The document outlines a framework for advocating professionalism in early childhood education, highlighting the importance of specialized knowledge and adherence to a code of ethics. It encourages individuals to identify advocacy issues, engage with policy makers, and develop strategies for both individual and collective advocacy. Additionally, it emphasizes the role of professional development and ethical standards in shaping future practitioners and advancing the field.

1. Running head: Commitment to Professionalism 1
Commitment to Professionalism
3
Commitment to Professionalism
Your Name
Course Number & Title
Instructor's Name
Month Day, Year
Commitment to Professionalism
Advocating for _________
Identify the focus of your advocacy efforts and give an example
of an issue you would like to address as an advocate. You may
want to start off with something like: A great passion of mine is
to advocate for __________ because___________. Research
shows that this is a critical issue______________.
In the next few paragraphs be sure to:
· Identify one individual or group (local policy maker, state-
level legislator, corporate leader, etc.) that you can contact for
support of your issue and provide a rationale for choosing this
individual/group.
· Describe the strategies you would use to gain the support
needed for this issue through individual advocacy.
· Describe the strategies you would use to attract the support
needed for this issue through collective advocacy.
· Create two talking points (as discussed in Chapter 13) using
one concrete example (refer to key term in chapter reading for
precise definition) for each point to demonstrate the importance
of the issue. These talking points should be appropriate to use
when talking to legislators or the media about the issue for

2. which you are advocating.
Commitment to the Profession
In this section be sure to
· Describe how you will advocate on behalf of young children,
their families, and the profession.
· Describe how you will support the development of future
practitioners and leaders in the field.
· Referring to to Figure 13.1 “A Professional Continuum” and
describe how your efforts will support the field away
from unskilled workers and toward paradigm professionals.
Don’t forget specific details, examples, and citations to help
you get a top grade
References (Text and at least TWO outside sources)
Ashford Textbook (Online edition): *
Author, A. (Year published). Title of book: Subtitle of book
(edition, if other than the first) [Electronic version]. Retrieved
from from URL
Example:
Witt, G. A., & Mossler, R. A. (2010). Adult development and
life assessment [Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/books/4
Online Journal Article (such as from the Ashford Library):**
Author, A. (Year Published). Article title. Journal Name,
Volume(Issue), page range. doi:# or Retrieved from journal’s
homepage URL
**When including a URL for an online journal, you must search
for the journal’s home page and include this in your reference
entry. You may not include the URL found through your
university library, as readers will not have access to this library.
Examples:

3. Churchill, S. D., & Mruk, C. J. (2014). Practicing what we
preach in humanistic and positive psychology. American
Psychologist, 69(1), 90-92. doi:10.1037/a0034868
Santovec, M. (2008). Easing the transition improves grad
retention at Trinity U. Women in Higher Education, 17(10), 32.
Retrieved from
http://www.trinitydc.edu/education/files/2010/09/Women_in_hi
gher_
Ed_Trinity_Transistions_10_08.pdf
Online Magazine:*
Author, A. (Year, Month Date Published). Article title.
Magazine Title. Retrieved from URL
Example:
Walk, V. (2013, April 29). Can this woman fix Europe? Time.
Retrieved from
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,213969.html
YouTube Video:*
Author, A. [Screen name]. (Year, Month, Day). Title of video
[Video file]. Retrieved from URL
Example:
Apsolon, M. [markapsolon]. (2011, September 9). Real ghost
girl caught on video tape 14
[Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nyGCbxD848
Web Page:*
Author, A. (Year, Month, Date Published). Article title.
Retrieved from URL
Example—Corporate web page:
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008).
Police and detectives. Retrieved from
http://bls.gov/oco/pdf/ocos160.pdf
Example—Article or section within web page with no author:

4. Presentation tools. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://web2014.discoveryeducation.com/web20tools-
presentation.cfm
CHAPTER 13
Contributing to the Profession
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter
:
Management Knowledge and Skills
1. Personal and Professional Self-Awareness
·
The ability to evaluate ethical and moral dilemmas based on a p
rofessional code of ethics
8. Leadership and Advocacy
·
Knowledge of the legislative process, social issues, and public p
olicy affecting young children and their families
·
The ability to advocate on behalf of young children, their famili
es and the profession
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
1. Historical and Philosophical Foundations
· Knowledge of research methodologies
10. Professionalism
·
Knowledge of different professional organizations, resources, a
nd issues impacting the welfare of early childhood practitioners
·
Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “
Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”
·
Ability to work as part of a professional team and supervise sup
port staff or volunteers
Learning Outcomes

5. After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1.
Describe how the field of early childhood education has made pr
ogress achieving two of the eight criteria of professional status.
2.
Identify the advocacy tools that early childhood advocates shoul
d have at their disposal.
3.
Discuss opportunities that program administrators have to contri
bute to the field’s future.
Grace’s Experience
Grace had found that working with children came naturally, and
she considered herself to be a gifted teacher after only a short t
ime in theclassroom. She thought she would spend her entire car
eer working directly with children. She is now somewhat surpris
ed how much she isenjoying the new responsibilities that come
with being a program director. She is gaining confidence that sh
e can work effectively with allfamilies, even when faced with di
fficult conversations; and her skills as a supervisor, coach, and
mentor are increasing as well. She is nowcomfortable as a leade
r in her own center and is considering volunteering to fill a lead
ership role in the local early childhood professionalorganization
. That would give her opportunities to refine her leadership skill
s while contributing to the quality of care provided for childrent
hroughout her community.
Early childhood administrators are leaders. They contribute to t
he profession by making the public aware of the field’s emergin
gprofessionalism, including its reliance on a code of ethics; eng
aging in informed advocacy; becoming involved in research to i
ncrease whatwe know about how children learn, grow, and devel
op; and coaching and mentoring novices, experienced practition
ers, and emergingleaders.
13.1 PROMOTING PROFESSIONALIZATION1
Lilian Katz, one of the most influential voices in the field of ear

6. ly care and education, began discussions about the professionali
sm of thefield in the mid-
1980s. Her work extended a foundation that had been laid by so
ciologists, philosophers, and other scholars and continuesto infl
uence how early childhood educators think about their work and
the contribution they make to society. These are some of theattr
ibutes that are commonly used to distinguish professionals from
other workers and to determine whether an occupation is, or is
moving toward becoming, a profession:
1.
Professionals possess specialized knowledge. They acquire this
knowledge and skill in its application by following a course of p
rolongedtraining.
2.
Professions have rigorous requirements for entry into profession
al training, and training is delivered in accredited institutions.
3. Members of a profession have agreed-
upon standards of practice that guide their efforts to meet their
professional obligations.
4.
A profession has a commitment to meet a significant social need
.
5.
Professionals are altruistic and service oriented rather than moti
vated by opportunities for personal gain. Their primary goal is t
omeet clients’ needs.
6.
Professionals provide an indispensable service and are recogniz
ed as the only group in society that can perform its function.
7. A profession is characterized by autonomy—
it has control over entry into the field, oversees the quality of th
e services offered by itsmembers, and regulates itself.
8.
A profession has a code of ethics that spells out its obligations t
o society (Feeney, 1995; Katz, 1995; Feeney, 2012).
We will focus on two particular dimensions of professionalism i

7. n which the field has made the most progress. The first is the ac
quisition of specialized knowledge attained through prolonged t
raining (number 1 in the list above), and the second is reliance o
n a code of ethics(number 8). We will also acknowledge some o
f the areas where progress has been slow, or where early childh
ood educators’ approach toworking with young children and thei
r families means they will never compromise the field’s traditio
ns to satisfy all criteria that setprofessions apart from other occ
upations.
Moving Toward Professionalism: Professional Preparation and
Reliance on the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct
Professional Preparation:
Many states’ licensing regulations continue to require child care
teachers, caregivers, and directors to have only a high school di
ploma orGED; the CDA Credential, which is generally consider
ed to be equivalent to 9 to 12 credit hours of professional educa
tion, is the mostfrequently required form of specialized training
that an individual needs to be qualified to become a center direc
tor (Child Care Aware® ofAmerica, 2013). Publically funded pr
ograms, however, have raised the bar for entry into the field. Th
e Improving Head Start Act of 2007required 50% of all center-
based teachers to hold at least a bachelor’s degree in early child
hood education or a related field by 2013(Administration for Ch
ildren and Families [ACF], 2007). States’ QRIS systems and pu
blically funded 4K programs have followed suit. Mostrequire te
achers to have specialized training to prepare them to teach you
ng children, requiring them to hold at least a bachelor’s degreeo
r to be making progress toward attaining that degree (Barnett, C
arolan, Squires, Brown, & Horowitz, 2015).
The National Association for the Education of Young Children’s
(NAEYC) Program Accreditation Standards also, over time, rai
se educationalrequirements across the board. They stipulate that
by 2020, 75% of the teachers in accredited programs must have
a minimum of abaccalaureate degree in early childhood educati
on or a related field. NAEYC Accreditation also requires direct
ors to hold at least abachelor’s degree and requires them to have

8. specialized coursework in administration, leadership, managem
ent, and child developmentand learning, or a plan to meet these
requirements within 5 years (NAEYC, 2014).
The effects of these policy changes are being felt by the entire f
ield of early care and education, raising expectations for educati
onalattainment in nonprofit and for-
profit programs operated under a wide variety of auspices. Thes
e developments point to progress that thefield has made in one c
riterion of professionalism: requiring early childhood practition
ers to have specialized knowledge gained byfollowing a course
of prolonged training.
Reliance on the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct:
Reliance on a code of professional ethics is a second criterion o
f professionalism in which early childhood educators have made
significantstrides. The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (NAE
YC, 2011a) includes statements of the profession’s core values
and guides practitioners intheir efforts to meet their responsibili
ties to children, families, colleagues, and society. It articulates i
deals (how we aspire to behave) andprinciples (standards of con
duct describing what we must and must not do). A Statement of
Commitment accompanies the Code. It is not apart of the Code
but attests to members’ resolve to abide by the Code as they wo
rk with young children and their families.
NAEYC first adopted its Code of Ethical Conduct in 1989 (Feen
ey & Kipnis, 1989), revised it in 1992, 1997, and 2005, and reaf
firmed andupdated it in 2011. The field has also taken steps to e
nhance practitioners’ reliance on the Code and to make this reli
ance more apparent tothose outside the profession.
One way that NAEYC has promoted the visibility and encourage
d reliance on the Code is by making it an important criterion in
NAEYCAccreditation Standards that apply both to programs ser
ving young children and to postsecondary programs preparing te
achers for everyrung along the professional ladder—
beginning with the CDA and extending through associate’s, bac
helor’s, master’s, and doctoral degreelevels (NAEYC, 2011c; N
AEYC, 2012). These standards ensure that all practitioners in ac

9. credited programs are knowledgeable about theCode, and all wh
o graduate from accredited postsecondary programs have demon
strated that they know it and know how to apply it intheir work.
It is noteworthy, however, that the NAEYC Code is not enforce
d. That is because NAEYC is a membership organization and is
open to all, regardless of their professional preparation or the ro
le they play in the field.
Two Supplements extend the reach of the Code beyond those wo
rking directly with young children and their families. The first
Supplementaddresses program administrators (NAEYC, 2011b).
It provides guidance as you face situations with ethical dimensi
ons unique to thedirector’s roles and responsibilities, such as ho
w to prioritize applicants when filling a much-sought-
after opening in the infant room, howto proceed when you must
terminate a teacher because decreased enrollment is forcing you
to downsize, and how to manage relationshipswith families in a
way that lets you keep the needs of children paramount in your
decision making. This Supplement is found as Appendix 3in this
text.
The second Supplement guides adult educators (NAEYC, 2004a)
. It extends the original Code to meet the needs of those providi
ng trainingand education, whether in credit-
granting institutions such as colleges or universities or in infor
mal professional development activities. Asa program director,
you are likely to provide professional development designed to
meet the particular needs of your staff. This Supplementreminds
you, for example, to remain true to the approved training plan a
nd helps you have the courage to deny credit to the caregiver w
hoslept through the training activity instead of participating and
learning from it.
Several efforts have helped to make the Code widely accessible.
The original Code is now reprinted in many textbooks; the Cod
e and bothSupplements are posted on the NAEYC website, the o
riginal Code in both English and Spanish; and the Code is availa
ble from NAEYC in bothEnglish and Spanish as inexpensive bro
chures. NAEYC also offers an attractive laminated poster of the

10. Statement of Commitment. Programsthat display this poster att
est to their pledge to abide by the field’s ethical standards.
In addition to making the Code widely available, NAEYC has m
ade efforts to support practitioners’ efforts to apply the Code to
their work.NAEYC has published two books focusing on profess
ional ethics: The first book, Ethics and the Early Childhood Edu
cator (Feeney, Freeman,& Pizzolongo, 2012), provides a compre
hensive introduction to the Code. It includes discussions of the
role of morality and ethics in earlychildhood education, makes a
distinction between early childhood educators’ responsibilities
and the dilemmas they are likely to face, andoffers guidance in
addressing ethical situations involving early childhood educator
s’ responsibilities to young children, families, colleagues,and th
e community. This book is often a required text in 2-year and 4-
year institutions’ early childhood programs. The second book, T
eaching the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct: A Resource Guid
e (Feeney, Freeman, & Moravcik, 2016), includes advice for ins
tructors planningto teach about the Code and its application and
describes many activities for teaching the Code, including repr
oducible masters that canhelp you prepare for effective training
s.
NAEYC’s journal, Young Children, includes a regular column t
hat might help you include discussions of ethics in your regular
staff meetings.“Focus on Ethics” alternates descriptions of com
monly occurring dilemmas with an analysis and resolution of a
previously publisheddilemma. All past columns are posted on th
e NAEYC website and can be used as the basis for staff develop
ment on professional ethics. Thiscolumn is based on NAEYC m
embers’ submissions. You might decide to submit a dilemma tha
t your center has been grappling with to beconsidered for public
ation and analysis. Specifics about how to become involved are
included with each article.
The NAEYC has posted several video clips of Stephanie Feene
y, one of theCode’s original authors and a leader in the field’s
work on professional ethics.Watch this video to see her provide
an overview of the Code in this discussion withPeter Pizzolongo

11. , a member of NAEYC’s staff.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=28&v=-R-gh3Z9BPY
You can help make the families you serve and others outside the
profession aware of the field’s reliance on the Code of Ethical
Conduct.Ways to accomplish this goal are to include the Code (
or a link to its location on the NAEYC website) in your program
’s family handbookand to put families on notice that they can ex
pect your behavior, and that of all members of your staff, to refl
ect the program’s commitmentto these ethical principles. You ca
n also prominently display the Statement of Commitment poster
attesting to your program’s reliance onthe Code. You are likely
to think of other ways to make the Code more visible in your pa
rticular setting.
Other Criteria of Professionalism:
Early childhood education’s rich and unique history illustrates
why it is appropriate for early childhood education to satisfy so
me criteria ofprofessionalism but not others. For example, the fi
eld would not want to abandon its commitment to its career ladd
er, which welcomesemployees who work with young children w
hile they pursue their associate degree, often with the support of
the popular T.E.A.C.H.®scholarships.
Application Activity
Rely on the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (Appendix 2) and
the Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators (A
ppendix 3)to resolve one of the following dilemmas. Analyze ea
ch dilemma by identifying to whom you have responsibilities. Fi
nd guidance inthe NAEYC Code and Supplement for Early Chil
dhood Program Administrators (note item number[s]), brainstor
m possible resolutions,then decide what the “good director” sho
uld do in each of these situations.
·
An enrollment issue: The mother of the next child on your list f
or admission has told you that she has had her child in 5 differe
ntpreschools in the past 6 months. She tells you very emotional
stories about what she found wrong with each of them.
·

12. A personnel issue: Your enrollment is down. You must close a c
lassroom and let a teacher go. Do you choose to terminate the la
stperson hired, who is an excellent teacher, or the long-
time employee, who has never done a very good job?
·
A family issue: A parent who has been rude and abusive to staff
withdraws her child but then wants to come back to the center.
Other criteria of professionalism remain beyond our reach. For
example, we would like to achieve greater professional autonom
y, but thefact remains that regulations and standards that determ
ine who is eligible and qualified to teach and care for young chi
ldren are not likelyto have been developed by early childhood e
ducators. Efforts to include experts in early childhood education
in the groups that createthese regulations are the focus of advoc
acy efforts in some states.
For these reasons, it is now generally agreed that early childhoo
d education is an “emerging” profession (Feeney, 2012). It is ne
ither like the“paradigm professions” of law and medicine, nor ar
e early childhood educators unskilled workers, such as day labo
rers or short-
ordercooks, who enter the workplace with little prior training or
specialized knowledge, and whose employers are likely to consi
der them to beinterchangeable. Consider where early childhood
education falls on the professional continuum illustrated in Figu
re 13.1.
As the field moves toward increased professionalism, it is impor
tant that program administrators, as leaders in the field, are acti
ve inorganizations that support their efforts to remain informed
and engaged professionals. Review the list of professional organ
izations foundin Appendix 4. We recommend that you join one
or more that you find to be of particular interest and that you se
lect one to become activein at the local, state, or national level.
Doing so can enhance your knowledge and expertise and connec
t you with the larger community ofearly childhood professionals
.

13. Figure 13.1
A Professional Continuum
Application Activity
Our discussion focuses on efforts to increase the professionalis
m of the field by setting higher expectations for professionalpre
paration and by making our reliance on our Code of Ethical Con
duct explicit, and we discuss the issues created by the field’s la
ck ofautonomy. Select one of the other five criteria of professio
nalism. Decide where the field of early care and education falls
on theprofessionalism continuum that puts doctors and lawyers
at one end and unskilled workers at the other. Provide a rational
e for yourconclusion.
13.2 ENGAGING IN INFORMED ADVOCACY
Advocacy is speaking out for and taking action in support of ca
uses that protect and support vulnerable populations. Early child
hoodeducators have a long history of advocacy on behalf of you
ng children, their families, and the field of early care and educa
tion (Feeney,2012). Our commitment to advocacy is established
by the Statement of Commitment that accompanies the NAEYC
Code of Ethical Conduct andis reiterated in several of the Code’
s Ideals, including those that urge early childhood educators to
advocate for children who have specialneeds and to promote env
ironments that are physically and emotionally healthy and suppo
rt young children’s learning, growth, anddevelopment (NAEYC,
2011a).
Advocacy can involve everything from working on behalf of a p
articular child or family to speaking out at the national level. Y
ourpersonality, your passion, your available time and energy, an
d your stage of professional development are all likely to influe
nce the kinds ofadvocacy that are right for you. When you are a
novice in the field, advocacy on behalf of a particular child or f
amily will probably be thebest fit for your interests and abilities

14. . As you become more experienced, and particularly when you
move into an administrative role, it willbe time to reevaluate yo
ur strengths and interests in light of the responsibilities you hav
e accepted by becoming a leader in the field. It maybe time for
you to assume a leadership role in your local community, and pe
rhaps on an even larger stage. Consider the following list toiden
tify the kinds of advocacy activities that are right for you:
·
Individual advocacy involves professionals in working on behal
f of children or families. You engage in this form of advocacy w
henyou help a particular child or family gain access to needed s
ervices. An example of this kind of personal advocacy is pursui
ng speechtherapy for the child whose poor articulation is makin
g it difficult for him to have positive interactions with his peers.
Your individualadvocacy efforts may also involve sharing your
views with individuals or groups to raise their awareness about
an issue. This kind ofadvocacy can be either spontaneous or pla
nned (Robinson & Stark, 2002). Distributing information about
the Campaign for aCommercial-
Free Childhood to the families of the children in your program a
nd encouraging them to limit the number of commercialmessage
s to which their children are exposed are examples of individual
advocacy. You are also engaged in individual advocacy whenyo
u write a letter to the editor or submit a guest editorial to your l
ocal paper.
·
Collective advocacy involves professionals working together on
behalf of a group of people, for example, young children, famil
ieswho need child care, or caregivers who are not earning a wor
king wage or receiving appropriate benefits. As an early childho
odadvocate, you are probably focused on securing a “greater soc
ietal commitment to improving programs for young children and
moresupport for early childhood educators” (Jacobson & Simps
on, 2007, p. 92) and in speaking up “because all is not right for
children inour country and the world” (Feeney, 2012, p. 71). Tw
o kinds of collective advocacy target decision makers far remov

15. ed from the dailylives of young children and their families:
·
Public policy advocacy may involve you in efforts to influence
public policies and practices to make them more responsive to t
heneeds of children and families. Public policy advocates challe
nge those who develop laws, regulations, and policies to support
youngchildren, their families, and the caregivers with whom th
ey spend their days (Robinson & Stark, 2002). When a professio
nalorganization such as your state NAEYC affiliate communicat
es its position on an issue related to children and families to the
statelegislature, the organization’s spokespersons are engaged i
n collective public policy advocacy.
· Private-
sector advocacy is designed to influence business leaders’ practi
ces and policies. Some private-
sector advocates work tomake the workplace more family friend
ly, while others focus on eliminating violence in toys and childr
en’s media, or work to ensurethat toys are made from safe, nont
oxic materials. Successful private-
sector advocacy efforts have increased the number ofcorporatio
ns that offer employees flexible schedules, job sharing, telecom
muting, and part-
time employment. They also haveincreased the number of corpo
rations that offer on-site employer-
supported child care and have led to the removal of unsafe toysf
rom store shelves.
We hope that you will continue the field’s tradition of advocacy
by seizing opportunities to speak out for those who are most vu
lnerableand unable to speak out for themselves.
Application Activity
Identify an issue facing your center, your community, or your st
ate. Identify who might help you resolve this issue. Should the t
argetof your advocacy be local policy makers, state-
level legislators, or corporate leaders? Identify strategies likely
to be most effective tobring attention and eventually action to re
medy the problem or resolve the issue.

16. Becoming an Effective Advocate
Becoming an effective advocate is an important part of becomin
g a mature professional. However, many early childhood educat
ors whoenjoy their work with children find it difficult to speak
with authority to adults, particularly to public-
sector or business policy makers. Thatmay be because working
directly with children requires a different skill set than speaking
out in a public arena. Nevertheless, we know thatif we are to at
tract the public support needed to create a robust, high-
quality, and sustainable system of early care and education, we
mustbe effective advocates.
One strategy that helps ensure success is to create coalitions of
support and to network with other individuals or groups who sha
re yourcause (Ellison & Barbour, 1992; Levine, 1992). That ma
y mean linking with providers of special services such as speech
or occupationaltherapists, or working with support groups for
mothers such as Mom’s Rising, a grassroots effort designed to s
upport family-
friendlypolicies and practices. Review Figure 13.2, Characterist
ics of Effective Advocates. It may inspire you to take action abo
ut an issue relatedto children, families, and child care personnel
.
Figure 13.2
Characteristics of Effective Advocates
Sources: Based on Blank, 1997; Robinson & Stark, 2002; Teles
& Schmitt, 2011.
Application Activity
Learn about the career of a successful early childhood advocate.
Consider the list below of advocates who championed the cause
simportant to early childhood educators. You can probably ident
ify others who have been successful speaking out on behalf ofch
ildren and families in a local, state, national, or international ar
ena. Learn about the major accomplishments of the advocate yo
uhave selected to research and identify how they contributed to
the well-

17. being of children and families. Be prepared to share yourfinding
s with your class.
·
Susan Blow opened the first public kindergarten in St. Louis in
1873. Her goal was to give children experiences that would mak
ethem love learning.
·
Margaret McMillan and her sister Rachel opened the first nurser
y school in London in 1911 to provide the children of factorywo
rkers with opportunities to play outdoors in a safe environment.
·
James L. Hymes, Jr. was one of the founders of Head Start in 19
63. He spent his entire career teaching parents and caregiversho
w to support children’s learning, growth, and development.
·
Marian Wright Edelman founded the Children’s Defense Fund i
n 1973 to address inequalities created by poverty and other risks
children face to their well-being.
· Susan Linn founded the Campaign for a Commercial-
Free Childhood in 2000 in response to concerns about marketing
to childrenand the commercialization of childhood.
·
J. Ronald Lally founded For Our Babies, an advocacy initiative
focused on quality programming for very young children in 201
4.
An Advocate’s Toolbox
Effective advocates are good communicators. They know what t
hey want to achieve. They express the facts clearly, directly, an
d accurately,and are explicit about their goals (Jacobson & Sim
pson, 2007). Advocates sometimes need to be ready to act on sh
ort notice, such as whenthe legislature is preparing to vote on a
n issue affecting children and families. In other instances, advoc
ates have time to set goals for whatthey want to accomplish in t
he future and can build coalitions around specific issues. In thes
e instances, when time is not of the essence,they may become in
volved with political action campaigns and can take their time t

18. o identify candidates receptive to helping advance issuesin supp
ort of children and families.
Effective advocates have many tools at their disposal. Every ad
vocacy effort must be tailored to meet a particular audience’s ne
ed forinformation about the problem you have identified and the
role they could play to help you reach the solution you propose.
Consider howeach of these advocacy tools might contribute to t
he success of your own efforts to advocate on behalf of children
, families, and those whocare for them.
·
Position statements are expressions of professional organization
s’ official stance on issues related to their mission. NAEYC, the
Division ofEarly Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptio
nal Children (CEC), the Southern Early Childhood Association (
SECA), and the Associationfor Childhood Education Internation
al (ACEI) have developed position statements addressing contro
versial or critical issues related to earlychildhood education pra
ctice, policy, and professional development. Sometimes two or
more professional organizations develop positionstatements tog
ether. For example, Early Childhood Mathematics: Promoting G
ood Beginnings (NAEYC and the National Council of Teachers
ofMathematics, 2010) is a joint position statement of NAEYC a
nd the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). I
n other instances,allied organizations embrace each other’s posi
tion statements, as SECA did when they endorsed the NAEYC C
ode of Ethical Conduct.
Position statements include extensive reviews of the literature a
nd are a valuable foundation upon which to base your advocacy
efforts.They can be extremely helpful as you prepare to testify o
n behalf of legislation or to meet with policy makers in other set
tings, but are notusually appropriate to share with legislators or
other decision makers because they are too in-
depth and detailed for their purposes.
·
White papers are reports developed by organizations to describe
a problem and propose a solution. These advocacy documents o

19. fteninclude many facts and figures that can be used to support t
he solution you propose.
·
A briefing paper or issue brief typically describes one problem,
describes the policy you propose, and gives an example of how t
he policyyou propose is working in another locale. Legislators a
re particularly interested in policies in neighboring states, so pr
ovide close-to-
homeexamples whenever possible (Robinson & Stark, 2002).
·
Talking points are short and to the point. They include “‘sound
bites’ telling why you support or oppose a particular policy or d
ecision”(Robinson & Stark, 2002, p. 82). Advocates find talking
points very useful then they meet with policy makers or talk to
the media.
·
Key facts handouts are an advocacy tool intended for the public,
policy makers, and the media. They are short (one- or two-
page) to-the-
point summaries of the basic facts surrounding your issue and cl
early state the steps that you recommend policy makers take bas
ed onthese facts. Any statistics you reference must be accurate a
nd up to date (Robinson & Stark, 2002). See Figure 13.3 for an
example of a KeyFacts Handout that advocates for changes to S
outh Carolina’s child care regulations.
Figure 13.3
Key Facts Handout
Sources: AAP/APHA/NRCHSCC, 2011; Child Care Aware® of
America, 2013; NAEYC, 2014; NAEYC, 1993; South Carolina
Department of Social Services, 2005.
This Key Facts Handout briefly highlights research that support
s low ratios and class size, provides information about neighbor
ing states’child care regulations, and makes specific recommend
ations for South Carolina policy makers to consider.
·

20. Concrete examples are compelling and often effective ways to d
emonstrate the importance of the policy or initiative you arereco
mmending. If you are advocating for quality programs for 4-
year-
olds, for example, you will want to give policy makers a glimps
e into aclassroom with many authentic hands-
on experiences, and you will need to identify what children lear
n when they build with blocks ordress up in the dramatic play c
enter. You can do this by inviting policy makers to your center
or by taking the center to them with photos,short videos, and rea
l-
life success stories (Jacobson & Simpson, 2007). Or your advoc
acy efforts might focus on efforts to make quality caremore acc
essible and affordable. In that case, you could give policy make
rs the opportunity to hear from a family struggling to gain acces
s toquality care for their young children.
Watch this video to hear a father describe the challenges his mi
litary family,who was new to the community, faced when trying
to find quality child care fortheir young child.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRbfZr6Ty1k
·
Action alerts mobilize advocates to take immediate action. They
are typically emailed to supporters and urge them to contact the
irlegislators immediately to ask them to support children and fa
milies when they cast their votes on specific legislation. You ca
n expect actionalerts to include the phone numbers and email ad
dresses of targeted legislators and specific facts advocates can u
se in their message(Robinson & Stark, 2002).
Application Activity
Find examples of a variety of advocacy materials online. Positio
n papers are typically linked directly from organizations’ websit
es.Other advocacy materials can be found by searching on the In
ternet. Look, for example, for NAEYC’s current public policy ta
lkingpoints, the American Library Association’s white paper, “T
he Importance of Diversity in Library Programs and Materials C
ollections forChildren,” or the National Art Association’s series

21. of white papers describing the value of arts education. Evaluate
how successful youthink the materials you find are likely to be.
Many organizations focused on young children and their familie
s have become more active in the advocacy arena in recent years
. It is likelytheir stepped-
up efforts have been prompted by their hope that they can restor
e funding that was cut from bare-
bones local, state, andfederal budgets in the aftermath of the 20
08 economic slowdown. As the economy has recovered, some in
itiatives have been successful inincreasing support for programs
focused on children’s issue, but the competition for these moni
es is intense. We recommend that you relyon advocacy materials
created by national organizations that support your own local-
or state-
level advocacy efforts, whether you areconcerned with expandin
g infant/toddler or 4K programs, or increasing services to young
children with special needs and their families.Some organizatio
ns active in leading advocacy efforts are listed at the end of this
chapter. You may know of other advocacy groups thataddress is
sues faced in your own community.
Watch this Week of the Young Child video to see how one state
effectivelyhighlighted the benefits of quality early childhood pr
ogramming. Videos like thesecan be emailed to policy makers o
r used by television stations as public serviceannouncements.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNy0nYtrtvU
NAEYC sponsors an annual Week of the Young Child in mid-
April. This might be an ideal advocacy opportunity when used a
s a platform forinforming the public and elected officials about
issues related to young children and their families; to spotlight
a local champion forchildren; or to grow grassroots advocacy ef
forts by involving students, programs, and providers in high-
profile activities (Advocates inAction, 2009). By coordinating a
dvocacy efforts in your community, city, or state, you can incre
ase the chances for presenting a unifiedmessage that is likely to
have a greater impact than would be a single, isolated effort. Th
e NAEYC website has many suggestions for how youmight take

22. Week of the Young Child activities out into your community.
Watch this video to see how one community has engaged its loc
al TV station intheir efforts to share information about the Wee
k of the Young Child and thecontributions of quality early child
hood programming.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2ECFiAsqKc
Important Reminders!
We hope we have inspired you to become an effective advocate
for young children and families on the local, state, or national l
evel. It isimportant to remember, however, that some agencies o
r organizations prohibit their employees from taking a public sta
nd on controversialissues. Before you or members of your staff
speak out publically, you need to be certain that you are followi
ng your employer’s policiesrelated to advocacy activities. You
may not be permitted to participate in rallies or other demonstra
tions during work hours, and may beprohibited from identifying
yourself as a public employee in a letter to the editor or a guest
editorial in your local paper. It is best to find outabout any restr
ictions that might limit how you can speak out before your com
munity is engaged in heated public debate. That way, you canbe
assured that center personnel will appreciate that the limits you
set are not intended to silence their weighing in on a particular
issuebut are, instead, designed to adhere to the agency’s establis
hed policies.
You also need to be aware of limitations that apply to 501(c)(3)
affiliates of NAEYC and other nonprofit organizations, and to y
our programif it has this nonprofit designation. It is not permiss
ible, for example, for nonprofit 501(c)(3) organizations to recog
nize elected officials whoare candidates for reelection with an a
ward during an election year. That means that it would not be p
ossible for your local NAEYC affiliateto honor your local state
senator as a Champion for Children after she has announced her
candidacy for reelection (NAEYC, 2004b).
If the kinds of advocacy efforts described earlier are not permitt
ed by your employer, we encourage you to share information wi
th yourfriends and family. Maybe you will inspire them to advo

23. cate on behalf of children and families.
A Better Way
Grace has become comfortable as a supervisor, mentor, and coa
ch to the teachers in her center, and she is beginning to see hers
elf as a leaderin the local early childhood community. She was
not willing, however, to talk to the newspaper reporter who rece
ntly asked her to commenton proposed changes to the state’s chi
ld care regulations. She does not consider herself an expert on t
hat issue and did not want to make amisstatement she would late
r regret.
After studying the guidelines describing tools of effective advoc
ates, Grace decided that she needed to become better informed a
bout how theproposed reduction in child–
staff ratios for licensed centers could improve child outcomes. S
he attended public hearings on the issue andnetworked with the
directors of other high-
quality programs in her community. After checking with her boa
rd of directors to be certain publicadvocacy would not violate a
ny established policies, she studied relevant position statements
and prepared a key facts handout to summarizethe points she w
anted to make. She called back the reporter and agreed to be int
erviewed on the topic. She knew she had done the right thingwh
en the parents of the children in her program thanked her for sp
eaking out publicly on behalf of quality.
13.3 INVESTING IN THE PROFESSION’S FUTURE
Supporting Developing Professionals
When you help others find their place in the profession of early
care and education, you are engaging in a particular form of lea
dership.Some of the ways program administrators can help other
s find their place in the profession are by:
·
being a resource for those who want to know more about career
options for those who specialize in early childhood education.

24. ·
welcoming students enrolled in internships or other courses that
require them to observe or interact with young children or fami
lies.
·
mentoring and coaching novices to enhance their skills and kno
wledge of young children and early childhood education.
·
encouraging emerging leaders to enhance their professional kno
wledge by enrolling in postsecondary degree programs; pursuin
gadvanced professional development opportunities; and particip
ating in professional organizations, including attending and pres
entingat local, regional, and national conferences.
Supporting Research
One way your program can contribute to the profession is by ser
ving as a practicum site for beginning students.
David Kostelnik/Pearson Education
Another way you can contribute to the future of the field is by i
nviting researchers with projects investigating topics related to
children,families, teaching, or learning to consider conducting t
heir research at your center. You will first want to be certain an
y research involvingthe children or teachers at your center is in
compliance with NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct. That mean
s no research that could jeopardizechildren’s well-
being would be permitted; and that potential participants in the
study, both teachers and children’s families, are informed inadv
ance and have the opportunity, but are not required, to participa
te.
Then you will want to ask researchers if their project has been a
pproved by the appropriate institutional review board (IRB). Thi
s reviewrequires researchers to have a plan to gain participants’
consent and to have procedures in place to protect the privacy o
f participatingchildren and adults. Once you are convinced those
requirements have been met, we advise you, whenever possible,
to grant researchrequests and invite researchers involved in exp

25. anding the field’s knowledge base into your program.
Teachers as Researchers
It is important to appreciate that research can be conducted not
only by scholars such as university-
based researchers, but also by teachersin their own classrooms (
Cochran-
Smith & Lytle, 1999). Teachers involved in this kind of action r
esearch (which is sometimes called teacher research) explore pr
actical questions within their own world of work “to better unde
rstand teaching and learning and to improvepractice in specific
and concrete ways” (Stremmel, 2007, p. 4). Teacher research su
pports reflective teaching, and has the potential tobecome an ev
eryday event that informs practice (Paley, 1981; Murphy, Bryan
t, & Ingram, 2014).
When teachers become researchers in their own classrooms they
move away from the view that they transmit knowledge to child
ren andtoward the view that they construct knowledge and under
standings with the children they teach (Moran, 2007; Murphy, B
ryant, & Ingram,2014). Action research can also take teachers t
o the cutting edge of best practices and can give them opportuni
ties to collaborate withcolleagues, university researchers, and pr
eservice teacher preparation programs (Charlesworth & DeBoer,
2000; Cooney, Buchanan, &Parkinson, 2001; Moran, 2007).
Program administrators who are committed to action research of
ten support their teachers’ inquiry by making it part of the progr
am’sculture. They can help to build beginners’ confidence by gi
ving novices opportunities to conduct research projects with a m
entor or apartner. When two or more teachers work together, the
y bring broader perspectives to their inquiry, and the analysis of
their findings maybe more insightful (Dietze et al., 2014). Dire
ctors can also encourage teachers to create study groups where t
hey work together to“intentionally and systematically research a
nd answer their own questions” (Murphy, Bryant, & Ingram, 20
14, p. 29). When teachersembark on teacher research, directors
often find that it has become a very powerful and effective form
of professional development thatmakes room for in-

26. depth, intellectual conversations during which teachers ask and
answer their own questions (Murphy, Bryant, & Ingram,2014, p.
29).
SUMMARY
When you become a program administrator, you are taking the f
irst step toward becoming a leader in the field. You will have in
creasedopportunities to contribute to efforts to enhance the qual
ity of programming for young children. We hope you are lookin
g forward to thechallenges and opportunities to come.
·
Describe how the field of early childhood education has made pr
ogress achieving two of the eight criteria of professional status.
Professionals possess specialized knowledge, have rigorous req
uirements for entry, and have agreed-
upon standards of practice. Practitioners meet a significant soci
etal need, are altruistic and service oriented, provide an indispe
nsable service, and are recognized as the only group insociety th
at can perform its function. Professions have autonomy and hav
e a code of ethics that spells out its obligations to society. The f
ieldclearly meets the code of ethics criterion. NAYEC’s Code of
Ethical Conduct was first adopted in 1989 and has been revised
regularly sincethat time. And publically funded programs have,
in recent years, raised the bar for entry into the field. As a resu
lt, more are coming intoearly childhood education with specializ
ed training that prepares them to teach young children.
·
Identify the advocacy tools that early childhood advocates shoul
d have at their disposal.
Early childhood educators engage in both individual and collect
ive forms of advocacy, which may address either those who sha
pe publicpolicy or decision makers in the private sector. They re
ly on position statements and white papers to develop a compreh

27. ensiveunderstanding of the issues, issue briefs, talking points, k
ey fact handouts, and concrete examples to take their message t
o their audience;and action alerts to mobilize fellow advocates t
o take action.
·
Discuss opportunities program administrators have to contribute
to the field’s future.
Program administrators have opportunities to develop future lea
ders by being a resource to those considering a career in earlych
ildhood, by welcoming students into their centers to complete as
signments, by mentoring and coaching novices, and by encourag
ingemerging leaders to enhance their knowledge and skills. The
y can also make their program available to qualified researchers
and supporttheir teachers’ implementation of action research to
promote reflective practice and to inform their teaching.
USEFUL WEBSITES
Websites for Professional Ethics Resources
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NA
EYC)
·
Follow the Position Statement link to the Code of Ethical Condu
ct and its Supplements:
· NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011)
·
El Código de Conducta Ética y Declaración de Compromiso (20
11)
· Supplement for Adult Educators (2004)
· Supplement for Program Administrators (2011)
Websites for Advocacy Resources
Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood
This nonprofit is dedicated to raising families’ and caregivers’ a
wareness of the pervasive influence of commercial messages tar
getingchildren and to support their efforts to raise healthy famil
ies by ending the exploitive practice of marketing directly to chi
ldren.
Family and Work Institute

28. This nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization focuses on the
changing workforce, the changing family, and the communities
in whichthey live.
Moms Rising
This grassroots advocacy organization strives to raise the public
’s awareness and build support for issues related to children and
families.Its goal is to build more family-friendly communities.
NAEYC Advocacy Toolkit
This comprehensive resource addresses many facets of effective
advocacy. It includes helpful information about the legislative
process andeffective strategies for creating relationships with le
gislators.
Zero to Three
The mission of this nonprofit organization is to promote the hea
lth and development of infants and toddlers through training ofp
rofessionals, policy makers, and families.
Website for Reports of Teacher Research
Voices of Practitioners
The collection of teacher research reports found by following li
nks from this website demonstrates how teachers conduct inquir
y projectsin their own classrooms to help them understand their
children, teaching, and learning. They are inspiring examples th
at might encourageyou to try similar projects in your classroom
or center.
TO REFLECT
1.
Have you ever noticed that professional conference sessions foc
used on public policy or systems development are likely to have
plentyof empty seats, whereas sessions such as “Music for Mon
day Mornings” are standing room only? What do you think this
says about ourprofession? How could this situation be changed?
2.
A class in administration is discussing collaboration. One stude
nt commented, “We always talk about all we can accomplish thr
oughcollaboration, but doesn’t collaboration come at a cost?” W
hat are the costs of collaboration?

29. 1Versions of this discussion have been published in “The New F
ace of Early Childhood Education: Who Are We? Where Are We
Going?” byN. K. Freeman and S. Feeney, 2006, Young Childre
n, 61(5), pp. 10–
16, and also in “Professionalism and Ethics in Early Care and E
ducation,”by N. K. Freeman and S. Feeney, 2009, Continuing Is
sues in Early Childhood Education (3rd ed., pp. 196–
211), by S. Feeney, A. Galper, and C.Seefeldt (eds.), Upper Sad
dle River, NJ: Pearson.
CHAPTER 11
Child Assessment: An Essential Component of Quality Early Ch
ildhoodProgramming
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter
:
Management Knowledge and Skills
4. Educational Programming
·
Knowledge and application of different curriculum models, stan
dards for high-
quality programming, and child assessment practices
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
3. Child Observation and Assessment
·
Knowledge and application of developmentally appropriate chil
d observation and assessment methods
·
Knowledge of the purposes, characteristics, and limitations of d
ifferent assessment tools and techniques
·
Ability to use different observation techniques, including forma
l and informal observation, behavior sampling, and development
alchecklists
·
Knowledge of ethical practice as it relates to the use of assessm

30. ent information
·
The ability to apply child observation and assessment data to pl
anning and structuring developmentally appropriate instructiona
lstrategies
4. Curriculum and Instructional Methods
·
Ability to evaluate outcomes of different curricular approaches
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Contrast the characteristics of appropriate and inappropriate app
roaches to assessing young children.
2.
Identify performance assessment strategies that are appropriate
for documenting what children know and are able to do.
3.
Describe some ways teachers of young children share their insig
hts about what they know and are able to do with their families.
4.
Discuss the origins of kindergarten readiness assessments, the c
hallenges faced by those tasked with their development, and fac
torsthat make it difficult to compare states’ results.
Grace’s Experience
Grace’s many years as a classroom teacher gave her a great deal
of experience observing and documenting children’s learning, g
rowth, anddevelopment. She used what she learned through this
process to inform her teaching and was able to develop portfolio
s based on her observationsand documentation to describe childr
en’s accomplishments to their families. Since becoming the pro
gram director, Grace has observed that someteachers collect ver
y little documentation, mostly in the form of checklists and rati
ng scales, to describe their children’s learning, growth, anddeve
lopment. She realizes she must use what she learned in the class
room to lead her teachers in the implementation of authentic,de
velopmentally, and culturally appropriate assessment strategies

31. that align with the program’s core values, mission, and vision. S
he is hopingthis chapter will help her develop an assessment pla
n that will serve children, families, and staff well.
Child Assessment is the process that early childhood educators
use to understand a child’s current development, what he knows
, or whathe is able to do. They use this information to describe
children’s progress to their families and as the basis for decisio
ns that they make atthe classroom or programmatic level. As the
program director, you are responsible for taking the lead by de
veloping a “clearly written, well-
organized, complete, [and] comprehensive assessment plan” that
teachers and families can understand (Copple & Bredekamp, 20
09, p.178). Programs receiving public funds are typically accou
ntable for enhancing children’s learning, growth, and developm
ent in measurableways. They are usually required to administer
specified assessments to demonstrate how children have benefit
ed from those investments. Chapter 2 addresses child assessmen
ts that are measures of program outputs. In this chapter, we will
focus on assessments that are used tokeep families informed ab
out their children’s learning and development and to support chi
ldren’s learning by informing instruction. Referto Figure 11.1C
ommon Assessment Terms for definitions of words and phrases
commonly used when discussing assessment of youngchildren. I
t will be a useful resource as we apply the principles of appropri
ate child assessment practices to programs of early care andeduc
ation.
Figure 11.1
Common Assessment Terms
11.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT
The first of the influential National Education Goals adopted by
the first President Bush and the nation’s governors in 1990 crea

32. ted theexpectation that “by the year 2000, all children in Americ
a will start school ready to learn.” It soon became clear that a d
efinitive definitionof “ready to learn” was elusive, and existing
assessments were ill suited to accurately describe what diverse
populations of young childrenknow and are able to do. To preve
nt the widespread use of existing, on-
demand tests and the adoption of potentially harmful assessment
practices to measure school readiness, a workgroup made up of l
eading early childhood educators was asked to create guidelines
identifying appropriate approaches to assessment in early childh
ood. They stressed the importance of using assessments only for
theirintended purpose and avoiding subjecting young children t
o frequent assessments. What’s more, they identified four legiti
mate purposes ofassessment: (a) to promote children’s learning
and development; (b) to identify children for health and special
learning services; (c) tomonitor trends, evaluate programs, and s
ervices; and (d) to assess academic achievement and hold indivi
dual students, teachers, andschools accountable (Shepard, Kaga
n, & Wurtz, 1998).
During this period as many as seven professional associations,
whose members include teachers and caregivers, program admin
istrators,policy makers at both the state and national levels, and
researchers, issued position statements that expressed their conc
erns about therisks to children’s well-
being posed by inappropriate assessment practices. They warned
, in particular, about the damage that can be causedby on-
demand high-stakes pencil-and-
paper tests that are stressful and frustrating for children and fail
to provide an accurate picture oftheir knowledge and skills bec
ause they violate what we know about how children demonstrate
what they know and are able to do (Walker& Feeney, 2014). Th
ese position statements advocate for alternative approaches to a
ssessing young children’s knowledge and skills.Concern about t
he potential for harm that can come from inappropriate assessm
ent practices is also evident in the Code of Ethical Conductof th
e National Association for the Education of Young Children, wh

33. ich has nine items addressing issues related to appropriate asses
smentof young children. At the heart of the National Education
Goals Panel guidelines, these professional organizations’ positi
on statements, andthe NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct is the m
andate that assessments used in early childhood be “ethical, app
ropriate, valid and reliable …developmentally appropriate, cultu
rally and linguistically responsive, tied to children’s daily activi
ties, supported by professionaldevelopment, [and] inclusive of f
amilies” (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). Additionally, appropr
iate assessments:
· benefit children and families.
· must be used for their intended purpose.
· assess meaningful and significant skills and knowledge.
· collect information from a variety of sources.
·
must be embedded in classroom activities and consistent with cu
rricular goals.
· help teachers make informed decisions about teaching.
·
must be the focus of professional development designed to enha
nce teachers’ knowledge and skill.
·
must be shared with families to help them understand their child
ren’s learning, growth, and development. (Copple & Bredekamp
,2009; NAEYC, 2014; NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003)
As noted above, the National Education Goals Panel workgroup
advised that developmental screenings and assessments based o
nteachers’ observations should be essential features of quality p
rograms of early care and education. Directors of early childhoo
d programsand their teaching team play an essential role by adm
inistering developmental screenings to all children to identify th
ose who might benefitfrom further evaluation to identify develo
pmental disabilities or delays that would require specialized int
erventions. They have theopportunity to serve as a bridge conne
cting families to available services to meet identified children’s
special needs. Descriptions ofdevelopmental screenings and the

34. ir use are addressed in more depth in Chapter 9 of this text as pa
rt of the discussion of how to meet eachchild’s individual needs.
This chapter will focus, in particular, on performance or observ
ational assessments,1 the process of observing,documenting, an
d interpreting children’s behavior to inform instruction and to s
hare information about children’s learning, growth, anddevelop
ment with their families.
11.2 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Performance assessments involve observing and documenting ch
ildren’s behavior. Performance assessments are considered to be
authentic when children demonstrate their knowledge and skills
in the context of ordinary classroom interactions and events (M
eyer,1992). High-
quality performance assessments of young children are closely a
ligned with applicable learning standards, such as states’ earlyle
arning guidelines or the Common Core, as well as families’ and
the program’s values and goals for children. They reflect an und
erstandingof typical development, taking into account the variat
ions likely to be found in culturally and linguistically diverse co
mmunities and amongchildren who have developmental delays o
r disabilities; use multiple observation and documentation strate
gies; and involve multiplestakeholders, including children’s fam
ilies and other early childhood professionals (NAEYC & NAEC
S/SDE, 2003; Riley-Ayers, 2014).
Performance assessment requires teachers to collect, over time,
evidence of children’s approaches to learning as well as their co
gnitive,language, social, emotional, and physical development;
and to interpret this information to gain insights into individual
children’s interests,strengths, and needs to make meaningful ada
ptations to their instruction (NAEYC, 2014; Riley-
Ayers, 2014). These are some of the manybenefits of performan
ce assessment that should be a routine part of every classroom s
erving young children.
·

35. Teachers who document and interpret children’s behavior and le
arning are able to individualize instruction.
·
Systematic documentation of what children know and are able t
o do can help teachers identify children who may have adevelop
mental or learning delay. Early intervention can sometimes keep
a small problem from becoming a larger concern.
·
Teachers’ documentation communicates to children that their le
arning is important. They can appreciate what they have accomp
lishedwhen they see samples of their work that has been collect
ed over time.
·
Documentation of what children know and are able to do is an i
mportant starting point for teachers’ work with families and giv
esthem an opportunity to seek families’ perspectives on their ch
ildren’s learning, growth, and development (Seitz, 2008).
Performance assessment requires teachers to plan, to be organiz
ed, to devote time and effort to the process, and to reflect. It is t
heprogram administrator’s responsibility to provide them with t
he structural supports as well as the professional development a
nd coachingthey need to collect, organize, interpret, and use ass
essment information to inform instruction.
Structural supports that teachers need to implement performance
assessment strategies include digital cameras and audio and vid
eorecorders to document children’s activities; equipment and m
aterials such as a printer, filing cabinet, file folders, binders, hi
ghlighting pens,and Post-
It® notes to help them organize their data; resources to help the
m interpret their data; and time to reflect on that they havelearn
ed.
Many teachers of young children report that they are not knowle
dgeable about effective strategies for documenting their observa
tions ofchildren’s behaviors; identifying children’s strengths an
d needs; and using that data to adapt and adjust instruction (Ban
erjee & Luckner,2013; Heritage, Kim, Vendlinski & Herman, 20

36. 09; Roderick, 2012; Turner & Coburn, 2012). These findings in
dicate that teachers needprofessional development opportunities
that:
· ensure that they have a firm grasp of child development.
· give them practice documenting their observations.
·
provide them with opportunities to practice assessing children’s
knowledge and competencies.
·
inform them about commercially available tools that can help th
em collect and interpret documentation.
·
give them opportunities to practice using the results of their ass
essments to inform instruction.
These trainings can take the form of both in-person, hands-
on instruction and coaching as well online videos and training t
ools (Banerjee &Luckner, 2013; Riley-Ayers, 2014).
When directors ensure that teachers have the professional devel
opment, materials and equipment, and time they need, teachers a
re morelikely to be motivated to continually monitor children’s
development and learning, to reflect on their teaching and succe
ss meetingchildren’s needs, and to adjust their instruction to sup
port children’s learning and development (Carter, 2008). Direct
ors have found thatencouraging teachers to create study groups t
hat give them opportunities to hone their data-
collection skills, to discuss their data analysis,and to support ea
ch other in applying these findings to their teaching can be an ef
fective extension to the coaching they are able to provide(Riley-
Ayers, 2014).
Teachers can use a variety of strategies to document and assesse
s children’s knowledge and skills. Several are illustrated in Figu
re 11.2. AnAnticipatory Web Showing Appropriate Ways to Doc
ument and Assess Children’s Learning. It shows the many ways
teachers can asseswhat children have learned about wind.
Performance Assessments
Performance assessments involve systematically focusing on a c

37. hild or small group of children to document their behavior, whic
h will beused as the basis of assessments of what individual chil
dren know and can do and can inform teachers’ efforts to suppor
t their learning,growth, and development. Observations can be o
f short duration or can take extended periods of time. They can
be used to assess alldevelopmental domains, and even multiple
domains simultaneously. Some performance assessment techniq
ues are open-
endedobservations that require observers to record and then inte
rpret what they have seen and heard, and others are focused obs
ervationsthat require the observer to describe or tally specific b
ehaviors.
Open-Ended Observations:
Open-
ended authentic observational assessment techniques are very fl
exible and are popular ways for teachers and caregivers to asses
syoung children’s development and learning because they allow
them to carefully observe and analyze their rich descriptions of
whatchildren do as they play and interact with their peers. They
also help teachers get to know each child well and help strength
en theirrelationships with individual children—
an important part of quality programming because strong relatio
nships provide children afoundation for their exploration and le
arning (Jablon, Dombro, & Dichtelmiller, 2007). Some disadvan
tages to these approaches toassessment are that they are time-
consuming to record and interpret. It is also difficult to assess s
ome domains, such as cognitivedevelopment. In addition, the va
lidity of the observation depends on the skill of the observer, an
d teachers need a significant amount ofprofessional developmen
t and practice to record observations objectively and analyze the
m insightfully so that they can meet individualchildren’s needs.
As the program’s director, you can support teachers’ efforts to c
onduct these observational assessments by coaching themto avoi
d the temptation to draw any conclusions by recording just what
they see and hear; by reviewing their records with them; and by
helping them interpret their observations to assess children’s lea

38. rning, growth, and development and to inform their teaching.
Figure 11.2
Anticipatory Web Showing Appropriate Ways to Document and
Assess Children’s Learning
Two forms of open-
ended authentic observational assessments are anecdotal records
and running records. An anecdotal record is abrief, objective, a
ccurate description of a significant incident in one child’s day t
hat:
·
includes the child’s and observer’s names and indicates that dat
e, time, context (where and when the incident took place).
·
describes what the child did, the reactions of anyone else involv
ed, and the child’s response to those reactions.
Figure 11.3
Example of an Anecdotal Record
·
includes the child’s exact words, and those of others involved.2
· describes the child’s nonverbal communication—
the posture, gestures, voice quality, and facial expressions that i
ndicate the child’sfeelings. It does not label the child’s feelings
but provides cues that allow the reader to interpret what his feel
ings might be.
In addition to these facts, in a separate section, an anecdotal rec
ord includes the observer’s interpretation of what this episode il
lustratesabout the child’s learning, growth, or development and/
or his professional opinion about what he can do to support the
child’s progress.See Figure 11.3. This Example of an Anecdotal
Record illustrates how to describe a significant classroom event
and interpret its meaning.
Application Activity
Watch this video clip of 4-year-
old Feng playing in the sand. Write an anecdotal record describi

39. ng your observations. Rememberthat your description of the inci
dent should report only what you can see (this clip has no sound
), including any nonverbalcommunication that you notice. When
you write your comments and interpretation, assume the role of
Feng’s teacher. Describe whyyou believe this incident is signifi
cant and explain what it tells you about Feng’s attention span, p
ersistence, fine motor development,or anything else you think is
noteworthy.
Keeping anecdotal notes is an everyday, routine way that teache
rs document what children know and are able to do.
Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education
A running record is a narrative report that records what one chil
d or a small group of children do and say. As when completing a
nanecdotal record, the observer records what he sees and hears
without interpretation, and describes the context; however, a ru
nningrecord adds an extra dimension by noting the time of each
entry. This form of documentation was popularized by Piaget (1
952). See Figure11.4, an Example of a Running Record. Note th
at this is the same incident that is presented as an example of an
anecdotal record in Figure11.3.
Figure 11.4
Example of a Running Record
Focused Observations:
Focused observations describe what happens before and after a s
pecific, usually challenging, behavior or describe children’s beh
aviors in aparticular setting. Two types of focused observations
are event sampling and time sampling. The program’s director p
lays a particularlyimportant role by conducting these kinds of o
bservations because teachers who are responsible for the entire
classroom cannot focus theirattention on one child or one area o
f the classroom for the extended period that these forms of data
collection require. You can also helpclassroom teachers interpre
t the data to gain insights into what causes (and how to prevent)
negative behaviors, and how to encouragepositive interactions.

40. An advantage of these structured observations is that they are le
ss time-consuming than open-
ended observationsand can record the behaviors of several child
ren at one time; however, a disadvantage is that they lack the de
tail and richness of anecdotaland running records.
Event sampling is a description of events preceding and immedi
ately following a specified target behavior during a particular cl
assroomroutine or event (e.g., Sarah had biting episodes on Mon
day and Tuesday as the class was transitioning into circle time,
and you want to findout what might trigger this behavior). For t
hese observations, the target behavior and a particular classroo
m routine or event are carefullydefined. To conduct an event sa
mpling observation, the observer must describe the target behav
ior along with what was happening beforeand after its occurrenc
e (see Figure 11.5 an Example of an Event Sampling Record). N
otice how it describes what happened before,during, and after Ja
mie hit his classmates.
Figure 11.5
Example of an Event Sampling Record
Time sampling is a tally of observations in a specified classroo
m area or center at pre-
determined time intervals (e.g., every 5 minutes,every 10 minut
es). Expected behaviors are identified in advance and then obser
ved and recorded at specified intervals (Mindes & Jung,2015).
Because less writing is required than when completing an event
sampling, the observer can record her observations of severalchi
ldren in one session by recording the actions of each of the chil
dren in a predetermined, consistent order (e.g., record what Jero
me isdoing, then Alice, Victoria, Ralph, and back to Jerome, etc
.). A time sample record like the example in Figure 11.6 is likel
y to show trends,such as which children engage in play for a sus
tained time and which are apt to wander or mainly observe, as w
ell as which areas oractivities are the most appealing. It is helpf
ul for the observer to include a summary of the trends he identif
ies.

41. This Example of a Time Sampling Record shows what four child
ren chose to do while in the housekeeping center during a 15-
minuteobservation. It includes an interpretation/reflection highli
ghting the trends that the observer noticed.
Structured Observations:
A third category of performance assessments includes checklists
and rating scales. Checklists are structured observations that pr
ovide alist of behaviors or traits with a system for recording if o
r when they are observed. They can be an effective way to keep
track of children’sattainment of developmental milestones or th
eir mastery of specific skills. Rating scales are similar to checkl
ists, but in addition to listingexpected behaviors, they also provi
de a way to indicate how well, how often, or how independently
a child exhibits the identified behaviorsor traits. Checklists and
rating scales can be formatted to track an individual child’s ach
ievements over time or to record observations of anentire group
of children’s mastery or behaviors (Feeney, Moravcik, & Nolte,
2016). Teachers often create them to meet their particularneeds.
Figure 11.6
Example of a Time Sampling Record
Figure 11.7, an Example of a Developmental Checklist for One
Young Infant. It illustrates how a caregiver can quickly and easi
lydocument when one infant attains specific developmental mile
stones.
Figure 11.8 is an Example of a Developmental Checklist Used f
or Several Young Infants. It illustrates how a primary caregiver
can useone checklist to record the attainment of several develop
ment milestones of all her assigned infants.
Rating scales describe children’s abilities along a continuum. T
hey can collect data about individuals or a group of children. So
metimes theyuse terms such as “independently,” “with a little h
elp,” or “with a lot of help,” or “not yet,” “sometimes,” and “al
ways.” In other instances, theyuse a numerical continuum to des
cribe children’s skills or competencies.

42. Figure 11.7
Example of a Developmental Checklist for One Young Infant
Figure 11.8
Example of a Developmental Checklist Used for Several Young
Infants
Figure 11.9
Example of a Rating Scale for a Group of Children
Figure 11.9 is an Example of a Rating Scale for a Group of Chil
dren that uses symbols to show children’s competence mastering
specificself-help skills.
Figure 11.10 is an Example of a Rating Scale Using Words to de
scribe one child’s mastery of these same self-
help skills, and Figure 11.11is an Example of a Numerical Ratin
g Scale that uses numbers to describe one child’s large motor sk
ills.
Some commercial checklists and rating scales have been shown
to be reliable and valid (Mindes & Jung, 2015). Two examples a
re The EarlyLearning Observation Rating Scale (ELORS) (Cole
man, West, & Gillis, 2010) and the Work Sampling System (WS
S) (Meisels, Marsden, Jablon,& Dichtelmiller, 2013). The ELO
RS is meant to be used with 4-year-
olds preparing to enter kindergarten and is designed to identify
childrenwho may have learning disabilities, while the WSS incl
udes checklists based on Common Core State Standards and stat
es’ early learningguidelines. They give teachers a quick and effi
cient way to track if children’s performance of expected skills a
nd abilities is “proficient”, “inprocess”, or has “not yet” been d
emonstrated.
Figure 11.10
Example of a Rating Scale Using Words
Figure 11.11
Example of a Numerical Rating Scale

43. Many kinds of ordinary classroom activities give teachers oppor
tunities to assess children’s skills.
David Kostelnik/Pearson Education
Interviews
Teachers can also gain valuable insights into what children unde
rstand, are interested in, and are curious about by interviewing t
hem.Teachers conduct informal interviews when they ask childr
en about their block structure or what they did over the weekend
. Theseinterviews are likely to be spontaneous and grow out of t
eachers’ observations and classroom events. Some of the insight
s they can provideare into children’s language development as
well as their interests, friends, relationships, and fears. A good
way to document theseconversations is to record them as anecdo
tal records.
In formal interviews, teachers ask each child the same questions
. They need to plan for these interviews by identifying a focus,
such aswhat children learned from a recent trip to the fire statio
n. For interviews to serve as useful documentation of children’s
learning anddevelopment, teachers must keep complete and accu
rate notes of what they say as well as their nonverbal communic
ation. When usedintentionally, interviews can become part of ef
fective teachers’ efforts to identify children’s interests, strength
s, and needs (Feeney,Moravcik, & Nolte, 2016).
Collecting Work Samples
Collecting samples of children’s work is a particularly effective
way to document their learning, growth, and development; it al
so givesteachers opportunities to clearly illustrate children’s pr
ogress to their families (McAfee, Leong, & Bodrova, 2004). The
samples of children’swork used as a form of performance asses
sment can include:
·
video or audio recordings of child dictating stories, singing, rea
ding (or “reading” favorite books from memory), and other class
roomevents.
· drawings, paintings, and other two-dimensional art projects—

44. children might prefer that you take photographs so that they can
taketheir artwork home.
· photographs of three-
dimensional artifacts, such as art projects, block constructions,
and science experiments.
Work samples that effectively illustrate what children know and
are able to do should be collected on a regular basis and organi
zedlogically. They must be dated with notes describing their cre
ation and interpreted to indicate what learning, growth, and dev
elopment theydemonstrate.
It is important to remember that teachers must be intentional an
d strategic in saving work samples that accurately demonstrate c
hildren’sknowledge and skills. Program directors have a respons
ibility to coach teachers in effective data collection strategies, t
o provide them withthe resources they need to collect and organ
ize data, and guide them as they learn to interpret their collecte
d work samples in terms ofappropriate developmental guidelines
, standards, and program goals.
Portfolios
A portfolio is a performance-
based assessment that is a compilation of evidence demonstratin
g children’s competencies while celebratingtheir learning, growt
h, and development. It can be organized to show growth across s
ocial, emotional, cognitive, and/or physicaldevelopmental doma
ins; to address applicable learning standards; or to showcase ho
w the child has met the particular program’s goals.Portfolio ass
essment is an important feature of programs accredited by NAE
YC (NAEYC, 2014). Portfolios provide much more informationt
han any checklist or rating scale alone possibly can and are a pa
rticularly effective approach to assessment when working with c
hildrenwith developmental delays and children who are learning
English as a second language because they are based on real-
life examples ofwhat each child can do. The process of developi
ng a portfolio begins by making a decision about its purpose.
Teachers of young children most often use portfolios as a forma
tive assessment. When used in this way, they are designed to de

45. monstrateto children, their families, and their teachers their pro
gress over time and to identify their strengths as well target are
as for improvement toinform instruction. Formative portfolios a
re particularly useful when conducting parent conferences. They
can be shared as “works inprogress” several times throughout t
he year and can be presented to parents and passed on to the chi
ld’s new teachers when shetransitions from one classroom to the
next or moves on from preschool into kindergarten. When portf
olios are used as a summativeassessment, they document for fa
milies and next year’s teacher what the child knows and can do
at the end of the year.
Both formative and summative portfolios begin as working portf
olios, extensive collections of the child’s work that include sam
ples of herdrawing and writing, paintings, and photographs of th
ree-
dimensional constructions. It may include a list of books she ha
s read or enjoyedhaving read to her; notes from parent conferen
ces; and anecdotal notes, checklists, rating scales, and other doc
umentation of her learning,growth, and development collected t
hroughout the year. All work samples should be dated and annot
ated with short notes describing theirsignificance before they ar
e filed. If it is to be a formative portfolio, these work samples m
ust be saved over time. But whether it is to be aformative or su
mmative portfolio, it is important to remember that a portfolio i
s not a scrapbook. This collection of “everything” the childhas d
one is the raw material for the presentation portfolio. Artifacts c
an be collected in boxes, drawers, and file folders.
The next step is for teachers, who sometimes involve older pres
choolers, kindergarteners, or primary-
age children in the process, is todevelop a presentation portfolio
. This step requires them to select from the working portfolio th
e artifacts that most clearly demonstratewhat the child knows an
d is able to do, and that, when taken together, create a well-
rounded portrait of her learning, growth, anddevelopment. Child
ren can benefit from being involved in this selection process be
cause it is likely to make them appreciate what they haveaccom

46. plished and helps them to understand the purpose and process of
assessment. When children join in the selection of artifacts, the
ycan also help teachers draft the rationale or interpretation for e
ach item. They can consider:
· Does it show their best work?
· Do several artifacts taken together show growth over time?
·
Do selected artifacts illustrate their favorite classroom activities
, including their favorite classmates for work and play? (Mindes
& Jung,2015)
Presentation portfolios are often presented in a folder or binder
with page protectors; or documentation can be collected and org
anizedelectronically and presented using PowerPoint or other pr
esentation software that can incorporate pictures and video reco
rdings. Thedecision about whether to store and present materials
in hard copy or electronically needs to take into account teache
rs’ as well as families’access to and expertise in using digital to
ols (Feeney, Moravcik, & Nolte, 2016).
Teachers take the final step in developing children’s presentatio
n portfolios when they reflect and analyze what they have learn
ed abouteach child’s learning, growth, and development. They s
hould put each child’s progress into the context of development
al guidelines and/orappropriate learning standards; and identify
the child’s interests, strengths, and any areas for concern. This r
eflection and analysis areessential components of presentation p
ortfolios. They help families put the documentation included in
the portfolio into the context ofdevelopmentally appropriate exp
ectations for their children’s learning, growth, and development
.
As the program’s director, it is your responsibility to create a st
ructure and expectations for how the teachers in your program w
ill developand present portfolios. You may specify:
·
that teachers use a checklist to ensure that they keep documenta
tion across all developmental domains and addressing all approp
riatelearning standards on a regular basis.

47. · a timeline for collecting and interpreting artifacts.
·
that all portfolios include specific items such as drawings from
preschoolers’ first and last weeks of school.
·
that all portfolios include evidence of how children complete sp
ecific activities, such as a recording of their speech, a photogra
ph of ablock structure, or samples of their “writing” or drawing.
·
the topics that must be included in teachers’ portfolio reflection
s and summaries.
·
a schedule for conferences for teachers to present portfolios to f
amilies several times throughout the year (Feeney, Moravcik, &
Nolte,2016).
Figure 11.12Information and Documentation to Collect for Stud
ents’ Portfolios lists materials that teachers should collect to hel
p themdevelop portfolios to be used as a form of formative asse
ssment.
Tools for Structuring Documentation and Analysis
A number of commercially available tools designed to guide tea
chers’ documentation of children’s learning, growth, and growth
across alldevelopmental domains are briefly described below.
All of these assessments have demonstrated their reliability and
validity when used byteachers trained in their use. Your progra
m might be mandated to use one of these assessment systems if i
t is sponsored by a governmentalagency or receives other extern
al funding. You may, however, be in a position to lead the decis
ion-
making process to determine if one wouldbe the right fit for you
r program. We recommend that you review these brief descriptio
ns and visit each system’s informative website tofind additional
information to guide your selection.
Figure 11.12
Information and Documentation to Collect for Students’ Portfoli

48. os
·
Child Observation Records (COR). The Infant/Toddler Child Ob
servation Record (COR) (High/Scope Educational Research Fou
ndation,2002) together with the second edition of the Preschool
COR (High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2003) are
designed toassess children from 6 weeks to 6 years of age. Alth
ough they were developed to align with the HighScope curriculu
m, they can beused by programs implementing other developme
ntally appropriate approaches. Teachers complete the assessmen
t process two orthree times each year, beginning after children h
ave participated in their program for at least 6 weeks. Data can
easily be digested intoreports to share with families or to give t
eachers data organized in a number of ways to give them inform
ation about their entire class.The authors recommend that teache
rs participate in a COR training, which is available either in per
son or online, before using it intheir classrooms.
·
The Work Sampling System. The WSS (Meisels, Marsden, Jablo
n, & Dichtelmiller, 2013) is designed to assess the skills, knowl
edge,behavior, and accomplishments of children from 3 to 12 ye
ars of age three times a year using the information teachers coll
ect throughobservations, photographs, checklists, running recor
ds, portfolios, and children’s dictations. It is available in paper-
and-
pencil andonline versions. Teachers can use the data they gather
through the WSS to modify instruction and to generate reports
describingchildren’s learning and development in a variety of w
ays, including formats that are appropriate to share with childre
n’s families.Trainings in its use are conducted in many commun
ities, and the publisher regularly posts training webinars on its
website (Maccow,2015).
·
The Ounce Scale.3 The Ounce Scale (Meisels, Marsden, Dombr
o, Weston, & Jewkes, 2003) assesses the development of infants
andtoddlers from birth to 3½ years of age. Its purpose is to hel

49. p teachers and parents recognize and appreciate children’s rapid
growthduring this period and to help ensure that their daily inte
ractions with children reflect their knowledge of child developm
ent and whatthey know about a particular child’s developmental
trajectory. The Ounce has three essential components: the obser
vation record forcaregivers’ use; the family album, a small book
let for parents to keep mementoes and record their observations
of their child’sdevelopment; and the developmental profile, for
caregivers to compare individual children’s development with a
ccepted developmentalnorms. Reports can be easily generated fr
om data gathered through its use to describe individual children
’s growth as well as tosummarize the development of an entire c
lass of children. Trainings on the use of the Ounce are offered i
n many communities, andonline webinars provide overviews and
regular updates on its use (Maccow, 2014).
The WSS is a comprehensive observational assessment used fre
quently inprograms of early care and education. Watch this vide
o for an overview of theWSS process.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7BHFuf9eAY&t=38
·
Teaching Strategies GOLD®. Teaching Strategies GOLD® (Her
oman, Burts, Berke, & Bickart, 2010) is a performance-
based assessmentsystem for use with children from infancy thro
ugh kindergarten. It was developed to accompany the Creative C
urriculum; aligns withthe Head Start Early Learning Framework
, Common Core State Standards, and each state’s early learning
guidelines; and can be usedby any program using a development
ally appropriate curricular approach. Teaching Strategies GOLD
® is appropriate to use to assesstypically developing children as
well as those who have disabilities and those who are English l
anguage learners. It also offersassessments of Spanish language
and literacy development. Assessments are to be completed thre
e times annually, but teachers andcaregivers are encouraged to c
ollect artifacts and observation notes to document children’s de
velopment on an ongoing basis.Training is available on-
site and online and the publishers host periodic online webinars.

50. ·
The Early Learning Scale. The Early Learning Scale (ELS) (Rile
y-
Ayers, Boyd, & Frede, 2008) was developed by researchers at th
eNational Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) in res
ponse to early educators’ request for a comprehensive standards
-
basedassessment system. It is based on states’ early learning gui
delines, is designed to assess what children from 3 to 5 years ol
d know andare able to do, and can be used in classrooms using a
variety of curricular approaches (Rile-
Ayers, Frede, & Jung, 2010). Training isavailable either in pers
on or online.
Directors must not only determine if one of these assessment to
ols is appropriate for use in their program, but they must also co
nsider thecost of its adoption. Purchasing materials and arrangin
g for the needed staff development can be very expensive, but c
an be excellentinvestments if the assessments are used not only
to identify what children know and are able to do, but also to gu
ide teachers’ efforts toadapt instruction to meet children’s chan
ging needs and to keep families informed about their children’s
learning and development.
11.3 SHARING CHILD ASSESSMENT INFORMATION
Just as it is important for teachers to collect and interpret data il
lustrating what children know and are able to do, it is also essen
tial thatthey schedule regular opportunities to gain insights abou
t the children with whom they work from the children’s families
. Teachers canencourage informal two-
way communication with families by writing frequent notes and
emails about classroom happenings and havingphone conversati
ons to share insights and respond to families’ questions and con
cerns. Teachers must also schedule regular conferenceswith chil
dren’s families on a regular basis, however, to give them opport

51. unities to systematically share evidence of children’s strengths
andneeds.
Most programs schedule individual conferences with members o
f each child’s family on a regular basis, typically two or three ti
mes a year.Conferences give teachers and parents opportunities
to discuss children’s progress, share any concerns about what is
happening at homeor at school, and set goals for the future. The
y also help to build relationships of mutual trust and respect. Te
achers should prepare foreach conference by creating a list of ta
lking points that they want to be certain to address. If formative
portfolios are the centerpiece of theprogram’s child assessment
plan, teachers should use the documentation they include as wel
l as her reflections and analysis as theframework for parent conf
erences. It is important to put families at ease, providing them
with plenty of opportunities to ask questions,share observations,
and express any concerns both as they review the documentatio
n presented in the portfolio and as a response to theteacher’s an
alysis and reflection. When addressing concerns, teachers shoul
d plan to start by describing a strength, then addressing theconc
ern, taking care to end all parent–
teacher conferences on a positive note by summarizing any plan
s to follow up with promisedinformation or to answer any questi
ons that could not be addressed during the conference.
Parents enjoy seeing artifacts showing what their children can d
o.
Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education
Directors play an important role in supporting teachers during t
hese conferences. They can give teachers feedback on the prese
ntationportfolios they have developed and can provide teachers
opportunities to practice their presentations to parents. They sh
ould also plan toparticipate in conferences when teachers are pl
anning to raise a sensitive issue, such as recommending that a c
hild receive additionalscreenings or evaluations because of a po
ssible developmental or learning delay. A director’s objective p
erspective can help smooth thesepotentially emotional discussio

52. ns for parents and teachers alike. Directors should also stress to
teachers how important it is that they neverlabel a child’s behav
ior or use a term that they are not qualified to apply. For exampl
e, a teacher should never state that she thinks a child ishyperacti
ve. She can, however, share her anecdotal and running records t
hat describe a child who is always on the go and can sit for just
afew minutes, seldom long enough to see a task through to its c
ompletion.
A Better Way
As a new director, Grace soon realized that documenting childre
n’s learning, growth, and development and using that data to ass
esschildren’s progress, inform instruction, and to share insights
about children’s development and learning with families, was m
any teachers’most pressing professional development need. At t
he next staff meeting, she asked teachers to reflect on how they
documented theirobservations of what children know and are abl
e to do and to consider how they used what they learned for asse
ssing children’s progress, foradapting their instruction to meet c
hildren’s needs, and for describing children’s strengths and nee
ds to their families.
It became apparent that all of the center’s teachers faced the sa
me challenges. The first was having the time to systematically d
ocumentchildren’s learning, growth, and development; another
was that they lacked expertise interpreting their observations in
the context ofdevelopmental guidelines and their state’s early le
arning guidelines. The teachers were enthusiastic about Grace’s
willingness to help themrefine their observation and documentat
ion skills and her offer to help them interpret the documentation
they had collected. Grace asked forvolunteers to join her in dev
eloping a school-
wide child assessment plan. She was pleased that several of the
most experienced teachersoffered to contribute their time, effort
, and expertise to this project, and she felt certain the center wa
s on track to implementing aperformance-based school-
wide child assessment plan that would benefit children, families
, and teachers.

53. Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
In this chapter we have stressed how important it is that teacher
s keep detailed and comprehensive records describing children’s
experiences in your program as well as what they have learned a
bout what children know and are able to do. As you and your sta
ff collectthis information about children and their families, you
should be aware of how the federal Family Educational Rights a
nd Privacy Act(FERPA) safeguards the privacy of these records.
All programs receiving federal funds must abide by FERPA; ho
wever, it is advisable that all programs, regardless of the source
of theirfunding, be aware of and adhere to its guidelines. Progr
ams must notify families of their rights under FERPA. It permit
s schools to sharestudents’ names’ address and phone numbers i
n a directory, but must give parents the opportunity to opt out o
f being included. These areadditional relevant provisions of this
law, and you can find additional information by visiting the FE
RPA website hosted by the U.S.Department of Education:
·
Program officials must notify parents and guardians of their FE
RPA rights.
·
Parents or legal guardians of children who attend a program rec
eiving federal funding may see information in the program’s off
icialfiles, including any test scores or assessment records, healt
h records, psychological reports, notes on behavioral problems,i
nformation about the family’s background, attendance records, a
nd all other records except personal notes made by a member of
thestaff solely for their own use.
·
Parents or legal guardians have the right to request that a school
correct any records which they believe are inaccurate or mislea
ding.
·
Generally, programs must have written permission from a child’
s parents or legal guardians before releasing any information ab
outthe child’s education; however, schools may share records wi

54. thout consent with:
· another school to which the student in transferring.
· accrediting organizations.
· to comply with a judge’s orders or subpoena.
·
Programs must keep written records indicating who has seen or
requested to see a child’s records.
·
Parents or legal guardians have the right to know where records
are kept and which program personnel are responsible for them.
·
Unless a divorced parent is prohibited by law from having any c
ontact with the child, divorced parents have equal access to offi
cialrecords.
11.4 KINDERGARTEN READINESS ASSESSMENTS
The federal Enhanced Assessment Grants program that began in
2002 and the Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge Grant p
rogramthat began in 2011 required states receiving those awards
to develop and implement kindergarten readiness assessments.
Theseaccountability mandates were part of national efforts focu
sed on improving the quality of preschool programming and acc
urately assessingwhat young children know and are able to do (
Gerwertz, 2014). Creating useful kindergarten readiness assess
ments has proven to be amore difficult task than policy makers
might first have imaged. There is no consensus definition of “ki
ndergarten readiness”; nor is thereagreement about how it shoul
d be evaluated or how states, communities, schools and teachers
should use the data they generate. For thosereasons it is not sur
prising that states’ kindergarten readiness assessments:
· use different definitions for readiness.
·
differ in their focus (e.g., is the child ready for school, is the sc
hool ready for all children, does the family support school readi
ness, oris the community contributing to children’s school readi

55. ness?).
·
use their assessments in different ways (e.g., to support instructi
on, or to determine if children are ready to be successful inkind
ergarten).
·
address different developmental domains (e.g., some assessment
s measure academic readiness such as children’s knowledge of t
healphabet or numbers, others assess the development of the wh
ole child including social and emotional domains).
·
are administered at different times (e.g., at the end of preschool
in the spring or in the first weeks of kindergarten in the fall).
· take different forms (some are on-
demand tests, others rely on teachers’ observations including rat
ing scales and checklists, and insome instances they combine se
veral assessment strategies (Walker & Feeney, 2014).
These factors reduce the usefulness of kindergarten readiness as
sessments and make it difficult to gauge states’ success in prepa
ringchildren for school.
Advocates warn against the implementation of high-
stakes developmentally inappropriate kindergarten readiness ass
essments and advisethat any instrument used to measure childre
n’s kindergarten readiness must be used for its intended purpose
and align with learningstandards and instructional goals while s
atisfying accepted levels of reliability, validity, and standardiza
tion (Snow, 2011). Appropriateassessments must also reflect chi
ldren’s and families’ language and culture. Teachers must not “t
each to the test” or make them the focus ofthe curriculum by ov
eremphasizing academic skills that the children they teach are u
nlikely to be ready to master.
As the program administrator, you need to be informed about w
hether your state assesses children’s kindergarten readiness, and
, if it does,it would be wise to learn about the test children may
be required to take when they leave your program. It is importa
nt, however, to avoidthe temptation of coaching your program’s

56. teachers to let this assessment determine how and what they tea
ch. They may be responsiblefor addressing your state’s early lea
rning guidelines that describe what young children should know
and be able to do, but it is thedirector’s responsibility to suppo
rt their efforts to keep instruction hands-
on, meaningful, and linguistically and culturally relevant to thec
hildren they teach.
Application Activity
Investigate your state’s (or a neighboring state’s) kindergarten r
eadiness assessment. Identify its definition of “readiness,” thep
urpose of the assessment, its focus (i.e., the child, the school, th
e family, or the community), the developmental domains it addr
esses,when it is administered, and its form. Based on what you
have learned, explain why you believe it is, or is not, an approp
riateapproach to assessing children’s kindergarten readiness.
SUMMARY
Quality programs of early care and education make observing, d
ocumenting, and assessing children’s learning, growth, and deve
lopment aroutine part of every day. These processes are not sim
ple or easy to implement, however. They depend on a well-
prepared staff anddirectors who can model, teach, and coach tea
chers to use observation and documentation to assess children in
developmentally, culturally,and linguistically appropriate ways
.
·
Contrast the characteristics of appropriate and inappropriate app
roaches to assessing young children.
Young children should be assessed in “ethical, appropriate, vali
d and reliable … developmentally appropriate, culturally and lin
guisticallyresponsive” ways (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). A
ppropriate assessment is imbedded into children’s ordinary dail
y activities, incorporatesinformation from a variety of sources,

57. and is used to help teachers respond to children’s interests and
needs. Appropriate assessmentprocesses also involve families a
nd keep them informed about their children’s learning, growth,
and development.
On-demand high-stakes pencil-and-
paper tests are inappropriate ways to assess young children. The
y are stressful and frustrating. What’smore, they fail to provide
an accurate picture of children’s knowledge and skills because t
hey violate what we know about how theydemonstrate what chil
dren know and are able to do (Walker & Feeney, 2014).
·
Identify performance assessment strategies that are appropriate
for documenting what children know and are able to do.
Authentic performance assessments are based on teachers’ obser
vations of what children know and are able to do in the context
ofordinary classroom interactions and events. Anecdotal records
and running records are two open-
ended authentic assessments, and eventsampling and time sampl
ing are two focused authentic assessment strategies appropriate
for use with young children. Checklists andrating scales are stru
ctured performance assessments that can be used to keep track o
f children’s attainment of developmental milestonesor mastery o
f specific skills. Additional forms of performance assessments i
nclude interviews and samples of children’s work that are firstc
ollected into a working portfolio and then refined into a present
ation portfolio.
·
Describe some ways teachers of young children share their insig
hts about what they know and are able to do with their families.
Regular notes, phone calls, and emails are informal ways teache
rs can share information about children’s development and learn
ing withtheir families. Teachers should also schedule formal co
nferences with children’s families on a regular basis to share ins
ights about theirchildren’s progress and to set goals for their fut
ure learning. Portfolios that include the teacher’s reflections an
d analysis make an effectivecenterpiece for parent–

58. teacher conferences and give teachers opportunities to talk with
families about what is happening at home and atschool.
·
Discuss the origins of kindergarten readiness assessments, the c
hallenges faced by those tasked with their development, and fac
tors that make itdifficult to compare states’ results.
States that were awarded federal Enhanced Assessment and Rac
e to the Top Early Learning Challenge Grants were required to d
evelopand implement kindergarten readiness assessments. This
has proven to be a difficult assignment because there is not an a
greed-
upondefinition of “readiness.” The resulting assessments differ i
n their focus, are used in different ways, assess different develo
pmentaldomains, are administered at different times of the year,
and take different forms. These factors reduce their usefulness
and make itdifficult to gauge states’ success preparing children
for school.
USEFUL WEBSITES
Defending the Early Years
This advocacy group focuses on efforts to support the rights and
needs of young children. Its leaders are among the most respect
edexperts in early childhood education. They provide guidance
about how to respond to inappropriate standards, assessments, a
ndclassroom practices.
FairTest: The National Center for Fair and Open Testing
This organization is committed to promoting fair, open, valid as
sessment practices that benefit children, families, and schools. I
t works toeducate the public about issues related to testing pract
ices from kindergarten through college admission, stressing the
importance of usingtests appropriately and evaluating students a
nd schools with data collected over time.
National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER)
NIEER’s research addresses a wide variety of topics of interest
to early childhood educators, including child assessment and ass
essments ofthe programs they attend.
Child Trends

59. Child Trends conducts research on topics of importance to early
childhood educators. It takes a “whole child” approach to its w
ork withchildren from infancy through the school years, with an
emphasis on exploring ways to increase children’s chances for
being successful inschool and beyond.
TO REFLECT
1.
It is essential that assessment practices used with vulnerable yo
ung children are ethical. Using the NAEYC Code of Ethical Con
duct(Appendix 2), evaluate the extent to which your center’s ass
essment and evaluation plan might be considered appropriate. If
yourcenter does not yet have a child evaluation plan, design a s
ample plan that would be considered ethical.
2.
The director of an early childhood center decided that authentic
assessment took too much time and that administering a standar
dizedliteracy assessment in the pre-
K year would show the quality of her program if the children sc
ored well. What concerns would youshare with this director on t
he use of one standardized assessment as a reflection of childre
n’s learning and her program’s overallquality?
1 The terms observational assessment and performance assessme
nt, sometimes called “classroom assessment,” are often usedinte
rchangeably when discussing child assessment strategies. We wi
ll use them interchangeably here.
2 Children’s speech is not always clear or accurate. Observers s
hould record what they heard, not what they believe the child m
eant. Forexample, if a child says “I’s needs that k-
on” the observer should record that utterance, not “I need that c
rayon,” which is what the childprobably meant.
3 This tool is named The Ounce Scale because funding for its de
velopment was provided by the Ounce of Prevention Fund based
in Chicago.