Accurate and reliable estimation of the scour depth at a bridge pier is essential for the safe and economical design of the bridge
foundation. The phenomenon of scour at the pier placed on sediments is extremely complex in nature. Only a limited number of
studies have been reported on local scour around bridge piers in cohesive sediment mainly due to the fact that scour modeling in
cohesive beds is relatively more complex than that in sandy beds. Recent research has made good progress in the development of
data-driven technique based on artificial intelligence (AI). It has been reported that AI-based inductive modeling techniques are
frequently used to model complex process due to their powerful and non-linear model structures and their increased capabilities
to capture the cause and effect relationship of such complex processes. Gene Expression Programming (GEP) is one of the AI
techniques that have emerged as a powerful tool in modeling complex phenomenon into simpler chromosomal architecture. This
technique has been proved to be more accurate and much simpler than other AI tools. In the present study, an attempt has been
made to implement GEP for the development of scour depth prediction model at bridge piers in cohesive sediments using
laboratory data available in literature. The present study reveals that the performance of GEP is better than nonlinear regression
model for the prediction of scour depth at piers in cohesive beds
Prediction of scour depth at bridge abutments in cohesive bed using gene expr...Mohd Danish
The scour modelling in cohesive beds is relatively more complex than that in sandy beds and
thus there is limited number of studies available on local scour at bridge abutments on cohesive
sediment. Recently, a good progress has been made in the development of data-driven techniques
based on artificial intelligence (AI). It has been reported that AI-based inductive modelling
techniques are frequently used to model complex process due to their powerful and non-linear model
structures and their increased capabilities to capture the cause and effect relationship of such
complex processes. Gene Expression Programming (GEP) is one of the AI techniques that have
emerged as a powerful tool in modelling complex phenomenon into simpler chromosomal
architecture. This technique has been proved to be more accurate and much simpler than other AI
tools. In the present study, an attempt has been made to implement GEP for the development of
scour depth prediction model at bridge abutments in cohesive sediments using laboratory data
available in literature. The present study reveals that the performance of GEP is better than nonlinear
regression model for the prediction of scour depth at abutments in cohesive beds.
APPLICATION OF GENE EXPRESSION PROGRAMMING IN FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSISMohd Danish
Flood frequency and its magnitude are essential for the proper design of hydraulics structures such as bridges, spillways, culverts, waterways, roads, railways, flood control structures and urban drainage systems. Since, flood is a very complex natural event depending upon characteristics of catchment, rainfall conditions and various other factors, thus its analytical modelling is very difficult to pursue. Recently, artificial intelligence techniques such as gene expression programming (GEP), artificial neural network (ANN) etc. have been found to be efficient in modelling complex problems in hydraulic engineering. The performance of GEP model has been reported to be better than that of the ANN. Moreover, GEP provides mathematical equation which makes it more superior over other soft computing techniques that do not give any analytical mathematical equation. Therefore, in present study, GEP is implemented in flood frequency analysis for typical Indian river gauging station. The results obtained in the present study are highly promising and suggest that GEP modelling is a versatile technique and represents an improved alternative to the more conventional approach for the flood frequency analysis.
Limitations of simplified methods for estimating seismic settlements 12dRobert Pyke
Updated and expanded version of my technical note on estimating earthquake-induced settlements due to compaction. Notes limitations of existing simplified methods and suggest an improved screening methodology as well as a much improved method of analysis.
Pyke paper for asce lifelines conference 2021 22Robert Pyke
This is the final draft of a paper submitted to the ASCE Lifelines Conference 2021 (to be held at UCLA in 2022), which in part commemorates the 50th anniversary of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. It summarizes observations of earthquake-induced settlements at the Joseph Jensen Filtration Plant and how these observations prompted more detailed studies of the mechanism of such settlements.
This is an updated version of the presentation that corrects a couple of small errors and adds some brief comments on basin effects and nonergodic seismic hazard analyses
Prediction of scour depth at bridge abutments in cohesive bed using gene expr...Mohd Danish
The scour modelling in cohesive beds is relatively more complex than that in sandy beds and
thus there is limited number of studies available on local scour at bridge abutments on cohesive
sediment. Recently, a good progress has been made in the development of data-driven techniques
based on artificial intelligence (AI). It has been reported that AI-based inductive modelling
techniques are frequently used to model complex process due to their powerful and non-linear model
structures and their increased capabilities to capture the cause and effect relationship of such
complex processes. Gene Expression Programming (GEP) is one of the AI techniques that have
emerged as a powerful tool in modelling complex phenomenon into simpler chromosomal
architecture. This technique has been proved to be more accurate and much simpler than other AI
tools. In the present study, an attempt has been made to implement GEP for the development of
scour depth prediction model at bridge abutments in cohesive sediments using laboratory data
available in literature. The present study reveals that the performance of GEP is better than nonlinear
regression model for the prediction of scour depth at abutments in cohesive beds.
APPLICATION OF GENE EXPRESSION PROGRAMMING IN FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSISMohd Danish
Flood frequency and its magnitude are essential for the proper design of hydraulics structures such as bridges, spillways, culverts, waterways, roads, railways, flood control structures and urban drainage systems. Since, flood is a very complex natural event depending upon characteristics of catchment, rainfall conditions and various other factors, thus its analytical modelling is very difficult to pursue. Recently, artificial intelligence techniques such as gene expression programming (GEP), artificial neural network (ANN) etc. have been found to be efficient in modelling complex problems in hydraulic engineering. The performance of GEP model has been reported to be better than that of the ANN. Moreover, GEP provides mathematical equation which makes it more superior over other soft computing techniques that do not give any analytical mathematical equation. Therefore, in present study, GEP is implemented in flood frequency analysis for typical Indian river gauging station. The results obtained in the present study are highly promising and suggest that GEP modelling is a versatile technique and represents an improved alternative to the more conventional approach for the flood frequency analysis.
Limitations of simplified methods for estimating seismic settlements 12dRobert Pyke
Updated and expanded version of my technical note on estimating earthquake-induced settlements due to compaction. Notes limitations of existing simplified methods and suggest an improved screening methodology as well as a much improved method of analysis.
Pyke paper for asce lifelines conference 2021 22Robert Pyke
This is the final draft of a paper submitted to the ASCE Lifelines Conference 2021 (to be held at UCLA in 2022), which in part commemorates the 50th anniversary of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. It summarizes observations of earthquake-induced settlements at the Joseph Jensen Filtration Plant and how these observations prompted more detailed studies of the mechanism of such settlements.
This is an updated version of the presentation that corrects a couple of small errors and adds some brief comments on basin effects and nonergodic seismic hazard analyses
This presentation examines the suitability of using Vs30 as the basis for seismic site classification and concludes that it is about as good as we can do. However, there will be wide variation in the site responses within any one site class and it is suggested that nonlinear effective stress site responses should be conducted more routinely. Some guidance is provided on the conduct of such analyses.
Prediction of compaction charecteristics of soil using plastic limiteSAT Journals
Abstract In all kinds of earthwork constructions, the laboratory determination of the compaction characteristics of the soils plays an important role. Soil compaction is defined as the method of increasing the density of the soil by application of mechanical energy. The principal reason for the compaction of the soil is to produce a soil mass which can satisfy the three basic criteria. Firstly, the reduction of subsequent settlement of the soil mass, under working loads. Secondly, for the reduction in permeability which will subsequently avoid built up of large water pressures causing liquefaction problems and is also important for retaining water in case of earth dams. Thirdly, it is used for increasing the shear strength of the soils. But the determination of compaction characteristics in laboratory is laborious. It requires significant time and effort. Hence, there is a necessity for prediction of compaction characteristics with the help of correlating it with index properties of soil which can be determined easily. The plastic limit of soil can be found effortlessly and it bears a good correlation with compaction characteristic, namely optimum moisture content (OMC). In this paper, a study is conducted on nine types of fine grained soils like black cotton soil, red clay, china clay, marine clay, silty clay etc. collected from different parts of Telengana and Andhra Pradesh. And a simple equation has been suggested using regression analysis to obtain the optimum moisture content of a soil from the plastic limit, thereby eliminating the dependence of the proctor test for determination of OMC. Keywords: Compaction, plastic limit, optimum moisture content, Fine grained soils, Proctor test
Prediction of Soil Total Nitrogen Content Using Spectraradiometer and GIS in ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— In this study, soil samples were collected from two locations: Samawa and Rumetha in southern Iraq. The samples from each location were split into two datasets: calibration set and validation set. VNIR reflectance (350-2500 nm) and GIS-Kriging were used in combination with Partial Least Square (PLS) to predict total N. only two regions reported higher determination coefficient R 2 and lower Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) than the other wavelength regions. PLS calibration models yielded an R 2 of 0.96 and 0.97 for Rumetha and 0.87 and 0.94 for Samawa location in bands at 500-600 and 800-1000 nm, respectively. The potential of VNIR-based and GIS-Kriging models to predict new unknown soil samples were assessed by using validation datasets from both studied locations. The cross-validation of GIS-Kriging models were unsatisfactory predicted with an Q 2 of 0.28 between laboratory-measured and predicted total N values for Rumetha and 0.43 for Samawa location. While VNIR-based validation models achieved highly predictive power with an R 2 v of 0.84 between laboratory-measured and predicted total N values for Rumetha and 0.85 for Samawa location. These results reveal extremely decreasing in model predictive ability when shifting from VNIR Spectroscopy method to GIS-Kriging.
Inverse Scattering Series & Seismic Exploration - Topical Review by Arthur We...Arthur Weglein
Topical Review on the "Inverse Scattering Series & Seismic Exploration" - Seismic research by Arthur Weglein, Director M-OSRP & Professor Department of Physic University of Houston
Seismic performance of a layered liquefiable site validation of numerical sim...Mahir Badanagki, Ph.D.
In this paper, the results of a centrifuge experiment modeling of a layered soil profile, including a liquefiable layer of Ottawa sand, are used to evaluate the predictive capabilities of two state ofthe-art constitutive models.
Matthew Cahalan Georgia Water Resources Conference PresentationMatthew Cahalan
This is the poster I presented at the 2015 Georgia Water Resources Conference. It focuses on my M.S. thesis research that seeks to answer this fundamental question: "why do sinkholes form where they do?". This question was answered using an improved remote sensing sinkhole mapping procedure, integration of many datasets (i.e., hydrologic, anthropogenic, geologic, geomorphologic, and hydrogeologic), and spatial statistics (i.e., ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression). This poster / my presentation was voted as one of the top 3 posters at the conference.
The ultimate capacities of single piles utilized in ten projects in Basra-Iraq are
evaluated using: various interpretations of pile load test results; several static
methods based on site investigation programs; and the finite element method via
(PLAXIS-3D).For the well-behaved tests, it is realized that the load-settlement data
can be best fitted by a hyperbola. Accordingly, Rollberg method well-harmonizes the
test results and allows various interpretation methods to be applied on the
extrapolated curves. It is found that, the static methods spread over a wide range of
values. Finite element analyses exhibited good agreement to the measured values. It
produces failure loads, almost, similar to that obtained from Rollberg method. The
finite element analyses revealed local settlement of (0.6% - 1.8%) of the pile diameter
to mobilize the ultimate skin resistance.
Presentation made at the International Conference on Hydrology and Groundwater Expo, Hilton San Antonio
Airport, Texas, U.S.A, 10th to 12th September, 2012.
This presentation examines the suitability of using Vs30 as the basis for seismic site classification and concludes that it is about as good as we can do. However, there will be wide variation in the site responses within any one site class and it is suggested that nonlinear effective stress site responses should be conducted more routinely. Some guidance is provided on the conduct of such analyses.
Prediction of compaction charecteristics of soil using plastic limiteSAT Journals
Abstract In all kinds of earthwork constructions, the laboratory determination of the compaction characteristics of the soils plays an important role. Soil compaction is defined as the method of increasing the density of the soil by application of mechanical energy. The principal reason for the compaction of the soil is to produce a soil mass which can satisfy the three basic criteria. Firstly, the reduction of subsequent settlement of the soil mass, under working loads. Secondly, for the reduction in permeability which will subsequently avoid built up of large water pressures causing liquefaction problems and is also important for retaining water in case of earth dams. Thirdly, it is used for increasing the shear strength of the soils. But the determination of compaction characteristics in laboratory is laborious. It requires significant time and effort. Hence, there is a necessity for prediction of compaction characteristics with the help of correlating it with index properties of soil which can be determined easily. The plastic limit of soil can be found effortlessly and it bears a good correlation with compaction characteristic, namely optimum moisture content (OMC). In this paper, a study is conducted on nine types of fine grained soils like black cotton soil, red clay, china clay, marine clay, silty clay etc. collected from different parts of Telengana and Andhra Pradesh. And a simple equation has been suggested using regression analysis to obtain the optimum moisture content of a soil from the plastic limit, thereby eliminating the dependence of the proctor test for determination of OMC. Keywords: Compaction, plastic limit, optimum moisture content, Fine grained soils, Proctor test
Prediction of Soil Total Nitrogen Content Using Spectraradiometer and GIS in ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— In this study, soil samples were collected from two locations: Samawa and Rumetha in southern Iraq. The samples from each location were split into two datasets: calibration set and validation set. VNIR reflectance (350-2500 nm) and GIS-Kriging were used in combination with Partial Least Square (PLS) to predict total N. only two regions reported higher determination coefficient R 2 and lower Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) than the other wavelength regions. PLS calibration models yielded an R 2 of 0.96 and 0.97 for Rumetha and 0.87 and 0.94 for Samawa location in bands at 500-600 and 800-1000 nm, respectively. The potential of VNIR-based and GIS-Kriging models to predict new unknown soil samples were assessed by using validation datasets from both studied locations. The cross-validation of GIS-Kriging models were unsatisfactory predicted with an Q 2 of 0.28 between laboratory-measured and predicted total N values for Rumetha and 0.43 for Samawa location. While VNIR-based validation models achieved highly predictive power with an R 2 v of 0.84 between laboratory-measured and predicted total N values for Rumetha and 0.85 for Samawa location. These results reveal extremely decreasing in model predictive ability when shifting from VNIR Spectroscopy method to GIS-Kriging.
Inverse Scattering Series & Seismic Exploration - Topical Review by Arthur We...Arthur Weglein
Topical Review on the "Inverse Scattering Series & Seismic Exploration" - Seismic research by Arthur Weglein, Director M-OSRP & Professor Department of Physic University of Houston
Seismic performance of a layered liquefiable site validation of numerical sim...Mahir Badanagki, Ph.D.
In this paper, the results of a centrifuge experiment modeling of a layered soil profile, including a liquefiable layer of Ottawa sand, are used to evaluate the predictive capabilities of two state ofthe-art constitutive models.
Matthew Cahalan Georgia Water Resources Conference PresentationMatthew Cahalan
This is the poster I presented at the 2015 Georgia Water Resources Conference. It focuses on my M.S. thesis research that seeks to answer this fundamental question: "why do sinkholes form where they do?". This question was answered using an improved remote sensing sinkhole mapping procedure, integration of many datasets (i.e., hydrologic, anthropogenic, geologic, geomorphologic, and hydrogeologic), and spatial statistics (i.e., ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression). This poster / my presentation was voted as one of the top 3 posters at the conference.
The ultimate capacities of single piles utilized in ten projects in Basra-Iraq are
evaluated using: various interpretations of pile load test results; several static
methods based on site investigation programs; and the finite element method via
(PLAXIS-3D).For the well-behaved tests, it is realized that the load-settlement data
can be best fitted by a hyperbola. Accordingly, Rollberg method well-harmonizes the
test results and allows various interpretation methods to be applied on the
extrapolated curves. It is found that, the static methods spread over a wide range of
values. Finite element analyses exhibited good agreement to the measured values. It
produces failure loads, almost, similar to that obtained from Rollberg method. The
finite element analyses revealed local settlement of (0.6% - 1.8%) of the pile diameter
to mobilize the ultimate skin resistance.
Presentation made at the International Conference on Hydrology and Groundwater Expo, Hilton San Antonio
Airport, Texas, U.S.A, 10th to 12th September, 2012.
DSD-INT 2017 Vegetated Flow Simulation using Delft3D for a Large-scale Outdoo...Deltares
Presentation by Un Ji, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT), Korea, at the Delft3D - User Days (Day 1: Hydrodynamics), during Delft Software Days - Edition 2017. Monday, 30 October 2017, Delft.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BRIDGE PIER SHAPE TO MINIMIZE LOCAL SCOURIAEME Publication
The study of local scour around bridge piers is very important for safe design of piers and other hydraulic structures. In this study, shape of pier is the main concern with three different velocities (0.18, 0.25, and 0.3) m/sec and other parameters like flow depth, bed material and etc. are remain same for all experiments. The experiments were conducted using laboratory flume, operated under the clear water condition using sand as a bed material. The test program was done on ten different shapes, Circular, Rectangular, Octagonal, Chamfered, Hexagonal, Elliptical, Sharp, Joukowsky, Oblong, streamline. were used to investigate the effect of the bridge pier's shape on local scour to conclude the optimal shape that gives minimum depth of scour. Comparison of results show that scour at upstream is directly proportional to exposed area of upstream nose of pier.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO PREDICT COMPRESSION INDEX OF UNIFORM LOOSE SAND IN COAS...IAEME Publication
Predicting the compression index applying mathematical model for loose dense sand has been thoroughly developed, this is to monitor the rate of compression during settlement of loose dense sand, the model were generated to monitor the compression index of uniform loose sand in coastal area of Degema, the study express compression index at various depth within the specified range, the generated model produced simulation values compared with the measured values, both parameters developed faviourable fits, the compression index expressed linear increase to the optimum level at different depth, the study has also express the rate of homogeneity of the strata in various formations, these developed model will definitely be applied to predict the compression index for uniform loose sand under the influences of settlement in caring any impose load .
"A full experimental and numerical modelling of the practicability of thin fo...Mehran Naghizadeh
Paper entitled "A full experimental and numerical modelling of the practicability of thin foam barrier as vibration reduction measure" published by Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering (2020).
Similar to Scour prediction at bridge piers in cohesive bed using gene expression programming (20)
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
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Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
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Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
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Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
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Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
2. 790 Mohammad Muzzammil et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 789 – 796
Nomenclature
C Clay content
d0, d1, d2, d3 Random numerical constants
Frp Pier Froude number
GEP Gene expression programming
GMDH Group method of data handling
MAD Mean Absolute Deviation
MPE Mean Percentage Error
N Total number of observed data
R Correlation coefficient
RMSE Root Mean Squared Error
WC Water content
ŷs Dimensionless maximum equilibrium scour depth
Dimensionless shear strength
1. Introduction
Scour is the engineering term for the erosion of the soil surrounding a bridge foundation (piers and abutments)
caused by water. Due to high flow of water, it erodes and carries away material not only from the bed and banks of
streams but also from around the piers and abutments of bridges. However, scour does not always take place at same
rate for all the bed materials but it is different for different materials, i.e. courser the material, higher will be the
scour rate and vice-versa. Therefore, loose granular soils are rapidly eroded by flowing water, while cohesive or
cemented soils are more scour-resistant. It should be noted here that, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils
can be as deep as scour in sand-bed streams, which can be explained as, under constant flow conditions, scour will
reach maximum depth in sand-gravel bed material in hours whereas for cohesive bed material, it would require days
to attain maximum scour. Other materials like glacial till, sandstones, and shale even takes months to reach
maximum scour under same condition, while limestone and dense granite would take much longer time in years and
in centuries respectively. Moreover, it is a complicated process of determining the magnitude of scour due to cyclic
nature of some scour processes and also due to the fact that scour can be deepest near the peak of a flood, but hardly
visible as floodwaters recede and scour holes refill with sediment. Scouring does not only depends on the nature of
material but also on the type of obstruction, such as scouring process at pier nose is different than that around
abutments.
Since scour is a very complex phenomenon therefore its modeling is very complex and hence there is a challenge
on the researchers to develop new techniques and skills so that this phenomenon can be easily understood and then
can be determined precisely. Recent advancement in soft computing techniques has made this job a bit easy and it is
more acceptable and reliable than conventional methods of analysis. Various hydraulics engineering problems are
now being solved using several Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, viz, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN),
Genetic Algorithm (GA), Genetic Programming (GP), Gene Expression Programming (GEP), Radial Basis Function
(RBF), Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH) etc. The soft computing tool of GEP has recently got recognition
over various other tools due its simple modeling, easy coding and fast computations. Several researches from various
engineering fields have shown that this is more accurate and feasible than other older techniques. Extensive study on
pier scour has been conducted since 1950s, and these studies are based on the laboratory test results in non-cohesive
soil. Several investigators have proposed various relationships for scour depth, pier width and correction factors
based on laboratory and field experiments (Laursen and Toch 1956, Tison 1961, Larras 1963, Jain and Fischer 1980,
Raudkivi 1986, Melville and Sutherland 1988, Melville 1997, Richardson et al. 1995, 2001, Sheppard et al. 2014).
Scour depth prediction at bridge pier in cohesive soil was first proposed by Hosny (1995). He conducted flume
tests on scour around cylindrical bridge pier, considering different streambeds of unsaturated cohesive soil, saturated
cohesive soil and mixed beds of cohesive with non-cohesive soils and found that local scour depth gets affected by
3. 791Mohammad Muzzammil et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 789 – 796
soil compaction and its initial water content. His results also indicated that the final scour depth gets reduced due to
the existence of cohesive soil whereas mixed soils attain the maximum scour depth a little faster than that of
saturated cohesive soils. He also proposed some equations for the estimation of pier scour depth in cohesive soils
based on regression and dimensional analysis. Since then various researchers have contributed and have proposed
various relationships for scour depth at pier and correction factors in cohesive soil (Annandale 1995, Gudavalli
1997, Wei et al. 1997, Briaud et al. 1999, Ivarson 1999, Molinas et al. 1999, Day 2000, Kwak 2000, Li 2002, Ansari
et al. 2002, Briaud et al. 2005, Brandimarte et al. 2006, Seung 2009, Debnath and Chaudhuri 2010, Larsen et al.
2011). The recent experimental study conducted by Kothyari et al. (2014) revealed that maximum depth of scour
occurs in the wake zone of piers. They also concluded that the fraction of clay and unconfined compressive strength
of the sediment is the most significant variable that affects depth of scour in the wake zone of the pier. Moreover,
they found that the depth of scour decreased with the increase in clay fraction and it also decreased with an increase
in the value of unconfined compressive strength.
Past researchers have developed the scour depth equation by dimensional analysis followed by nonlinear
regression analysis but this approach is less precise and involves tedious calculations and hence, become less trendy
in the new advance world where soft computational skills have emerged with the artificial intelligence techniques
where modeling can be easily done with precision by applying less effort. Guven et al. (2008) and Azamathulla et al.
(2010) have applied GEP for the scour depth prediction around bridge pier and compared their results with that of
other regression techniques and found that the GEP is the best modeling technique for scour depth prediction among
other tools.
It has been observed from the literature survey that the computational analysis of scour depth based on AI
techniques in general and GEP in particular has not been extensively done and there is an immediate need to carry
out work in this regard. In the present study, GEP has been used to predict scour depth at bridge pier in cohesive soil
using experimental data obtained from literature.
2. Dataset for scour parameters and conventional scour prediction models
The experimental data collected by Debnath and Chaudhuri (2010) has been used in the present study. The range
of various parameters and their statistics are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Range and statistics of the various parameters
Parameters
Data range Data statistics
Minimum Maximum Mean COV
C 0.050 0.350 0.1929 0.1024
WC 0.192 0.387 0.2198 0.0500
Frp 0.215 0.515 0.2909 0.0563
ŷs 0.183 1.566 0.9018 0.3750
17.308 168.883 71.1686 40.1801
Debnath and Chaudhuri (2010) investigated the effect of clay content, water content, and sand size on the local
scour at circular bridge piers embedded in a clay-sand mixed bed. They also developed regression based equation for
the estimation of non-dimensional maximum scour depth with a function of pier Froude number, clay content, water
content and bed shear strength as given below:
(1)
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A nonlinear regression method in the MATLAB environment for the same dataset in the present study was also
implemented to get the scour depth prediction equation. It leads to the following equation for the estimation of scour
depth at the bridge pier embedded in the bed of the clay-sand mixture.
(2)
There is a slight change in the exponents in the input parameters. However, the performance of both the
prediction equations is almost identical as evident in Table 3.
2. Gene Expression Programming (GEP)
Gene-Expression Programming (GEP) is a new evolutionary Artificial Intelligence technique developed by
Ferreira (2001). This technique is an extension of genetic programming (GP). The genome is encoded as linear
chromosomes of fixed length, as in Genetic Algorithm (GA); however, in GEP the genes are then expressed as a
phenotype in the form of expression trees. GEP combines the advantages of both its predecessors, genetic algorithm
(GA) and GP, and removes their limitations. GEP is a full-fledged genotype/phenotype system in which both are
dealt with separately, whereas GP is a simple replicator system. As a consequence of this difference, the complete
genotype/phenotype GEP system surpasses the older GP system by a factor of 100.In GEP, just like in other
evolutionary methods, the process starts with the random generation of an initial population consisting of individual
chromosomes of fixed length. The chromosomes may contain one or more than one genes. Each individual
chromosome in the initial population is then expressed, and its fitness is evaluated using one of the fitness function
equations available in the literature. These chromosomes are then selected based on their fitness values using a
roulette wheel selection process. Fitter chromosomes have greater chances of selection for passage to the next
generation. After selection, these are reproduced with some modifications performed by the genetic operators. In
Gene Expression Programming, genetic operators such as mutation, inversion, transposition and recombination are
used for these modifications. Mutation is the most efficient genetic operator, and it is sometime used as the only
means of modification. The new individuals are then subjected to the same process of modification, and the process
continues until the maximum number of generations is reached or the required accuracy is achieved. Because a
random numerical constant (RNC) is a crucial part of any mathematical model, it must be taken into account;
however, Gene Expression Programming has the ability to handle RNCs efficiently. In GEP, an extra terminal ‘?’
and an extra domain Dc after tail of the each gene is introduced to handle RNCs (Azmathulla et al. 2011).
3. GEP modeling for scour depth prediction at the bridge pier in a bed of mixture of clay and sand
In the present study a new approach has been adopted for scour depth prediction model using Gene Expression
Programming (GEP), that was developed by Candida Ferreira in 1999 (Ferreira 2001). In GEP, the individuals are
encoded as linear strings of fixed length (the genome or chromosomes) which are afterwards expressed as nonlinear
entities of different sizes and shapes (i.e. simple diagram representations or expression trees). The great insight of
GEP consisted in the invention of chromosomes capable of representing any expression tree. For that Ferreira
(2001) created a new language (which she named as Karva language) to read and express the information of GEP
chromosomes. Furthermore, the structure of chromosomes was designed to allow the creation of multiple genes,
each encoding a sub-expression tree. The genes are structurally organized in a head and a tail, and it is this structural
and functional organization of GEP genes that always guarantees the production of valid programs, no matter how
much or how profoundly we modify the chromosomes. There are five major steps to use gene expression
programming (Ferreira 2001).
The first major step is to select the fitness function and initial population. For the present problem, the fitness fi of
an individual program i is measured by the following expression:
(3)
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where M is the range of selection, C(i,j) is the value returned by the individual chromosome i for fitness case j (out
of Ct fitness cases) and Tj is the target value for fitness case j. Now, if (the precision) less or equal to
0.01, then the precision is equal to zero, and fi= fmax = Ct.M. In this case, M = 100 is used and, therefore, fmax = 1000.
The advantage of this kind of fitness function is that the system can find the optimal solution for itself (Ferreira
2001).
The second major step consists in choosing the set of terminals T and the set of functions F to create the
chromosomes. In this, the terminal set consists obviously of the independent variable(s), (see table 2) but the choice
of the appropriate function set is not so obvious, but a good guess can always be done in order to include all the
necessary functions.
The third major step is to choose the chromosomal architecture, i.e., the length of the head and the number of
genes. A single gene and two head lengths were used initially and then, the number of genes and heads were
increased by one at a time during each run until the most appropriate fit was obtained. It was observed that more
than 4 genes and a head length greater than ten did not significantly improve the performance of GEP model. Thus,
the head length, h = 10, and 4 genes per chromosome were employed for the GEP model in the present study.
The fourth major step is to choose the linking function. In this study, addition was used as a linking function and
the final step is to choose the set of genetic operators that cause variation and their rates. A combination of all
genetic operators (mutation, transposition and crossover) is used for this purpose (Table 2).
Table 2 Summary of GEP parameters
S. No. GEP parameters Description
1. Population Size 50
2. Genes per chromosome 4
3. Gene head length 10
4. Functions + - × ÷ √ and ^
5. Gene tail length 11
6. Mutation rate 0.044
7. Inversion rate 0.1
8. Gene transposition rate 0.1
9. One point recombination rate 0.3
10. Two point recombination rate 0.3
11. Gene recombination rate 0.1
12. Fitness function Root relative squared error
The explicit formulation of the GEP for the scour depth prediction at the bridge pier in the cohesive sediments
has been obtained as:
(4)
The expression trees for the above GEP formulation are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In these figures, d0 = 2, d1 = 3, d2
= 0.656104 and d3 = 1.
A simplified form of Eq. 4 is as follows:
(5)
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Fig.1 Sub ET-1 for GEP formulation
Fig.2 Sub ET-2 for GEP formulation
4. Performance of scour depth prediction models at bridge piers in cohesive sediments
In order to assess the performance of the various scour depth prediction models at bridge piers in cohesive
sediments under considerations, The commonly used performance parameters such as Root Mean Squared Error
(RMSE), Mean Percentage Error (MPE), coefficient of correlation (R) and Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) are
adopted in the present study. The definition of these parameters is provided in Appendix.
Table 3 Performance evaluation of models
Performance parameters Debnath and Chaudhuri (2010) Nonlinear regression (Present study) GEP
R 0.84 0.86 0.93
MPE -10.06 -11.21 -3.97
MAD 0.18 0.16 0.11
RMSE 0.36 0.41 0.23
The performance parameters for the GEP and the regression models for the same set of scour data are shown in
Table 3. It may be observed from this table that the correlation coefficient of Debnath and Chaudhuri (2010)
equation is 0.84 and that of nonlinear regression of the present study is 0.86, whereas the GEP has the correlation
coefficient of 0.93. The MPE, MAD and RMSE of Debnath’s equation and present regression equation are almost
same but those of GEP are the least. Hence, it may be concluded that the performance of GEP is the among all scour
prediction equation in the present study. The scatter diagram between observed and predicted relative scour depth
has been shown in Fig.3. This figure also indicates that the gene expression programming is least scattered from the
line of perfect agreement than that of the Debnath’s equation and nonlinear regression equation.
7. 795Mohammad Muzzammil et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 789 – 796
Fig. 3 Plot of observed v/s predicted
5. Conclusion
The Gene expression programming (GEP) was implemented as an alternative tool for modeling of scour depth
prediction at bridge pier embedded in cohesive sediments and its performance over that of the conventional
regression prediction model. It was found that the performance of GEP is more encouraging and better than that of
the conventional regression model for the prediction of scour depth at bridge pier in cohesive beds. It is observed
that the equation obtained by GEP (R=0.93 and RMSE=0.23) is much simpler and far better than the regression
equation proposed by Debnath and Chaudhuri (2010) (R=0.84 and RMSE=0.36). Hence, it can be said that not only
GEP can suitably accounts for complexity and nonlinearity behavior of scouring in cohesive sediments but also it
can reduce the complex model into a simple equation.
Appendix
(A1)
(A2)
(A3)
(A4)
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