Running head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON WORKPLACE DIVERSITY .docx

Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON
WORKPLACE DIVERSITY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON WORKPLACE
DIVERSITY 8
Austin Tuoyo Comment by Ryan: Hi Austin! I look forward to
reading your essay.
English Composition 11
April 29, 2020
Annotated Bibliography
Annotated Bibliography on Workplace Diversity
Meir Shimla. (22nd August 2018). Why workplace diversity is
so important and why it is so difficult to achieve. Comment by
Ryan: Place the author's last name first followed by his or her
first initial.
See the examples on the following page:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa
_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_author_authors.htm
l

Comment by Ryan: What additional information could be
included in this entry to indicate the type of source and where it
can be found?
See the examples on the pages linked below.
_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodi
cals.html
_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_electronic_sources.
html
As far as the article is concerned, diversity offers an individual
or an organization a broad range of talents, and these talents do
not belong to any form of ethnicity within the organization.
Instead, the broad range of talents mainly emanates from
various sources, and the people also have an opportunity of
practicing their various styles and leadership prowess. Diversity
in the workplace also means the increased and improved
performance of an organization due to the aspect of bringing
together various minds of the people. However, despite
diversity being a key and important thing for a firm, it must be
realigned with the goals of the firm so that it may be successful
and have a meaning to the firm. Dealing with many people is
also not an easy thing due to the differences such as people
exhibit. Comment by Ryan: Generally, lines aren't indented in
annotations, and they aren't split into paragraphs. Comment by
Ryan: How do you plan to use the information in this source in
your argument? It's not entirely clear if this text summarizes the
source, explains how you will use it, or both. Review the way
that the Sample Touchstone 2.2 presents this information. The
Sample Touchstone 2.2 can be found attached to the Touchstone
2.2 page in our course.
The strategy that was highly helpful and important when
looking for credible sources for this undertaking entailed the

use of keywords and phrases like diversity and workplace. The
strategy also involved using words like an organization and the
need for having a functional workplace. The notable difficulties
encountered included the availability of numerous sources, and
this created the need for selecting the best from those sources.
The appropriate way of overcoming the challenge was by
selecting the most recent articles and those that provided the
required information. Comment by Ryan: The reflection
questions aren't part of each individual annotation. Instead,
place them on a separate page after your annotated
bibliography.
Vaibhav Joshi. (25th October 2018). The importance of having
diversity in the workplace. Comment by Ryan: It looks like
this entry is missing a piece. Where can this document be
found?
Regarding this article, hiring people from the diverse pool of
potential employees has benefits for the company as well as the
employees themselves. The credible source reveals that the most
benefits enjoyed including the better performance of an
organization, improved problem solving, and better business
decisions. Employees benefit from interacting between
themselves, and the work is highly simplified as individuals
work together as they help one another. The other benefit the
employees enjoy is enhancing their skills due to the aspect of
learning from one another and the ability of a person to be
assisted in case there is a need for help. The strategies
employed while looking for this source entailed using keywords
in conjunction with the Boolean operators such as AND and OR
in the search. The major challenge encountered included the
selection and matching keywords with these operators that were
important for facilitating the search. The challenge was dealt
with by making a nice selection of these keywords and
operators, and this made the search successful. Comment by
Ryan: You've done a good job summarizing the material in this
source.
Ankita Sexena. (2014). Workforce diversity: A key to

improving productivity. A journal of Procedia economics and
finance, vol. 11, pages 76-85. Comment by Ryan: This looks
like a great source!
Your capitalization of the title of the article is correct!
However, in the name of a publication, capitalize the first letter
of each important word and each word of 4 letters or more.
See the examples here:
_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodi
cals.html
As far as the author of the article is concerned, workplace
diversity is a key aspect of enhancing the performance and
productivity of the organization. The reason that makes
diversity to improve the productivity of the firm is that different
people work together in a group, and various skills and
competencies are brought together, and this enhances the
productivity of a firm. The article also reveals that this
diversity involves similarities as well as differences between
various groups of employees, and these range from cultural
backgrounds to age and gender, among other major
considerations. The other considerations include the abilities
and disabilities of the people since no two individuals may be
alike. Therefore, when these aspects are brought together, the
productivity of a firm is enhanced, and people also benefit from
one another. The most helpful strategy that was applied in
search of this source included using major words and phrases to
search the article. The major difficulty experienced involved the
presence of various sources, and this was addressed by making
an appropriate search of the article.
Josh Greenberg. (2014). Diversity in the Workplace: Benefits,
challenges, and solutions.
As far as the author of this article is concerned, workplace
diversity has various benefits as well as challenges, and also it
has a notable solution. An organization realizes great benefits,

especially in terms like being successful and developing
competitive strategies of operating due to the presence of
different people within the organization. The notable challenges
include the need for handling the different individuals that have
certain differences and points of view. The other challenge may
be realized where a firm has to realign this diversity with the
long-term goals of a firm. The most important strategy that was
applied in search of the article involved engaging the various
online sources, and this facilitated the attainment of the article.
The difficulty that was experienced entailed the presence of
numerous articles, and this created the need for developing an
appropriate way of eliminating some of the articles to remain
with the most important.
Kim Abreu. (2015). The myriad benefits of diversity within the
workplace.
The author of this article mainly focuses on the aspect of
diversity from an entrepreneurial point of view. The individual
reveals that one of the myriad benefits that a firm gets from
practicing diversity in a place of work is that it reflects the
ideal picture of an organization and also portrays an important
picture of the firm, especially by making the employees feel to
be secure in the firm. The other benefit that a firm gets from
practicing diversity in the place of work is developing the
ability to get fresh ideas from the employees, and this is one of
the key benefits that a firm realizes. During the search of this
article, the most important strategy employed was using
keywords and phrases in search of the article. The challenge
encountered was the selection of important words that would
facilitate the acquisition of the articles, and it was addressed by
carrying out several searches to obtain the best source.
Gene Demby. (2015). Diversity is rightly criticized as an empty
buzzword. So how can we make it work?
As far as the author of the article is concerned, diversity may be
viewed as being a corporate buzzword and which lacks meaning
and significance. The individual feels and sees diversity in the
place of work as merely a name or a title since it is hard to

manage the different categories of people within a firm. Based
on the argument of the article, firms have to support the
different employees they hire because of all the differences that
people possess. The other point of argument against the aspect
of diversity is that having different people in the firm creates a
lot of resistance. The firms also have to deal with the large
burden of skepticism that different individuals tend to bring
about. In search of this article, the most important and helpful
strategy was by engaging in a vigorous search for online sites so
that I could get the article. The biggest challenge encountered
included the presence of several articles, some of which were
not relevant to the intended area of searching. However, the
challenge was dealt with by selecting the most relevant and
current articles.
Sophia Kerby and Crosby Burns. (2016). The top ten economic
facts of diversity in the place of work.
Regarding this article and its authors, the individuals have
related workplace diversity to the aspect of the economy. The
authors feel that a firm that embraces workplace diversity
acquires economic benefits, and this made the authors of the
article conclude that diversity plays an essential and significant
role in creating a strong and inclusive economy and the one that
will last for some time. The key conclusions of the writers are
that diversity drives economic growth and propels individuals
towards becoming economically stable. Selecting from a large
pool of individuals also leads to the acquisition of the most
competent individuals. The application of keywords and phrases
was the most helpful strategy in the acquisition of this article.
The challenge encountered was obtaining the right words and
terms that would aid the search of the article. However, it was
addressed by trying several words and terms until the right
article was acquired. Comment by Ryan: Place the
reflection questions and answers on a separate page below your
annotated bibliography. Note that the reflection questions in
this Touchstone refer to your annotated bibliography as a whole
and not to each individual annotation.

Touchstone 2.2 Rubric and Feedback
Rubric Category
Feedback
Score (acceptable, needs improvement etc.)
Annotated Bibliography
You are on the right track with your annotations! Most of your
annotations do a good job summarizing their respective sources.
However, your plan for using your sources is unclear. At times,
you seem to hint at and imply your plan for a source, but
including more straightforward explanations would improve
your annotations.
13/20
Quality of Sources
Based on your summaries of the sources, many of them do
appear to be high quality. Unfortunately, many of the reference
list entries seem to be missing pieces that would allow the
reader to locate the sources. Make sure to review APA-style
reference list entries. The scholarly journal article that you've
included looks like a strong source. Work on locating additional

sources similar to that article. Scholarly journal articles can be
located via your school's library or Google Scholar
(https://scholar.google.com/).
10/15
Style
The writing style in this document is generally effective
although some sections could be clarified.
4/5
Conventions
There are relatively few errors in writing conventions in this
document outside of the missing APA elements noted above.
4/5
Reflection
You've done a good job reflecting on the process of locating
these sources! Remember that the answers to the reflection
questions are not part of the assignment itself. Instead, they
should be placed below the assignment on a separate page.
5/5
Overall Score and Feedback: 36/50
Hi Austin! You're on the right track with your annotations.
You've included effective summaries of your sources in this
document, but your explanations of your plans to use each
source are somewhat unclear. Work on locating the missing
pieces to your APA-style reference list entries noted above. I
look forward to reading more!
Cohen c12.tex V2 - 07/22/2013 3:55pm Page 333

12
Community Education
Extending College Services and Training
Community education, the broadest of all functions,
embracesadult and continuing education (often called lifelong
learn-
ing) as well as numerous other activities not part of traditional
college programs. It may take the form of classes for credit or
not for credit, varying in duration from one hour to a weekend,
several days, or an entire school term. Community education
may
be sponsored by the college, by some other agency using
college
facilities, or jointly by the college and some outside group. It
may
be provided on campus, off campus, or through television, the
newspapers, radio, or the Internet. It may center on education or
recreation, on programs for personal interest or for the benefit
of
the entire community.
The various forms of community education usually are fully
supported by participant fees, grants, or contracts with external
organizations. Participants tend to have short-term goals rather
than degree or certificate objectives. They are usually older
than
the traditional eighteen- to twenty-four-year-old students, and
their
range of prior school achievement is more varied: Many of them
already hold baccalaureate or graduate degrees; many more have
never completed high school. They usually attend the course or
activities intermittently and part time. They have their own
reasons

for attending, and program managers design activities
accordingly.
Found in the earliest community colleges, these activities were
carried along for decades on the periphery of the occupational
and
liberal arts functions. They expanded greatly in the 1970s,
slowed
333
Cohen, Arthur M., et al. The American Community College,
John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook
Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID
=1366278.
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334 THE AMERICAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE
in the 1980s as college services came under closer scrutiny from
external budget allocators, and grew again in the 1990s as
college
leaders continually sought new avenues for funding services to
particular community groups.
This chapter reviews the rationale for and scope of community
education, emphasizing the most popular activities: continuing
edu-
cation; adult basic education; and community services. It
considers
also the perennial problems of funding, assessing effects, and
validating these services that fall outside the traditional
collegiate
offerings.
Rationale
Beginning with Jesse Bogue, who popularized the term
community
college in the 1950s, and continuing with the American
Association
of Community and Junior College’s (AACJC) 1988 Commission

on the Future of Community Colleges report, Building
Communities
(AACJC, 1988), the leaders of the association have been
vigorous
in their support for community education. Edmund J. Gleazer,
Jr.,
president of the association from 1958 until 1981, wrote exten-
sively in favor of education for direct community development,
the expansion of the colleges beyond their role in postsecondary
education, and continuing education as the main purpose. He
emphasized the community, rather than the college, in the
institu-
tion’s title. To him, it was a resource to be used by individuals
throughout their lifetime and by the general public as an agency
assisting with community issues. Gleazer’s primary contention
was
that “the community college is uniquely qualified to become the
nexus of a community learning system, relating organizations
with
educational functions into a complex sufficient to respond to the
population’s learning needs” (1980, p. 10).
Other commentators have favored community education as
a dominant function. Myran traced the community education
concept through university extension services and the adult and
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Community Education 335
continuing education offered by the public schools for the past
century. These institutions were able to provide educational ser-
vices to individuals and groups without being wed to traditional
academic forms, such as credits, semesters, and grades. In
Myran’s
view, the community-based college was eminently equipped to
provide such services because of its ability “to coordinate
planning

with other community agencies, its interest in participatory
learn-
ing experiences as well as cognitive ones, the wide range of
ages
and life goals represented in its student body, and the
alternative
instructional approaches it arranges to make learning accessible
to
various community groups” (1969, p. 5).
The Commission on the Future of Community Colleges urged
the colleges to coalesce around the community education
concept:
The community college, at its best, can be a center for
problem-solving in adult illiteracy or the education of
the disabled. It can be a center for leadership training,
too. It can also be the place where education and busi-
ness leaders meet to talk about the problems of displaced
workers. It can bring together agencies to strengthen ser-
vices for minorities, working women, single parent heads
of households, and unwed teenage parents. It can coor-
dinate efforts to provide day care, transportation, and
financial aid. The community college can take the lead
in long-range planning for community development.
And it can serve as the focal point for improving the
quality of life in the inner city. (AACJC, 1988, p. 35)
This seems like a large order, but the commission was dedicated
to fostering the colleges as centers of community life. Its report
began with the premise that “the term community should be
defined
not only as a region to be served, but also as a climate to be
created”
(p. 3), and many of its seventy-seven recommendations followed
from that theme.

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What has stimulated these calls for completely revised
structures? What has made these advocates so concerned with
community building and noncampus forms? One clue is
provided
by the nature of the colleges’ political and fiscal support. They
draw minuscule funds from private donors and have few federal
or foundation-supported research contracts. Instead, they
depend
almost entirely on public monies awarded in a political arena.
And here they have difficulty competing with the more
prestigious
universities for support in legislatures dominated by university
alumni. They seem to be turning to their local constituents,
seeking links with taxpayers at the grassroots level.
Community education proponents foster activities different
from the traditional courses taught by regular faculty members,
say-
ing that these are archaic, restrictive, discriminatory, and
narrowly
focused. They seem to feel that doing away with the traditional
forms in which education has been conducted will inevitably
lead
to a higher quality of service. In their desire to eschew elitism,
they
articulate populist, egalitarian goals. The more diverse the
popula-
tion served and the less traditionally based the program, the
better.
The overarching concept of community education is certainly
justifiable; few would quibble with the intent of an institution
to

upgrade its entire community rather than merely provide a
limited
array of courses. However, the total seems less than the sum of
its
parts. The components of community education must be
addressed
separately to understand its scope and effect. Are all segments
of
equal value? Who decides what shall be presented, and who
shall
pay for it?
Categories
In this chapter, we subdivide community education as follows:
• Lifelong learning: Intermittent education designed for
people who have either completed or interrupted their
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formal studies and who seek to develop their potential
or resolve their problems.
• Adult basic education: Basic skills instruction for adults
who function at less than a high school level.
Instruction may include English as a Second Language
(ESL), General Education Development (GED)
preparation, and literacy programming.
• Continuing occupational/workforce education: Any type of
noncredit instruction or training designed to upgrade
job skills or prepare one to enter an occupation.
Courses may be tailored for a specific job or industry, or
they may have broader applicability.

• Entrepreneurship training: Courses provided specifically
to assist entrepreneurs in the tasks necessary to
establish and run a new business.
• Community services: The broadest term—whatever
services an institution provides that are acceptable to
the people in its service area, such as daycare, radio or
television stations, and recreational activities.
• Community-based education: Programs designed by the
people served and developed for the good of the
community, including cooperative arrangements with
local clubs or other educational organizations.
• Correctional education: Credit and noncredit education
and training provided to inmates.
Conceptually, community education includes elements of occu-
pational, developmental, and liberal arts education.
Occupational
education is organized around programs that prepare people for
the
job market, whereas community education includes short
courses
offered for occupational upgrading or relicensure. Liberal arts
and
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transfer education is directed toward preparing people for
academic
degrees, whereas community education may include regular col-
lege courses taken by adults, the awarding of college credit for
experience, and noncredit courses taught at the college level—
for
example, conversational foreign languages. Developmental edu-

cation is designed to remedy the defects in student learning
occasioned by prior school failure, whereas community educa-
tion may include adult basic studies that focus on literacy, high
school completion, and general education development. Some
ele-
ments of community education—programs for the disabled and
for
prison inmates, for example—may cut across all three of the
other
functions. However, different elements in community education
relate also to providing noneducative services to the
community. In
this category would fall the opening of college facilities for
public
functions and a variety of recreational services—the community
service notion. As an example, residents in rural areas may find
the only readily accessible arts and cultural activities to be
those
presented through their local colleges.
Enrollments
The variations in definition and categories make it difficult to
esti-
mate the magnitude of community education. Enrollment
figures,
especially, are unreliable; they are usually understated except
when
being pronounced by advocates intent on showing that the col-
leges serve nearly everyone in their district. Because degree-
credit
courses are funded at higher, more consistent levels than most
of community education, the tendency was to classify as much
as possible as degree credit, thus inflating those numbers at the
expense of community education enrollment figures. However,
as

the states placed limits on the number of credit hours for which
they
would reimburse the colleges, that practice was curtailed.
Actually,
the total community education enrollment would far exceed the
combined enrollment in the career-certificate and transfer-
degree
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programs if people who enrolled in college-credit classes but
with-
out degree aspirations were classified instead as adult education
students. But enrollees in noncredit courses and participants in
community service activities are those typically counted.
The enrollment figures that are available are worth recounting.
Community education enrollments (in service, recreational, and
life enrichment programs that are not part of for-credit
academic
programs) reported in the American Association of Community
and Junior Colleges Directories ranged from three to four
million
per year during the late 1970s and early 1980s. However, the
introduction to the 1980 directory states that “because these
programs vary in length, with no clearly defined registration
periods,
it is difficult to get a clear picture … Some institutions do not
routinely collect enrollment figures from community education
students” (p. 3). Extrapolating from the 877 institutions that did
report student head count in noncredit activities in 1984–85, the
compilers of the directory estimated that 4,848,065 participated
nationwide. The AACC has since stopped reporting these data
because of the imprecision of the figures.
Data difficulties make it impossible to compare community edu-

cation enrollments between states as well. Some state reports
include adult basic education or participation in recreational
activities (or both), and others do not. Furthermore, head-count
enrollments in community education usually include duplicate
enrollments occasioned when the same person participates in
more
than one noncredit course or activity during the year.
Nonetheless,
state enrollments are useful as an estimate of the magnitude and
types of functions included in the community education
definition.
In Florida, the community colleges have major responsibility
for offering courses to individuals aged sixteen and older who
had
legally left the lower schools. In 2010–11, 52,219 were enrolled
in adult basic education, 2,452 in lifelong learning, and 57,761
in
recreation and leisure (Florida Department of Education, 2012).
That same year, Mississippi had 19,238 students enrolled in
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adult basic education and continuing education courses as well
as GED and literacy programs. An additional 76,541 students
were involved in noncredit workforce education (Mississippi
Community College Board, 2011). In California, 347,195
students
participated in basic skills courses offered by the state’s 112
community colleges in 2010–11 (California Community
Colleges
Chancellor’s Office, 2012).
There is no question that the demand for non–degree-related
courses is high across all segments of the population. The NCES
estimated that 44 percent of the population aged sixteen or

older participated in adult education activities in 2005, up from
40 percent in 1995. Work-related and personal interest courses
attracted the highest percentage of adults (27 and 21 percent,
respectively, for each activity).
A New York Times poll conducted in spring 2012 asked a
nationwide random sample of adults if they had gone back to
school in the previous five years. Of the 23 percent who said
they had, most had done so to gain training for jobs. Of that
group, 75 percent said they had completed the training or were
still enrolled, and 29 percent that it had helped them get a new
job or promotion. Nearly all responded that the training was a
good investment of time and money (Connelly, Stefan, and
Kayda,
2012).
Scope
The scope of community education is reflected in documents
from
colleges around the country. Lifelong learning alone covers a
broad
area. The concept describes an area of service that knows no
limits
on client age, prior educational attainment, interest, or intent,
and the scope of offerings is limited only by staff energies and
imagination and by the funds available.
Lifelong Learning
A Ford Foundation Study reported by Gittell (1985) found
many low-income adults involved in community education and
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concluded that community-based colleges provide an important

option for many people who are not served elsewhere. Whatever
the financial circumstances, many groups of people are involved
because community education addresses a wide variety of con-
cerns, including child care, substance abuse, senior citizen
services,
student achievement and school effectiveness, community pride
and support for schools, unemployment and underemployment,
literacy and diploma and degree completion, and community
eco-
nomic development. When sufficient funding can be obtained,
programs for special groups are provided: women; displaced
work-
ers; gerontology programs for both the general public and
providers
of direct services to older adults; retired persons; single
parents; and
displaced homemakers.
In general, adult and noncredit education serve an especially
versatile population: parents; older adults and those who are
dis-
abled or homeless; out-of-school youth and dropouts;
unemployed
and underemployed people; adults receiving public assistance
and
welfare recipients; persons involved with the penal system; and
new
immigrants. More than 750 colleges participate in the
Servicemem-
bers Opportunity Colleges (SOCs), which allows members of
the
armed forces and their families to enroll in college-level
programs
at community and state colleges and universities. It features
flexible
access to higher education for members of the armed forces who

find difficulty in regular attendance because of their geographic
mobility. Service members may earn transferable credits toward
degrees, and academic residency expectations are limited to no
more than 25 percent of degree requirements.
Adult Basic Education
Continuing education programs also serve other special groups.
Adultbasic education (ABE),centering on basic
skillsdevelopment
for functionally illiterate adults, is a major component. In 2007,
over 135,000 students, 17 percent of the total served by the
North
Carolina Community College System (2007b), were in ABE.
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Noncredit ESL and GED preparation courses are often
categorized
as part of ABE, as both provide literacy and less-than-college-
level
instruction. In the Illinois colleges, 8,811 students were in
ABE,
5,001 participated in adult secondary education programs, and
22,215 were enrolled in ESL classes (Illinois Community
College
Board, 2012). Milwaukee Area Technical College (Wisconsin)
is
one of many that helps migrant and seasonal farmworkers and
their
dependents obtain GED degrees and either gain employment or
continue their education in postsecondary institutions outside
the
agricultural setting.
Entrepreneurship Training

Establishing a small business has always been a natural
sequence
for some graduates of community college career programs. In
1980,
a congressional act created Small Business Development
Centers
(SBDCs), a venture funded jointly by the federal government,
the
U.S. Small Business Administration, and state and local public
and private agencies. These centers, in many cases housed in
community colleges, were designed to help individuals
interested
in starting a business and those who already had businesses but
required management assistance.
Carmichael (1991) discussed the steps in establishing SBDCs
and described Lane Community College (Oregon), which had
the first community college–based network in the nation, and
Bergen County Community College (New Jersey), which had
one of the first pilot programs funded by the Small Business
Administration. Other exemplary programs include Montgomery
Community College (Maryland) and several other colleges in
the
Washington, D.C., metropolitan area.
The difference between entrepreneurship training and small-
business development, on one hand, and workforce training, on
the other, lies in program centers and in people for whom the
programs are intended. The content of entrepreneurship
training,
designed to assist people starting their own businesses, ranges
from

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developing a business plan to obtaining licenses and loans to
employing other people. A small number of colleges are
involved
in business incubation: the practice of assisting emerging small
businesses by creating an environment where business owners
are provided with opportunities to develop entrepreneurial
skills.
However, in many cases, the colleges provide entrepreneurs
with
little more than space and clerical support.
In 1994 the Center for the Study of Community Colleges,
sponsored by the E. M. Kauffman Foundation, examined the
scope
and magnitude of entrepreneurship training and found that most
large-city colleges had some such involvement, usually
provided
through their continuing education division or through a center
for economic development or small-business development
institute.
The programs were organized on an ad hoc basis when state,
federal,
foundation, or local-agency funds could be acquired. Typically,
the
people toward whom the training was directed could afford to
pay
little or no tuition.
According to the Kauffman Foundation (2007), in 2006 more
than five thousand entrepreneurship courses were being offered
at two- and four-year colleges and universities across the coun-
try, and over five hundred of these institutions were offering a
formal entrepreneurship program involving majors, minors, or
cer-
tificates. In Virginia, a majority of community colleges present
at least one course treating topics of entrepreneurship and

small-
business management. REAL Enterprises (Rural
Entrepreneurship
through Action Learning) operates in 151 postsecondary insti-
tutions, mostly community colleges, with programs focusing on
the development of small businesses through experiential
learning,
self-assessment, community analysis, and business plan writing.
Community-Based Education
Several types of cooperative endeavors between community col-
leges and other community agencies may be found.
Arrangements
between the colleges and local and state organizations as well
as
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other educational institutions are most prevalent, as are
coopera-
tive arrangements with county and municipal government
agencies
and private enterprises. These joint ventures range from sharing
facilities to offering mutually sponsored courses. The majority
of
funds come from tuition and fees charged to participants, but
many
of the programs are supported by college community service
funds,
often generated by local taxes.
One study, conducted by the Workforce Strategy Center, cited
community-based organizations (CBOs) as essential to the goal
of
colleges to extend their education and training opportunities to

wider local communities. CBOs offer counseling, case
management,
social support, rehabilitation services, and education and
training
to adults in local communities who lack ties to educational
insti-
tutions. Partnerships between community colleges and CBOs
link
these resources with accessibility for underserved adults. The
study
sought examples of programs focusing on economically and
edu-
cationally disadvantaged adults, offering credit-bearing
instruction
and integrating social support and counseling. West Side
Technical
Institute at Daley Community College (Illinois) collaborated
with
Insituto del Progreso Latino to provide metalworking,
machinist,
adult basic education, vocational ESL, and GED programs
designed
to prepare economically and educationally disadvantaged adults
for
jobs in manufacturing. Austin Community College (Texas) part-
nered with Capital IDEA to provide over six hundred low-
income
adults with postsecondary training in health care, high
technology,
accounting, adult education, ESL, GED, and customized
training
for employer demand. The study group concluded, “Making
com-
munity colleges the key institution in career pathway models
allows
local workforce agencies, community-based organizations

(CBOs),
social service agencies, and employers to work together to build
an effective workforce development system that enables
disadvan-
taged individuals to achieve economic self-sufficiency”
(Gruber,
2004, p. 3).
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In community-based programming, promoted by the Academy
for Community College Leadership Advancement, Innovation,
and Modeling, colleges act as leaders and catalysts facilitat-
ing collaboration among community agencies and organizations.
Community-based programming was used in Guilford Technical
Community College (North Carolina) as a means to improve
work-
force preparedness; in James Sprunt Community College (North
Carolina) with a focus on literacy and economic development;
in Florence-Darlington Technical College (South Carolina) to
address issues of local water quality; in Technical College of
the
Lowcountry (South Carolina) to spur economic development;
and
in Paul D. Camp Community College (Virginia) emphasizing
issues
related to substance abuse (Boone, Pettitt, and Weisman, 1998).
Some colleges have developed community-based forums in
which
the participants discuss subjects reported in the local
newspaper,
a procedure that has been used to bring the humanities to par-
ticipants through lectures, panels, debates, dramatizations,
films,
and radio broadcasts. Many colleges offer job fairs to help
connect

people with businesses seeking employees, recreational
activities
in senior citizens’ centers, parenting classes, child-care training
programs, and drug and alcohol abuse workshops.
Although not included in the community education figures,
the many programs that fine arts and humanities departments
sponsor in cooperation with local agencies, such as arts councils
and museums, are properly a part of the concept. Such activities
have been promoted for decades: Fields (1962) described how
Tyler
Junior College (Texas) shared cultural events in its community;
Goldman (1969) found rural colleges in California offering
several
types of cultural programs; and Terry, Hardy, and Katsinas
(2007)
found nearly all the rural community colleges in Alabama
providing
theatrical productions and musical and literary events open to
the public and funded by small grants, some from the National
Endowment for the Arts.
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Correctional Education
Community education often involves providing special services
to
other publicly funded institutions, as in, for example, nearly
every
prisonsysteminthenation.ErismanandContardo’scomprehensive
study found that “as of 2003–04 more than 85,000 prisoners—
just
under 5 percent of the total prison population—were taking
college
courses” (2005, p. 47). The largest numbers were in federal

prisons
(17 percent) and in Texas and North Carolina (11 percent each).
Since 1967, Arizona community colleges have offered basic
skills
and occupational training to inmates within their prison system,
in
2003 serving more than 25,000 inmates (MPR Associates). In
2006,
45 North Carolina colleges had a 65,000 duplicated inmate head
count, which represented 30 percent of the inmates in 78 prisons
(North Carolina Community College System, 2007a). Lakeshore
Technical College’s (Wisconsin) prison program includes ABE
and
secondary education, ESL, and GED testing. Coastline
Community
College and Palo Verde College, both in California, enroll high
numbers of inmates through their distance learning programs.
Chaf-
feyCollege(California)andQuinebaugValleyCommunityCollege
(Connecticut) have programs especially for female inmates.
These programs for prisoners are effective. The Workplace and
Community Transition Training for Incarcerated Youth
Offenders
Program operates through numerous colleges and correctional
facilities, offering credit and noncredit courses to inmates.
Students
in these programs recidivated at a significantly lower rate than
other
ex-offenders—46 percent lower in North Carolina. Texas
prisoners
who earned associate degrees while incarcerated returned to
prison
at a rate of 27 percent compared with a 43 percent recidivism
rate for
the state prison system as a whole. Legislation in 1994

eliminating
Pell Grants for prisoners depressed these involvements, but ten
years later enrollments were higher than the previous level.
State
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corrections funds and charitable donations make up for the loss
of
federal grants (Erisman and Contardo, 2005).
Effectiveness
Are community education programs in general effective?
Assessing
the outcomes is difficult; because the entire community is the
client,
effects are diffuse and subject to contamination from
innumerable
sources. One way of measuring the effects of continuing
education
courses has been to ask the participants if they benefited or how
they liked them. When students enrolled in community service
are asked why they enrolled, their responses cluster around “to
improve my chances of employment,” “to further my cultural or
social development,” and “to learn a certain hobby.”
Other evaluations typically are process related. McGuire (1988)
provided a set of criteria by which entire community-based pro-
grams might be measured. But these again are process criteria:
the
extent to which community members were involved in program
planning; the linkages that were built between the college and
other community agencies; the feedback received from
community
leaders and clients; and similar subjective measures that are

depen-
dent on an observer’s interpretation. All of community
education
seems to be assessed as though it were continuing education for
individuals raised to the level of the broader group. If the
clients
define the goals and the processes, success is measured by their
saying that they achieved those goals. Independent ratings based
on measurable change seem as scarce as advance determination
of
the change to be effected.
Organization and Funding
The organization of Coastline Community College (California)
in
1976 as a noncampus institution devoted primarily to
community
education, and similar institutions in Arizona and Washington,
stimulated the development of a new form of professional
educator.
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The managers of these institutions not only must be curriculum
and instructional designers, the role played by practitioners in
all
colleges, but also must interact with community advisory
commit-
tees, find agencies to bear the cost of their programs, advertise
for
students, employ part-time staff members, produce varieties of
new
instructional media, and resolve jurisdictional disputes with
other
agencies—in sum, must act as entrepreneurs. Although such

roles
are not as well defined in the more conventional community col-
leges, those with sizable community education efforts of
necessity
have a number of people acting in those capacities.
Separate administrative entities have also been organized in
several individual colleges. Valencia Community College
(Florida)
began the Open Campus in 1974 (now known as Valencia
Continu-
ing Education) to coordinate all continuing education,
community
services, and functions that the college provides away from the
campus. Similarly, the off-campus lifelong learning center
operated
by Lansing Community College (Michigan) provides community
education, continuing education, programs for youth and older
adults, and a small-business development center. These types of
organizations—which coordinate the noncredit courses, distance
learning, and related community education activities—have
been
built in many colleges. They typically have their own staff,
budget
lines, and funding sources.
The ways that community education has been funded reflect its
growth and variety. Some community education activities
receive
no direct aid; all expenses are borne by the participants
themselves
or by an agency with which the institution has a contract.
Others
are funded by enrollment formulas that tend to yield less money
than the formulas used for the occupational and transfer
courses.

Funding for the recreational and avocational activities within
the community education definition is the most difficult to
obtain
because those activities seem least justifiable for support at
taxpayer
expense.
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Some stateshave funded adultbasic education atthe same rate as
occupational and transfer programs. Others have funded them
well
but under different formulas. In Florida, developmental and
com-
munity instructional services received nearly as much state
money
per full-time student equivalent (FTSE) as the occupational and
collegiate functions. Oregon similarly reimbursed colleges for
devel-
opmental and continuing education courses at approximately the
same level as for liberal arts and occupational programs.
However,
continuing education courses in Iowa were not eligible for state
aid.
Maryland funded continuing education courses that met certain
criteria, especially if they focused on occupational,
developmental,
and consumer education; recreational courses were not eligible
for reimbursement. Noncredit and adult education programs in
California, limited to classes provided free of charge to
students,
were funded primarily by the State School Fund, general appor-
tionment, with additional support from various other programs.
Once again, it is important to note that between-state
comparisons
cannot accurately be made because the definitions of the

courses
and programs included in the different categories vary widely.
There is no best plan for financing community education in
every state, and disputes over financing often disguise disagree-
ments over the community college mission. The precarious base
of
funding was revealed between 1978 and 1981 when tax-
limitation
legislation was passed in several states. Soon after the 1978
passage
of Proposition 13 in California, the average community services
budget was cut by at least 50 percent. These cuts resulted in a
76 percent increase in courses for which fees were charged and
a 24 percent decrease in courses funded through college
budgets.
Kintzer detailed the cuts, showing that 20 percent of the 4,600
non-
credit courses were eliminated and 10 percent were placed on a
fee
basis. Recreational noncredit classes were reduced by 60
percent,
and senior citizen programs were halved statewide as twenty-
one
colleges deleted their community service budgets. Overall, since
Proposition 13 “eliminated the five-cent permissive property tax
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that had protected community services activities, including pro-
grams, personnel, and some capital construction, for nearly
fifteen
years, the fiscal basis for this function was destroyed” (1980b,
p. 7).
However, the programs not only survived but also expanded,

as many began charging fees. In 69 percent of the colleges sur-
veyed subsequently by Harlacher and Ireland, community
services
directors said that “the status of their community services and
continuing education programs had increased during the past
five
years. Another 21 percent said that the status had been main-
tained” (1988, p. 3). The prime programmatic emphasis was on
workforce training and retraining, with leisure-time education
and
economic development the secondary areas of emphasis. Despite
the strength of these programs, the growing mandate for self-
support by community services and continuing education
programs
posed a major threat. The regulations most commonly cited
were
state rules regarding self-support for noncredit offerings,
commu-
nity instructional service, and leisure-time courses. Other
notable
threats to expansion were lack of instructional support and
integra-
tion and competition from the private sector and community-
based
organizations.
Much of community education transfers the costs of certain
programs from one public agency to another. The training
programs
conducted by community colleges on behalf of police and fire
departments that are too small to operate their own academies
offer an example. Where the departments pay the college to
do the training, little changes except that the college
coordinates
the training. But in some instances, law enforcement programs
are

converted to degree or certificate programs, thus qualifying
them for
state support. The cost of these programs is thereby transferred
from
the local to the state government budget. Similarly, some
industries
contract with community colleges to train their workers, paying
for
the services. But in numerous instances, targeted training
programs
are given for credit, thus shifting the cost from the industrial
concern to the state.
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Contracts to train military personnel are particularly intricate.
They specify the site, the curriculum, and the tuition that may
be charged. They are overseen not only by the college
accrediting
agency but also by the military officials, the U.S. Department of
Veterans Affairs, and other federal agencies. Difficulties arise
when,
for example, the college faculty is covered by a union contract
but
the military does not recognize union membership for its
employees.
Such involvements also add greatly to the college’s
administrative
costs because of the complexities of arranging the contracts and
maintaining elaborate files for the auditors.
In sum, the variety of activities within the scope of community
education provides an opportunity not only for serving new
clients
but also for manipulating the funding to the institution’s
advantage.

If a course can be designated as a degree-credit course and thus
become eligible for state aid, it may be moved to that category.
If
a program can be offered on a contractual basis, with a different
government agency or a private industrial concern paying for it,
it may be so arranged and thus not drain the college’s operating
funds. Although administrative costs may be high, community
education offers opportunities for creativity in program
planning
and staff deployment to college managers who find their efforts
in
the traditional programs hamstrung by external licensing
bureaus
and negotiated contracts with the faculty.
Program Validity
Advocates answer questions of validity by saying that they can
serve the entire populace through community education. To
them,
it is a natural extension of the open-door policy and the
egalitarian
impulses that gave rise to community colleges in the first place.
The idea of community uplift has also been presented as a
purpose.
To those subscribing to that idea, the development of a sense
of community is the goal. The college serves as the focal point
for community pride. The events that it sponsors enhance a
sense
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of community in the district; the act of planning, teaching, and
participating in recreational programs and personal-help
workshops
fosters community spirit. By this line of reasoning, any activity

that
brings people together—a health fair, a senior citizens’ day, a
hobby
course offered in a convalescent home, or a college-sponsored
trip
to a foreign country—will suffice.
Less noble, but nonetheless prevalent, is the intent to
aggrandize
the institutions, or at least to maintain their current size.
Decline
is painful. College leaders who peruse the demography charts,
consider the competing institutions in their area, and study the
potential market for their own programs may wonder about
sources
of students. Enrollment of older students enabled the colleges to
avoid severe declines when the population of eighteen-year-olds
dropped in the 1980s. Much of community education acts as a
marketing device, not only for the activities offered but also for
the
traditional college programs. The awarding of credit for
experience
offers a prime example. As many as 80 percent of the people
who
receive such credit go on to take additional courses at the
college.
The term changing markets is frequently used by those who
exhort
the institutions to move into new service areas lest they suffer
the
fate of once prosperous industries that failed to adapt to
changing
conditions.
Community education seems also a way of blunting charges
of failure in other areas. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were

widespread contentions that community colleges would enable
the
disadvantaged to move up the socioeconomic ladder and would
teach skills of citizenship and literacy to people whom the
lower
schools had failed. College spokespersons also promised to
provide
an avenue to the baccalaureate for students of lesser ability and
lower income. All of these goals proved more elusive than their
proponents expected. It is easier to propose new roles for the
colleges than to explain away their inability to fulfill old ones.
The issue of institutional credibility must also be addressed. Is
the community college a true college? Most community
education
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advocates and most of those who make fervent calls for a new
mission make light of that question, but it has been posed by
both
members of the public and professional educators. Faculty
members
trying to maintain collegiate standards in their courses often
take a
dim view of most community education activities.
Correspondingly,
most community education proponents find little place for the
regular faculty members in their programs, preferring instead to
staff
them with part-timers working ad hoc with little or no
commitment
to the institution itself. Community education has thus fostered
internal dissension. Administrators may perceive the traditional
faculty members as anchors dragging at an institution that
would

propel itself into a new era; the faculty tend to cast a jaundiced
eye on the recreational activities and the contract programs that
use instructors as interchangeable parts, to be dismissed when
the
particular programs for which they were employed have ended.
To those whose memories of college center on courses in the
liberal arts taught on a campus, community education threatens
to debase the institution. Their perception of college is as a
place
of mobility for individuals who, through exposure to higher
learn-
ing, take their place as productive members of society. To them,
community uplift is an alien dimension; its aspects seem to be
frills or peripheral functions at best, anti-intellectual at worst.
They question the standards in the noncredit, open-circuit, and
continuing education programs, and they wonder about quality
control in an institution hosting only a minimal corps of full-
time
professional scholars. They reject contentions that an institution
serving up a pastiche of uncoordinated functions bears any
relation
to an institution of higher learning. Community education advo-
cates may try to dismiss these critics as anachronisms nostalgic
for
the ivy-covered college serving an elite group, but the ranks of
the critics include sizable percentages of the public, who want
their community college to serve as an avenue of mobility for
their
children, not as a purveyor of leisure and personal interest
classes
for everyone else.
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Future Development

The future for community education rests on its funding base
and the way it is organized within the colleges. The people
served
through community education do not fit typical student
categories.
They seldom enroll in programs leading to degrees; they may
not
even be enrolled in formally structured courses but instead may
be participating in events especially tailored to their interests.
Therefore, any attempt to fund community education on the
basis
of average daily attendance, FTSE, or some other category that
suggests students’ attending courses leading to degrees or
certificates
on a campus is at variance with the intent of the program and
the
pattern of student participation.
It seems that the areas of community education most promising
for further development are those that have taken the
community
colleges away from their higher education affiliation. But this
redefinition in the direction of occupational and literacy
training
differs markedly from the idea of the community college as an
agency of direct community uplift. It is the community college
as
latter-day secondary school, not as social welfare bureau. It is
the
community college as educational structure rather than as
purveyor
of recreational activities and quasi-educative services.
The prognosis for other forms of continuing education is less
clear. It is certain to vary in different institutions, depending

mainly on the directors’ vigor in attracting funds and
publicizing
offerings. The large market frequently noted by proponents of
lifelong learning is composed, in the main, of people using the
colleges’ athletic facilities, attending job fairs, learning how to
make furniture or repair their cars, and dealing with cyclical
changes in their lives. Those who need the discipline afforded
by structured, institutionally sanctioned activities may be
enticed
away from their self-help books and informal study groups. But
it is
doubtful that they will greet eagerly the intervention of an
agency
that would coordinate all their learning efforts.
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The issue of social versus individual benefits looms large in
connection with community education. Most economic theorists
would contend that funds collected from the taxpayers at large
should be used to benefit society; hence, if a program is more
bene-
ficial to the individual than to the broader community, the
person
receiving that benefit should bear the cost. This is the basis for
the legislative antagonism toward supporting courses in self-
help
and hobbies. However, much of community education cannot be
neatly categorized into services that benefit individuals rather
than
the broader society. When people complete a GED or noncredit
occupational training program at public expense and use it to
find a job in the community, society gains taxpaying workers,
and
the individuals gain access to a profession in which they can
earn

many more dollars than they could without the training. Who
bene-
fitsmore:society orthe individuals?Atthe furtherextreme are
those
forms of community education that assist society most clearly.
One
example is provided by community forums that explore patterns
of
energy use, quality of life, the effects of zoning, and the
environment
in the local community. Citizens are provided with information
important to their making decisions within the social unit.
Those who would expand community education might do well
to articulate and adhere to certain principles underlying its
struc-
ture. The programs most defensibly supported by public funds
are,
first, those that tend toward the socially useful, as opposed to
the individually beneficial, end of the continuum—for example,
sustainability forums instead of self-help programs. Second,
they
are the verifiably educative programs, as opposed to those that
are
predominantly recreational. Third, they are programs that
provide
services that are not readily available elsewhere for the people
they serve. Thus, the better-integrated businesses would manage
their own employee training programs while the colleges
concen-
trated on assisting workers in less well-organized industries,
such
as restaurant workers in their area, who might benefit from peri-
odic refresher courses in health care and sanitation. Heretofore,

n
s,
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members of economically disadvantaged groups have been the
least
likely to participate in education, but the true community
service
institution would bend all effort to serve them. Unfortunately
for
the concept of social utility, programs in which the colleges
main-
tain training relationships with Fortune 500 companies are much
more common than those that support farmworkers or the
homeless.
The advocates might also reduce their claims that community
education has the potential for solving community problems. As
Talbott observed, the college is confounding its ability to take
on the whole community as its province with its ability to take
on
and solve all of the community’s problems: “To take on the role
of an omniscient social welfare agency strains the credibility as
well as the resources of the college. It is not set up to revamp
the
courts, to change the traffic pattern, to purify the water, to clean
the air of smog” (1976, p. 89).
Gottschalk (1978) also noted the dissimilarities between serv-
ing individuals and society by differentiating between problems
and
issues. Problems are individual; issues are broad enough to
affect the
community. Individuals who are unemployed have problems that
the community college can mitigate by training them
sufficiently
so that each may obtain paid employment. But massive
unemploy-
ment is a community issue over which the college has little

control.
Attempting to solve community issues requires political action,
which the colleges cannot afford to undertake because the risk
of
offending important support groups is too great. The colleges
some-
times get involved in low-risk community issues, offering
forums on
safe topics such as energy conservation. But a forum on the
history of
a local labor dispute would be risky. The local arts council may
meet
often in a college building that is never made available as a
dormi-
tory for the homeless. Most college leaders opt for the safe
course.
Issues
Community education has not reached parity with degree and
certificate programs in either funding or internal and external
Central,
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perceptions of the college’s main mission. For the foreseeable
future,
the community college as nexus for all the area’s educational
forms
is an even less likely eventuality. How can an institution funded
predominantly by the state respond appropriately to local
needs?
Cultural and recreational activities conducted as part of com-
munity service programs have declined in the face of limited
budgets and concomitant conversion of these functions to a self-
sustaining basis. Should colleges try to maintain their

recreational
functions? Can cultural presentations be offered as part of the
reg-
ular humanities programs and thus be absorbed into their
funding
packages?
How can quality be controlled in community education pro-
grams that do not come under the scrutiny of any outside agency
or under internal curriculum review?
Any public agency ultimately can be supported only as long as
the public perceives its value. The educative aspects of
community
education—its short courses, programs for institutionalized pop-
ulations, and classes for those attempting to earn a GED or gain
functional literacy—are the colleges’ strengths. Each noneduca-
tive function may have a debilitating long-term effect because it
diffuses the college mission. Each time the colleges act as
social
welfare agencies or modern Chautauquas, each time they claim
to
enhance the global community, they run the risk of reducing the
support they must have if they are to pursue their main purpose.
Central,
=1366278.
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=1366278.
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d
.
Touchstones are projects that illustrate your comprehension of
the course material, help you refine skills, and demonstrate
application of knowledge. You can work on a Touchstone
anytime, but you can't submit it until you have completed the
unit’s Challenges. Once you've submitted a Touchstone, it will
be graded and counted toward your final course score.
Touchstone 3.2: Draft an Argumentative Research Essay
ASSIGNMENT: Using your outline and annotated bibliography
from Touchstones 1.2 and 2.2, draft a 6-8 page argumentative
research essay on your chosen topic.
As this assignment builds on Touchstone 2.2: Create an
Annotated Bibliography, that Touchstone must be graded before

you can submit your research essay draft.
Sample Touchstone 3
A. Assignment Guidelines
DIRECTIONS: Refer to the list below throughout the writing
process. Do not submit your Touchstone until it meets these
guidelines.
1. Argumentative Thesis Statement
❒ Have you included a thesis in your introduction that takes a
clear, specific position on one side of a debatable issue?
2. Argument Development
❒ Are all of the details relevant to the purpose of your essay?
❒ Is the argument supported using rhetorical appeals and source
material?
❒ Is your essay 6-8 pages (approximately 1500-2000 words)? If
not, which details do you need to add or remove?
3. Research
❒ Have you cited outside sources effectively using quotation,
summary, or paraphrase techniques?
❒ Are the sources incorporated smoothly, providing the reader
with signal phrases and context for the source information?
❒ Have you referenced a range of at least 7 credible sources?
❒ Have you properly cited your sources according to APA style
guidelines?
❒ Have you included an APA style reference page below your
essay?
4. Reflection
❒ Have you answered all reflection questions thoughtfully and
included insights, observations, and/or examples in all
responses?
❒ Are your answers included on a separate page below the main
assignment?
B. Reflection
DIRECTIONS: Below your assignment, include answers to all
of the following reflection questions.

Provide one example of a place where you have used rhetorical
appeals or source material to support your argument. How does
this enhance your essay? (2-3 sentences)
Touchstone 4 is a revision of this draft. What kind of feedback
would be helpful for you as you revise? Are there parts of your
draft that you’re uncertain of? (3-4 sentences)
C. Rubric
Advanced (90-100%) Proficient (80-89%) Acceptable
(70-79%) Needs Improvement (50-69%) Non-Performance (0-
49%)
Argument Development and Support
Provide a clear argument with sufficient support.
The argument is thoroughly developed with highly relevant
details to support it, including the use of rhetorical appeals and
source material. The argument is well-developed with
relevant details to support it, including the use of rhetorical
appeals and source material. The argument is not fully
developed; while it is supported by some relevant details,
including rhetorical appeals and source material, some aspects
of the argument are neglected. The argument is poorly
developed with irrelevant details that frequently distract from
the argument; there is little evidence of the use of rhetorical
appeals and/or source material. The argument is not
developed and/or the composition is not argumentative; details
are irrelevant and distract from the argument.
Research
Incorporate sources through effective quotations, paraphrases,
and summaries.
Cites all outside sources appropriately; incorporates credible
sources smoothly and effectively through direct quotation,
paraphrase, or summary. Primarily cites outside sources
appropriately; incorporates credible sources effectively through
direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Generally cites
outside sources appropriately; incorporates credible sources
adequately through direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary.

Cites outside sources, but most are cited improperly;
incorporates sources through direct quotation, paraphrase, or
summary, but the integration is not smooth and/or the
credibility of the sources is unclear. Does not cite sources,
or citation is consistently inappropriate; does not reference
sources and/or sources are not credible or appropriate.
Organization
Exhibit competent organizational writing techniques.
Includes all of the required components of an argumentative
research paper, including an introduction with relevant and
engaging background information and an argumentative thesis,
an adequate number of body paragraphs with topic sentences, a
body paragraph addressing counterargument(s), and a
conclusion with a concluding statement. Includes all of the
required components of an argumentative research paper,
including an introduction with background information, an
argumentative thesis, an adequate number of body paragraphs
with topic sentences, a body paragraph addressing
counterargument(s), and a conclusion with a concluding
statement.Includes nearly all of the required components of an
argumentative research paper; however, one component is
missing. Includes most of the required components of an
argumentative research paper, but is lacking two components;
sequences ideas and paragraphs such that the connections
between ideas (within and between paragraphs) are sometimes
unclear and the reader may have difficulty following the
progression of the argument. Lacks several or all of the
components of an argumentative research paper; sequences
ideas and paragraphs such that the connections between ideas
(within and between paragraphs) are often unclear and the
reader has difficulty following the progression of the argument.
Style
Establish a consistent, informative tone and make thoughtful
stylistic choices.
Demonstrates thoughtful and effective word choices, avoids
redundancy and imprecise language, and uses a wide variety of

sentence structures. Demonstrates effective word choices,
primarily avoids redundancy and imprecise language, and uses a
variety of sentence structures. Demonstrates generally effective
style choices, but may include occasional redundancies,
imprecise language, poor word choice, and/or repetitive
sentence structures. Frequently includes poor word choices,
redundancies, imprecise language, and/or repetitive sentence
structures. Consistently demonstrates poor word choices,
redundancies, imprecise language, and/or repetitive sentence
structures.
Conventions
Follow conventions for standard written English.
There are only a few, if any, negligible errors in grammar,
punctuation, spelling, capitalization, formatting, and usage.
There are occasional minor errors in grammar,
punctuation, spelling, capitalization, formatting, and usage.
There are some significant errors in grammar, punctuation,
spelling, capitalization, formatting, and usage. There are
frequent significant errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling,
capitalization, formatting, and usage. There are consistent
significant errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling,
capitalization, formatting, and usage.
Reflection
Answer reflection questions thoroughly and thoughtfully.
Demonstrates thoughtful reflection; consistently includes
insights, observations, and/or examples in all responses,
following or exceeding response length guidelines.
Demonstrates thoughtful reflection; includes multiple
insights, observations, and/or examples, following response
length guidelines. Primarily demonstrates thoughtful
reflection, but some responses are lacking in detail or insight;
primarily follows response length guidelines. Shows limited
reflection; the majority of responses are lacking in detail or
insight, with some questions left unanswered or falling short of
response length guidelines. No reflection responses are
present.

D. Requirements
The following requirements must be met for your submission to
be graded:
Composition must be 6-8 pages (approximately 1500-2000
words).
Double-space the composition and use one-inch margins.
Use a readable 12-point font.
All writing must be appropriate for an academic context.
Composition must be original and written for this assignment.
Plagiarism of any kind is strictly prohibited.
Submission must include your name, the name of the course, the
date, and the title of your composition.
Include all of the assignment components in a single file.
Acceptable file formats include .doc and .docx.
Your annotated bibliography must be graded before your
research essay draft will be accepted.
E. Additional Resources
The following resources will be helpful to you as you work on
this assignment:
Purdue Online Writing Lab's APA Formatting and Style Guide
This site includes a comprehensive overview of APA style, as
well as individual pages with guidelines for specific citation
types.
Frequently Asked Questions About APA Style
This page on the official APA website addresses common
questions related to APA formatting. The "References,"
"Punctuation," and "Grammar and Writing Style" sections will
be the most useful to your work in this course.
APA Style: Quick Answers—References
This page on the official APA Style website provides numerous
examples of reference list formatting for various source types.

Sophia Pathways for College Credit – English
Composition II
SAMPLE TOUCHSTONE ANDSCORING
Logan Stevens
English Composition II
December 20, 2019
Where’s the Beef?: Ethics and the Beef Industry
Americans love their beef. Despite the high rate of its
consumption, in recent years
people in the United States have grown increasingly concerned
about where their food comes
from, how it is produced, and what environmental and health
impacts result from its production.
These concerns can be distilled into two ethical questions: is the
treatment of cattle humane and
is there a negative environmental impact of beef production?
For many, the current methods of

industrial beef production and consumption do not meet
personal ethical or environmental
standards. Therefore, for ethical and environmental reasons,
people should limit their beef
consumption.
The first ethical question to consider is the humane treatment of
domesticated cattle. It
has been demonstrated in multiple scientific studies that
animals feel physical pain as well as
emotional states such as fear (Grandin & Smith, 2004, para. 2).
In Concentrated Animal Feeding
Operations (CAFOs), better known as “factory farms” due to
their industrialized attitude toward
cattle production, cattle are often confined to unnaturally small
areas; fed a fattening, grain-based
diet; and given a constant stream of antibiotics to help combat
disease and infection. In his essay,
“An Animal’s Place,” Michael Pollan (2002) states that beef
cattle often live “standing ankle
Comment [SL1]: Hi Logan! This is a greattitle.
Comment [SL2]: It will help strengthen your opening
sentence to include somesort of facts or statistics
about
beef consumption in America.

Comment [SL3]: Throughout your essay, you talk about
more than just limiting the consumption of beef. How
could
you strengthen your Thesis Statement to connect all
of
those points?
Composition II
deep in their own waste eating a diet that makes them sick”
(para. 40). Pollan describes
Americans’ discomfort with this aspect of meat production and
notes that they are removed from
and uncomfortable with the physical and psychological aspects
of killing animals for food. He
simplifies the actions chosen by many Americans: “we either
look away—or stop eating
animals” (para. 32). This decision to look away has enabled
companies to treat and slaughter
their animals in ways that cause true suffering for the animals.
If Americans want to continue to
eat beef, alternative, ethical methods of cattle production must
be considered.

The emphasis on a grain-based diet, and therefore a reliance on
mono-cropping, also
contributes to the inefficient use of available land. The vast
majority of grain production (75-
90% depending on whether corn or soy) goes to feeding animals
rather than humans, and cattle
alone account for a significant share. As a result, a majority of
land available for agriculture also
goes to producing livestock, whether actually housing the
animals or growing grain to feed them
(Lappé, 2010, p. 22). This inefficiency means that a
disproportionate amount of agricultural,
food, and monetary resources are poured into a type of cattle
production which has been
demonstrated to be inhumane and to have negative
environmental consequences.
In addition to the inhumane treatment of animals, CAFOs also
raise ethical questions in
terms of the environmental impacts of industrial agriculture.
Because cattle raised on factory
farms are primarily “grain-fed,” meaning that their diet largely
consists of corn and/or soy rather
than grass or other forage, huge amounts of grain are required
to provide the necessary feed. This

grain comes primarily from “monocropping,” an agricultural
practice that involves planting the
same crop year after year in the same field. Although rotating
crops to different fields each
season helps to retain the natural balance of nutrients in the
soil, mono-cropping is considered to
be more efficient on an industrial scale, providing larger yields
of grain even though it also
Comment [SL4]: Great use of sources! The transitions
here
could be a bit smoother and the connection
between these
ideascould be a bit more explicit.
Comment [SL5]: This is a greattopicsentence.
Comment [SL6]: In terms of cohesion, you may want to
look into how your paragraphs flow from one to the
other.
The content of your essay is great, but how
could you
structure it differently to make it even better?
Composition II

requires the use of more chemical fertilizers to provide adequate
nutrients for the plants. These
chemicals can leach into the groundwater, polluting both the
surrounding land and the water
supply.
Other environmental issues include the amount of manure
produced by factory farmed
cattle. Traditionally, cattle graze a large area and distribute
their waste accordingly. In contained
situations such as CAFOs, however, animal waste builds up in a
relatively small area and the
runoff from rainstorms can potentially contaminate the
groundwater (Sager, 2008, para. 7).
Furthermore, because closely contained animals are more prone
to disease, factory-farmed cattle
are routinely treated with antibiotics, which can also leach into
the local ground and water,
potentially affecting humans. According to Brian Palmer
(2010), “Based on some estimates, we
spend more than $4 billion annually trying to clean up CAFO
manure runoff. In addition, the
long-term, low-dose antibiotics CAFOs give livestock can lead

to antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
further undermining our dwindling supply of useful medicines”
(para. 12). The negative impacts
of antibiotic runoff, manure contamination, fossil fuel use, and
mono-cropping indicate that
sourcing beef from CAFOs is neither an ethically responsible
nor an environmentally sustainable
decision.
An alternative to the grain-fed cattle raised in CAFOs is cattle
which are allowed to range
and forage for grass and other greenery as their primary form of
nourishment. This “grass-fed”
beef is, almost by definition, more humane than grain-fed beef
because the animals are allowed
to move freely and eat a more natural diet. There is also some
evidence that grass-fed beef is
healthier than grain-fed beef for the humans who consume it: it
is higher in cancer fighting,
vitamin-A producing beta-carotene; it is much lower in fat,
including having half the saturated
Comment [SL7]: This is a greatparagraph, but it
could be
stronger with the use of sources supporting and
reinforcing
theseideas.

Comment [SL8]: This is a good use of a signal
phrase, but it
would also be helpful to indicate what position
Brian Palmer
holds so that the audience can understand why
his inputis
relevant. Is he a scientist? A farmer? A
reporter?
Composition II
fat as grain-fed beef; and it contains many more omega-3 fatty
acids, conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA), which prevents cancer growth, and vitamin E, which
prevents cancer as well as heart
disease (Ruechel, 2006, p. 235). Due to the benefits of a grass-
based diet, as well as the benefits
of being raised in pastures rather than feedlots, grass-fed cattle
themselves tend to be healthier.
Taken altogether, grass-fed cattle production is better
physically for both the cows and humans.
It is important to note that grass-fed does not inherently mean
organic, which is a

separate, legal category with its own requirements. It is possible
to find grain-fed beef from
cattle raised or slaughtered in inhumane conditions that is
labeled “organic” because the cattle
were fed organic grain, whereas grass-fed beef may come from
cattle that have been raised on
land that does not meet the requirements for organic labeling
(Sager, 2008, paras.10-15).
However, in a guide to raising grass-fed cattle, Julius Ruechel
(2006), notes that “Raising [cattle]
in a pasture reduces or even eliminates the use of toxic
pharmaceutical pesticides to control
parasites and all but eliminates residues of high doses of
antibiotics used on cattle in feedlot
conditions” (p. 236). Even though it may not always be organic,
choosing grass-fed beef reduces
or eliminates many of the environmental and ethical concerns
raised by factory farming.
Grass-fed beef also comes with some benefits to the
environment. As noted earlier, most
grain-fed beef relies on environmentally damaging mono-
cropping. This problem is not an issue
with grass-fed beef, which relies primarily on forage and does
not require the same crop to be

planted year after year. Further, if the grass-fed beef that one
eats comes from local farms and
ranches, it lessens the environmental impact, whereas the long-
distance shipping required by
factory farming practices consumes fossil fuels, which
contribute to global warming. Lappé
(2010) explains the massive effects that industrial food
production has on the environment,
noting that throughout the life cycle of production, processing,
distribution, consumption, and
Comment [SL9]: I wasn’t sure how the information in
this
paragraph was relevant, but you do a good job of
demonstrating it here. You could make theselinks a
bit
clearer in the earlier parts of this paragraph.
Composition II
waste, our food chain may be responsible for as much as a third
of the factors causing global
climate change (p. 11). However, as Pollan (2002) argues by the
end of his essay, farms which

focus on traditional agricultural practices are both more humane
and more environmentally
friendly than CAFOs. Ultimately, food decisions should be
made with an eye to sustainability
and humane treatment, ethical stances that are both supported
by local farms focused on
sustainable diversity.
Despite grass-fed beef scoring better on an environmental
impact level than grain-fed
beef, it is still not perfect, a fact that highlights the problems of
eating beef at all if one is
concerned with environmental ethics. Most notably, to assuage
Americans’ rapacious appetites
for beef, landowners in South America often clear cut rainforest
in order to create grazing land.
“The realities of the global market are a great temptation to
many: Where land is cheap and the
demand for grass-fed cattle is on the rise, the local economy
may respond by cutting down a
forest to create pasture or by planting grass where millet or rice
has been grown” (Sager, 2008,
para. 21). This practice has negative environmental impacts on
the local landscape and the planet
as a whole, since losing vast swathes of rainforest increases the

amount of carbon dioxide in our
atmosphere, contributing to ozone depletion. In their article for
Science magazine, scholars
Molly Brown and Christopher Funk (2008) examine how climate
change will affect food
security and find that people in the developing world are at
particular risk for a lack of food due
to climate change. Mono-cropping and mono-grazing practices,
designed to snag American
dollars in the short term and not to sustain the local population
in the long term, will only
exacerbate these effects (p. 580–81). Furthermore, the rise in
the market for grass-fed beef has
meant that much grass-fed beef is shipped to the U.S. from
South America and Australia. Even if
these animals are raised in a humane and sustainable manner,
the long distances they travel to
Comment [SL10]: This is a very good introduction to
the
counter-arguments.
Composition II

reach American bellies has significant, negative environmental
impact, again due to the use of
fossil fuels (Sager, 2008, para. 21). This reinforces the
importance of buying beef which has
been locally produced, reducing the impact of long-distance
shipping and potential mono-grazing
in other countries.
No matter how ethically sourced, one can still identify some
serious ethical problems
with the raising and slaughter of beef, and those ethical
quandaries are passed on to consumers.
While grass-fed beef is clearly an ethical improvement over
grain-fed beef in terms of humane
treatment and potentially in terms of environmental impact, “No
matter how you slice it, eating
beef will never be the greenest thing you do in a day. Scientists
at Japan’s National Institute of
Livestock and Grassland Science estimate that producing 1
kilogram of beef emits more
greenhouse gas than driving 155 miles” (Palmer, 2010, para. 2).
A kilogram of beef is about the
equivalent of two generously sized rib-eye steaks. Multiply this
by the amount of beef consumed

by Americans in a year and the impact of these greenhouse
gasses cannot be ignored. However,
as compelling as this argument is, it is not reasonable to expect
that Americans will stop eating
beef altogether. In the short term, Americans need to eat
humanely raised, locally sourced, grass-
fed beef, which will ultimately lessen the ethical and
environmental consequences.
If consumers are truly concerned about the ethical treatment of
animals and the
environmental impact of agricultural production, then the
logical action is to stop eating meat
altogether. If Americans are not willing to do this, then the next
best action is to focus on
humanely raised, locally sourced, grass-fed beef, while
acknowledging that this may affect our
beef consumption at many levels. Pollan (2002) concludes his
essay by acknowledging that more
humane treatment of animals would likely cause higher prices
and lower consumption. However,
he states, “maybe when we did eat animals, we’d eat them with
the consciousness, ceremony and
Comment [SL11]: Excellent. I like that you have two
paragraphs addressing the counter-arguments, one

focused
on environment and one focused on ethics. This
parallels
your discussion nicely.
Comment [SL12]: How could you change the
wording to
make it less dismissive of the counter-
arguments?
Composition II
respect they deserve” (para. 82). This emphasis on the respect
for and well-being of the animals
cultivated for food benefits both the animals and the consumer,
acknowledging the desire to be
true omnivores while satisfying our need for ethical clarity.

Comment [SL13]: Very good concluding statement!
Composition II
References
Brown, M., & Funk, C. (2008). Food security under climate
change. Science, 319
(5863), 580-581. doi: 10.1126/science.1154102
Cook, C. (2004). Diet for a dead planet: How the food industry
is killing us. New York,
NY: New Press.
Davis, C., & Lin, B.H. (2005). Factors affecting U.S. beef
consumption. Retrieved from
https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-
details/?pubid=37389.
Grandin, T. & Smith. G. (2004). Animal welfare and humane

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