000-ms forgetting rate
measures were associated with residual variance in working
mem-
ory span performance, which remained once variation associated
with processing efficiency and storage ability was removed, a
structural equation modeling analysis was performed. In this
model, we specified direct paths from three latent variables rep-
resenting forgetting rates (with loadings from the two 0 – 4,000-
ms
forgetting rate measures), storage ability (with loadings from
69. the
two storage tasks), and processing speed (with loadings from
the
two processing-efficiency tasks), respectively, to a fourth latent
variable representing working memory (with loadings from the
two working memory span tasks). Model fit was assessed using
a
combination of fit statistics. These indicated that the model pro-
vided a good fit to the data. More specifically, the chi-square
test
was nonsignificant, �2(14) � 15.45, p � .35, indicating that the
estimated covariance matrix was not significantly different from
the observed covariance matrix, and the root-mean-square error
of
approximation (RMSEA), which provides an estimate of the dis-
crepancy between the estimated and observed covariance
matrices,
was less than .05 (RMSEA � .03). In addition, the comparative
fit
index (CFI) and the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), which compare
the fit of the specified model to a baseline independence model,
were both above .95 (CFI � .99, GFI � .96). Parameter
estimates
for this model are presented in Figure 1. As shown in the figure,
both storage ability and processing speed significantly predicted
working memory (p � .05 in both cases), thus replicating the
findings of Bayliss et al. (2003) and showing that processing
efficiency and storage ability are important and distinguishable
constraints on children’s working memory span performance.
Im-
portantly, the path from the forgetting rate variable to the
working
memory variable was also significant (p � .05), indicating that
individual differences in forgetting rate are related to the
residual
variation in working memory span performance that remains
70. once
variation associated with the processing and storage operations
is
removed.
What Is the Nature of This Residual Variation in
Working Memory Span Performance?
To explore the nature of this residual variation in working
memory span performance in more detail, a series of
hierarchical
regression analyses were conducted. The analysis of the
forgetting
tasks reported above suggested that, as expected, the object for-
getting task involved more interference than the color forgetting
task, leading to more forgetting. Similarly, performance on the
second half of trials was worse than performance on the first
half
of trials, consistent with the suggestion that proactive
interference
constrained performance on the second half of each task. That
being the case, if the residual variance in working memory span
Table 2
Matrix of Pearson Correlation Coefficients for All Measures (n
� 88)
Target measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Color forgetting rate 0–4,000 —
2. Color forgetting rate 4,000–8,000 �.20 —
3. Object forgetting rate 0–4,000 .53 .15 —
4. Object forgetting rate 4,000–8,000a .08 .27 �.06 —
5. Object working memory span �.41 .13 �.24 .08 —
6. Counting working memory span �.50 �.05 �.38 .07 .57 —
7. Digit span �.13 �.05 �.12 .03 .41 .37 —
71. 8. Word span �.29 �.21 �.35 .00 .45 .45 .54 —
9. Object speed .23 .05 .31 �.01 �.27 �.42 �.22 �.24 —
10. Counting speed .32 .20 .24 .08 �.29 �.49 �.23 �.25 .54 —
Note. Correlations significant at p � .05 or above are presented
in bold.
a n � 87 for correlations involving this variable.
Table 3
Factor Loadings for the Exploratory Factor Analysis With
Oblique Rotation
Measure
Factor
1 2 3 4
Color forgetting rate 0–4,000 �.985 �.112 .016 .049
Color forgetting rate 4,000–8,000 .242 .976 �.252 .034
Object forgetting rate 0–4,000 �.477 .135 �.233 .019
Object forgetting rate 4,000–8,000 �.125 .320 .122 .021
Object working memory span .212 .212 .494 �.141
Counting working memory span .250 .042 .388 �.363
Digit span �.071 .030 .669 �.086
Word span .110 �.123 .754 .042
Object speed .038 �.050 �.042 .646
Counting speed �.008 .107 .076 .860
Note. Factor loadings greater than .32 are considered
meaningful
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) and are presented in bold.
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170 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
performance reflects an executive factor associated with
maintain-
ing information in the face of interference from the processing
activity, then we might expect performance on the object forget-
ting task to be more closely associated with the residual
variance
than the color forgetting task and, consequently, to account for
more variance in working memory span performance. A similar
prediction can be made in relation to the buildup of proactive
interference, with performance on the second half of trials being
expected to account for unique variance over and above
variance
accounted for by performance on the first half of trials.
To examine the first of these predictions, the variance
associated
with the independent measures of storage ability and processing
efficiency was removed by entering the digit span measure and
the
task-specific measure of processing speed on the first step.
Then,
the order of entry of the 0 – 4,000-ms forgetting measures from
the
77. color and object tasks was systematically varied to identify the
unique contribution associated with each when entered on the
last
step. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 4. The
analyses revealed that the object forgetting measure did not
con-
tribute any additional variance to the object working memory
span
task, F(1, 83) � 0.03, p � .86, or the counting working memory
span task, F(1, 83) � 1.48, p � .23, over and above the
significant
contributions of the color forgetting measure. However, the
object
forgetting measure did contribute significant variance when en-
tered on the first step of the analysis for the counting working
memory span task, F(1, 84) � 9.06, p � .01. This indicates that
most of the variance (i.e., approximately 85%–100%) that the
object forgetting measure contributed to working memory span
performance was shared with the color forgetting measure.
To determine whether high proactive interference forgetting rate
trials were better predictors of residual variance in working
mem-
ory performance than low proactive interference forgetting rate
trials, a similar analysis was performed with the measures of
performance taken from the first half of trials (Low PI) and the
second half of trials (High PI) for each forgetting task. The
order
of entry of these measures was varied to identify the unique
contribution of each when entered on the last step. The results
of
this analysis are presented in Table 5. The analysis revealed that
the High PI variables accounted for significant variance when
entered on the first step of the analysis for the counting working
memory span task, F(2, 83) � 7.57, p � .01, and marginally
78. significant variance when entered on the first step of the
analysis
for the object working memory span task, F(2, 83) � 2.46, p �
.09. However, the High PI variables did not account for any
unique
variance over and above the Low PI variables for either the
object
working memory span task, F(2, 81) � 0.32, p � .73, or the
counting working memory span task, F(2, 81) � 1.32, p � .27.
Again, this indicates that most of the variance that the High PI
variables contributed to working memory span performance was
shared with the low PI variables (i.e., approximately 80%).
Discussion
This study was designed to (a) examine whether individual
differences in forgetting rate contribute unique variance to chil-
dren’s working memory span performance and (b) examine
poten-
tial sources of this variation by systematically manipulating
factors
thought to contribute to individual differences in the rate of for-
getting. In line with expectations, recall performance on the for-
getting tasks declined with increasing retention duration; recall
was poorer in the long-duration relative to the short-duration
conditions (cf. Towse et al., 2002). This indicates that the
forget-
Figure 1. Structural equation model and parameter estimates for
forgetting rate (FR), storage ability, and
processing speed predicting working memory (WM). The
numbers next to the single-headed arrows leading from
the latent variables to the observed variables are the
standardized factor loadings, and the single-headed arrows
leading from the FR, storage ability, and processing speed
variables to the WM variable are standardized
79. regression weights. The values next to the curved double-
headed arrows represent correlations, and the values
next to the small single-headed arrows leading to the observed
variables reflect the residual variance or
proportion of unexplained variance for each task. D1 represents
the disturbance term for the latent WM variable.
T
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171FORGETTING AND WORKING MEMORY SPAN IN
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ting tasks, developed for use in this study, were successful at
inducing forgetting (see also, Ricker & Cowan, 2010). In
addition,
the factor analysis revealed that the measures of forgetting
taken
from these tasks were separable from measures of both storage
ability and processing speed. Consistent with this, individual
dif-
ferences in forgetting accounted for unique variance in working
memory span performance over and above variation associated
with the processing and storage operations involved in each
work-
ing memory span task. The fact that the two forgetting rate
84. estimates taken from the long retention intervals did not
correlate
with working memory span performance as strongly as the esti-
mates taken from the short retention intervals (see Table 2) sug-
gests that individual differences in forgetting rate may be best
captured within the early phase of the forgetting function. This
may be because the greatest loss of information appeared to
occur
during the first four seconds of each task (i.e., given that all
participants had perfect recall on the baseline measure; see
Table
1) and highlights the importance of measuring forgetting across
different retention intervals.
The findings from this study replicate and advance previous
research that identified unique contributions of processing effi-
ciency and storage ability to working memory span performance
(i.e., Bayliss et al., 2003, 2005) by demonstrating that the
residual
variance that remains once variance associated with these
compo-
nent processes is removed is more than just measurement error
and
instead is meaningful variation that can be captured and
described.
This finding is important because it provides evidence that
work-
ing memory span performance can be decomposed into a number
of separable factors and suggests that one of these factors is
associated with the rate at which individuals lose information
from
memory. Crucially, this rate of information loss is separable
from
the rate at which individuals perform the processing components
of the working memory tasks, and so, individual differences in
forgetting rate cannot be reduced to variation in basic speed of
85. processing.
The results of the factor analysis provide further support for
this
claim and are important for two reasons. First, they replicate
Bayliss and colleagues’ (2005) previous finding of separate pro-
Table 4
Unique Contributions of the Color and Object Forgetting Rate
Measures to Each Working
Memory Span Task
Step Variable(s) R2 Variable(s) R2
Object working memory span
1 Object speed, digit span .20�� Object speed, digit span
.20��
2 0–4,000 color forgetting rate .11�� 0–4,000 object forgetting
rate .02
3 0–4,000 object forgetting rate .00 0–4,000 color forgetting
rate .09��
Counting working memory span
1 Counting speed, digit span .31�� Counting speed, digit span
.31��
2 0–4,000 color forgetting rate .12�� 0–4,000 object forgetting
rate .07��
3 0–4,000 object forgetting rate .01 0–4,000 color forgetting
rate .06��
Note. The proportion of the variation that the object forgetting
86. measure contributed to working memory
performance that was also shared with the color forgetting
measure was estimated by subtracting the unique
variance accounted for by the object forgetting measure on the
last step of the regression analyses from the total
variance accounted for by the object forgetting measure on the
second step of the regression analyses and then
dividing the result by the total variance accounted for by the
object forgetting measure on the second step of the
regression analyses. For example, for the counting working
memory span task above, the resultant equation using
three decimal places would be .067 � .010 � .057; (.057/.067)
� 100 � 85%. A similar procedure was used
to calculate the proportion of shared variance for the proactive
interference measures shown in Table 5.
�� p � .01.
Table 5
Unique Contributions of the Proactive Interference Measures to
Each Working Memory
Span Task
Step Variable(s) R2 Variable(s) R2
Object working memory span
1 Object speed, digit span .20�� Object speed, digit span
.20��
2 Low PI color, low PI object .06� High PI color, high PI
object .05
3 High PI color, high PI object .01 Low PI color, low PI object
.02
Counting working memory span
87. 1 Counting speed, digit span .31�� Counting speed, digit span
.31��
2 Low PI color, low PI object .11�� High PI color, high PI
object .11��
3 High PI color, high PI object .02 Low PI color, low PI object
.02
Note. PI � proactive interference.
� p � .05. �� p � .01.
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172 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
cessing and storage factors. Coupled with the finding that
process-
ing efficiency and storage ability each contribute unique
variance
to working memory span performance, these results again
suggest
that both factors need to be incorporated into any account of
working memory performance. Second, the finding that the for-
getting measures and the working memory span tasks load on
92. separate factors is intriguing given that both the forgetting tasks
and working memory span tasks could be thought to rely on the
same underlying mechanisms (Halford, Maybery, O’Hare, &
Grant, 1994; though see Jarrold, Tam, Baddeley, & Harvey,
2011)
and might have been expected to load together. The fact that
they
load on separate factors indicates that the contribution of the
forgetting measures to working memory span performance
cannot
be explained purely in terms of shared methodological variance.
Indeed, Jarrold et al. (2011) showed that the working memory
span
performance of a sample of adults differed from their
performance
on Brown–Peterson tasks, tasks that were similar in structure to
the
forgetting tasks used in the current study, in terms of both
overall
mean performance and the types of errors made. Intrusion errors
from prior lists occurred significantly more often in the Brown–
Peterson tasks, which is consistent with the view that proactive
interference, due to response competition between plausible re-
sponse alternatives, was operating in these tasks. In addition,
they
argued that this forgetting due to across-trial interference was
independent of the interference occurring between storage and
processing items within each trial of the working memory span
tasks, which they instead attributed to an overlap of representa-
tional features (cf. Nairne, 1990).
Taken together, the current findings indicate that children’s
working memory span performance can be decomposed into at
least three separable factors that individuals may vary on,
namely,
their storage ability, their general speed of processing, and the
93. rate
at which they forget information. The unique contribution of
processing speed is consistent with models of working memory
span performance in which individual or developmental differ-
ences in processing efficiency lead to variation in the time
during
which maintenance activities are prevented and forgetting can
occur (i.e., Barrouillet et al., 2004, 2007, 2009, 2012; Bayliss et
al.,
2005; see also Towse et al., 1998). Likewise, the unique contri-
bution of storage ability is consistent with models in which
indi-
vidual or developmental differences in reactivation rate
determine
the amount of information that can be successfully maintained
or
refreshed in any unoccupied time windows that occur during the
working memory span task (Barrouillet et al., 2009; Bayliss et
al.,
2005). Consistent with this argument, recent studies have shown
that older children are able to take greater advantage of any free
time during a working memory span task (Barrouillet et al.,
2009;
Gaillard et al., 2011; Tam et al., 2010). However, the novelty of
the current study is that we have identified a third constraint on
working memory performance that is separate from the
constraints
imposed by limitations in processing speed and storage ability.
This constraint is associated with an individual’s susceptibility
to
forgetting, that is, individual variation in the rate or degree to
which information is lost from memory when any form of main-
tenance activities is prevented. For example, one could imagine
two children who have similar processing speeds but vary in
terms
of their rate of forgetting. In the working memory span
94. paradigm,
both children would complete the processing activity of the task
in
a similar time, meaning that the time available for forgetting is
comparable. However, the child with the faster rate of
forgetting
would experience a greater loss of information during that time
relative to the other child, and consequently, their working
mem-
ory performance would be poorer. While previous researchers
have made suggestions along these lines (Barrouillet et al.,
2009;
Cowan et al., 1997; Hitch et al., 2001; Oberauer & Kliegl, 2001;
Portrat et al., 2009), this is the first study to show evidence
consistent with such a claim.
Moreover, the results of this study go some way toward speci-
fying the source of the residual variation in working memory
span
performance that is associated with forgetting. As expected,
recall
performance was poorer in the object relative to the color
forget-
ting task, suggesting that participants did experience more
inter-
ference in the object task, where the processing and storage
items
were both concrete nouns, than in the color task, where the
processing items were relatively distinct from the storage items
(cf.
Conlin & Gathercole, 2006; Jarrold et al., 2011). In addition,
consistent with the substantial evidence for proactive
interference
effects in Brown–Peterson paradigms (Crowder, 1989; Keppel &
Underwood, 1962), performance on the second half of trials was
95. poorer than performance on the first half of trials in the
forgetting
tasks. Given these findings, if variation in forgetting is due to
individual differences in the ability to resist interference either
within or across trials, then the contribution from trials
involving
more of these types of interference should be particularly
predic-
tive of working memory performance. However, the object
forget-
ting measure did not contribute any unique variance to working
memory span performance over and above that contributed by
the
color forgetting measure. Instead, between 85% and 100% of
the
variation in working memory span performance accounted for
by
the object forgetting measure was shared with the color
forgetting
measure. This finding provides little support for the claim that
one
of the important contributions to variation in working memory
span performance is from individual differences in an executive
ability associated with resisting interference from competing re-
sponse alternatives (see also Oberauer, 2009). Similarly, the
High
PI measures derived from each forgetting task did not contribute
any unique variance to working memory span performance over
and above the Low PI measures. Again, approximately 80% of
the
variation in working memory span performance accounted for
by
the High PI measures was shared with the Low PI measures.
Taken
together, these results do not appear to be consistent with the
controlled attention model of Engle and colleagues (i.e., Engle,
96. Kane, & Tuholski, 1999; Kane et al., 2001). In this model,
resist-
ing interference from response competition is a central function
of
the controlled attention or executive component of working
mem-
ory, with greater competition within a task context requiring
more
executive-attention resources for successful performance (Kane
et
al., 2007). The object forgetting task used in this study was
explicitly designed to capture individual variation in the ability
to
resist interference from response competition. The fact that per-
formance on this task did not contribute unique variance to
work-
ing memory performance, nor did a measure of performance
taken
under conditions of high proactive interference, presents a chal-
lenge for the influential and widely held view that individual
differences in the ability to resist interference moderate the
extent
of forgetting from working memory.
This begs the question of what is driving the variation in
forgetting captured by the tasks developed in this study. One
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173FORGETTING AND WORKING MEMORY SPAN IN
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possibility is that individuals may vary in the rate at which
infor-
mation decays from memory during processing (Cowan et al.,
1997; Hitch et al., 2001; Oberauer & Kliegl, 2001). Indeed, the
finding of Cowan et al. (2000) that younger children showed a
greater loss of auditory sensory information over time than
older
children is consistent with this idea. Cowan et al. argued for the
recognition of attention-independent aspects of memory that
change with development. The variation in forgetting rates cap-
tured in the present study may indeed fall into that category and
could potentially be accommodated by the time-based resource
sharing (TBRS) model of Barrouillet and colleagues (2004,
2009).
In this model, processing and maintenance rely on a single
limited
attentional resource. Items that fall out of the focus of attention
suffer time-related decay but can be refreshed by a rapid
switching
of attention to the memory item. Thus, processing efficiency
and
rate of reactivation are important factors in this model.
Barrouillet
et al. (2009) also suggested that speed of decay may be another
potential factor contributing to developmental differences in
work-
ing memory but as yet have not explicitly included such a factor
in
the TBRS model. The recent study of Ricker and Cowan (2010)
102. also highlighted the need to incorporate a constraint on working
memory associated with loss of information over time, in
addition
to any effects due to the prevention of attentional refreshing or
reactivation. The results of the present study are consistent with
these ideas and suggest that a modification of the TBRS model
along these lines may be warranted.
An alternative possibility is that the variation captured by the
forgetting tasks does reflect an interference mechanism, but one
that is not related to executive functioning. Oberauer (2009) ex-
amined the mechanisms of interference involved in a working
memory span task by varying the similarity of the processing
and
memory items in various ways. While high phonological and
semantic similarity between processing and memory items did
not
impair recall performance relative to low similarity, high
phoneme
overlap and a fast pace of presentation did. Oberauer argued
that
these findings provided evidence for at least two mechanisms in
the working memory span task, one associated with the
distraction
of attention from maintenance activities, which we assume is
captured in our study by individual differences in processing
speed, and an interference mechanism associated with feature
overwriting (see also Jarrold et al., 2011; Oberauer, Farrell,
Jarr-
old, Pasiecznik, & Greaves, 2012; Saito & Miyake, 2004). As
the
processing and memory items used in the forgetting tasks in the
current study were all words, they are likely to share numerous
phonological features, and so, it is plausible that performance
on
the forgetting tasks reflects the degree of interference caused by
103. feature overwriting. Thus, the variation captured by the
forgetting
tasks in this study could readily be explained by individual
differ-
ences in a basic memory decay parameter or a form of
interference
associated with an individual’s susceptibility to feature overlap
between the processing and memory items.
Having said this, numerous studies have provided evidence of a
relationship between individual differences in working memory
and
the ability to resist interference (Kane & Engle, 2000;
Unsworth,
2010; see also Bunting, 2006; Gray, Chabris, & Braver, 2003,
who
showed a relationship between performance on trials subject to
inter-
ference from recent stimulus items and general fluid
intelligence), and
the suggestion in the current study that the residual variance in
working memory span performance may reflect a nonexecutive
factor
appears to be at odds with this earlier work. Three points are
relevant
to this issue. The first is to note that we have not explained all
of the
variation in working memory span performance, and so, we are
not
claiming that there is no executive contribution to working
memory
performance. It is always possible that a different measure of
execu-
tive functioning may explain some of this residual variance.
Second,
104. our study was conducted with a sample of children, and it is
possible
that the nature of the residual variance changes across
development.
Even though our previous work has shown remarkably similar
pat-
terns of relationships across both child and adult samples (e.g.,
Bayliss
et al., 2003), a replication of this study with an adult sample
would be
a worthy avenue for future research. Finally, it is likely that the
storage and processing operations that contribute to working
memory
performance require executive processes to some extent (see
Ang &
Lee, 2008; Miyake, Friedman, Rettinger, Shah, & Hegarty,
2001, for
evidence of this in relation to spatial short-term memory), and
so,
executive abilities may well contribute to individual differences
in
working memory. However, what we have shown is that
individual
differences in forgetting rates do account for significant
variance in
working memory span performance, independently of processing
and
storage, and that in contrast to what is typically assumed with
regard
to residual variance in working memory, this variation in
forgetting
rates may not be mediated by an executive ability. A second
point to
make is that one could argue that performance on both
forgetting tasks
requires some resistance to interference. Although the
105. executive-
attention account of working memory would presumably predict
that
the object forgetting task involves more response competition
than the
color task, if the color forgetting task does involve a degree of
competition between response alternatives, then performance on
this
task will still be affected by the ability to resist interference. It
then
follows that individual differences in an executive ability
associated
with resisting interference will be captured by measures taken
from
the color forgetting rate task as well. The fact that the object
task did
not contribute any unique variance in working memory
performance
over and above the color task could then be explained by
assuming
that individuals are resisting interference to the best of their
ability on
the color task. Consequently, while adding extra interference in
the
object task does produce a drop in memory performance overall,
it
would not necessarily influence the pattern of individual
differences
captured. Such a suggestion would leave open the possibility
that the
variance captured by the forgetting tasks is executive in nature
but
clearly depends on the assumption that individual differences in
the
ability to resist interference are maximized in the color
forgetting task
106. and that increasing the executive demands of a task does not
expand
these differences any further. The challenge that these data pose
to
proponents of an executive view of forgetting is whether this is
a
plausible suggestion and whether the variance captured by the
forget-
ting tasks, which is reliable and predictive of working memory,
can be
convincingly shown to be executive in nature.
In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that children’s
working memory performance is best understood in terms of a
num-
ber of separate abilities. That is, children may vary in terms of
their
processing speed, their storage ability, and the extent to which
they
suffer forgetting. The key finding of the current study is that
each of
these components can be reliably measured, and in doing so, we
have
begun to demystify the nature of the residual variation in
working
memory span performance that has commonly been attributed to
an
executive ability associated with controlling attention and
resisting
interference. In contrast to this view, the findings from the
present
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174 BAYLISS AND JARROLD
study suggest that at least some of the residual variance in
working
memory span performance may be best conceptualized as a
nonex-
ecutive parameter associated with forgetting. While the cause of
this
forgetting could readily be attributed to either time-based decay
or
interference due to feature overwriting, crucially, neither of
these
mechanisms necessitate any executive involvement. Whether
any
other executive abilities can explain some of the residual
variance in
working memory performance remains to be seen, but
irrespective of
this, current models of working memory that attribute residual
vari-
ance in working memory to an executive ability will need to
carefully
consider what it is that they are referring to as executive and
whether
the balance of evidence supports such a claim.
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