This document provides an overview of the structure and function of the brain and nervous system. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences or less:
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body and is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
The four major lobes of the cerebrum are the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, each responsible for different functions. The diencephalon includes structures like the thalamus and hypothalamus that help integrate sensory information and regulate functions like
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Behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy which is based on theories of learning and aims at changing maladaptive behavior and substituting it with adaptive behavior.
Personality disorder ppt MENTAL HEALTH NURSINGvihang tayde
Most definition of normal personality includes some or all of the following features,
Present since adolescence.
Stable overtime despite fluctuations in mood.
Manifest in different environment.
Recognizable to friends and acquaintance.
Nature and scope of meantal health nursing - Presented By Mohammed Haroon Ra...Haroon Rashid
Subject - Mental Health Nursing and topic is Nature and Scope of Mental health nursing , Presented by Mohammed Haroon Rashid, Basic B.Sc Nursing 3rd Year in Florence College of Nursing
introduction to mental health nursing Jasleen Kaur
It explains the perspectives of mental health & mental health nursing..It define mental health,mental health nursing,components of mental health,mental health act,mental health program...
Behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy which is based on theories of learning and aims at changing maladaptive behavior and substituting it with adaptive behavior.
Personality disorder ppt MENTAL HEALTH NURSINGvihang tayde
Most definition of normal personality includes some or all of the following features,
Present since adolescence.
Stable overtime despite fluctuations in mood.
Manifest in different environment.
Recognizable to friends and acquaintance.
In humans and other higher animals, the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) collectively form the whole nervous system. The CNS, which serves as the body's control center, includes the spinal cord and the brain. The PNS, a nerve network, links the CNS to various bodily systems.
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Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
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Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
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2. REVIEW OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
BRAIN, LIMBIC SYSTEM, ABNORMAL
NEUROTRANSMISSION
COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Psychobiology: Study of biological foundations
of cognitive, emotional and behavioral
processes.
3. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. Brain
B. Nerve tissue
C.Spinal cord
Forebrain
Hindbrain
Neurons
Synapses
Neurotransmitters
Fiber tracts
Spinal nerves
Midbrain
4. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. Afferent system
Sensory neurons
B. Efferent system
Somatic Nervous System-somatic motor neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
Somatic
Visceral
Sympathetic nervous
System
(Visceral motor neurons)
Parasympathetic nervous
system
(visceral motor neurons)
6. Frontal lobe
Motor area
Premotor area
Visual
association area
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
Sensory association area
General sensory area
Visual area
cerebellumMotor speech
area
Auditory association
area
Temporal lobe
Auditory area
The human brain: cerebral lobes, cerebellum and brainstem
7. The human brain: midsagittal surface
Thalamus
Corpus callosum
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Occipital lobe
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Temporal lobe
8. 1. CEREBRUM:
- Two hemispheres separated by the corpus callosum.
- The outer shell is called the cortex.
- The left hemisphere appears to be dominant in most
people. It controls speech, comprehension, rationality, and
logic.
- The right hemisphere is nondominant in most people.
Sometimes called the “creative” brain, the right hemisphere is
associated with affect, behavior, and spatial perceptual
functions.
- Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes
9. Frontal lobes:
-Controls voluntary body movement, including
movements that permit speaking, thinking, and
judgment formation.
-Also play a role in the emotional experience, as
evidenced by changes in mood and character after
damage to this area (fear, aggressiveness, depression,
rage, euphoria, irritability, and apathy).
10. Parietal lobes:
-The parietal lobes control perception and
interpretation of most sensory information (including
touch, pain, taste, and body position).
-Language interpretation is associated with the left
hemisphere of the parietal lobe.
11. Temporal lobes:
-The upper anterior temporal lobe is concerned with auditory
functions, while the lower part is dedicated to short-term
memory.
-impulses carried by the olfactory nerves end in this area of
the brain.
-play a role in the expression of emotions through an
interconnection with the limbic system.
-The left temporal lobe, along with the left parietal lobe, is
involved in language interpretation.
12. Occipital lobes:
-Primary area of visual reception and interpretation.
Visual perception, which gives individuals the ability to
judge spatial relationships such as distance and to see in
three dimensions, is also processed in this area.
-Language interpretation is influenced by the occipital
lobes through an association with the visual experience.
13. 2. DIENCEPHALON:
The diencephalon connects the cerebrum with lower brain
structures. Its major structures include the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and limbic system.
● Thalamus:
-Integrates all sensory input (except smell) on its way
to the cortex.
-some involvement with emotions and mood.
• Hypothalamus:
-Regulates the anterior and posterior lobes of the
pituitary gland.
-exerts control over the actions of the autonomic
nervous system, and regulates appetite and temperature.
14. ● Limbic system:
The limbic system consists of medially placed
cortical and subcortical structures and the fiber tracts
connecting them with one another and with the
hypothalamus. These structures include the
hippocampus, mammillary body, amygdala, olfactory
tract, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus, septum
pellucidum, thalamus, and fornix. The limbic system,
which is sometimes called the “emotional brain,” is
associated with fear and anxiety; anger and aggression;
love, joy, and hope; and sexuality and social behavior.
16. MIDBRAIN
MESENCEPHALON:
-Structures of major importance in the mesencephalon, or
midbrain, include nuclei and fiber tracts.
-Extend from the pons to the hypothalamus and are
responsible for the integration of various reflexes.
Visual reflexes (e.g., automatically turning away from a
dangerous object when it comes into view),
Auditory reflexes (e.g., automatically turning toward a sound
that is heard),
Righting reflexes (e.g., automatically keeping the head upright
and maintaining balance).
17. HINDBRAIN
Its major structures include pons, medulla and cerebellum.
PONS: The pons is the bulbous structure that lies between
the midbrain and the medulla
-composed of large bundles of fibers
-forms a major connection between the cerebellum and the
brainstem.
-Regulation of respiration and skeletal muscle tone.
18. MEDULLA:
-Provides a pathway for all ascending and descending
fiber tracts.
-Contains vital centers that regulate heart rate, blood
pressure, and respiration, and reflex centers for swallowing,
sneezing, coughing, and vomiting.
The medulla, pons, and midbrain form the structure
known as the brainstem.
19. CEREBELLUM:
-Separated from the brainstem by the fourth ventricle, but
it has connections to the brainstem through bundles of
fiber tracts.
-It is situated just below the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum.
-The functions of the cerebellum are concerned with
involuntary movement, such as muscular tone and
coordination and the maintenance of posture and
equilibrium.
20. NEURONS:
-Generate and transmit electrochemical impulses.
-Structure a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.
-Cell body contains the nucleus
-The dendrites are processes that transmit impulses toward
the cell body, and the axon transmits impulses away from
the cell body.
-Cells called afferent (or sensory) neurons carry impulses
from the periphery to the CNS, where they are interpreted
into various sensations.
-The efferent (or motor) neurons carry impulses from the
CNS to the muscles and glands of the periphery.
21. SYNAPSES:
The junction between two neurons is called a synapse.
The small space between the axon terminals of one
neuron and the cell body or dendrites of another is called the
synaptic cleft.
Neurons conducting impulses toward the synapse are
called presynaptic neurons and those conducting impulses
away are called postsynaptic neurons.
22. NEUROTRANSMITTERS
-Chemicals called neurotransmitters are stored in the
axon terminals of presynaptic neurons.
-Electrical impulses cause the release of these chemicals
into the synaptic cleft.
-The neurotransmitter combines with receptor sites on the
postsynaptic neuron, resulting in a determination of whether
another electrical impulse is generated.
23. -Neurotransmitters are responsible for essential
functions in the role of human emotion and behavior.
-Target for the mechanism of action of many of the
psychotropic medications.
After a neurotransmitter has performed its function in
the synaptic cleft, it either returns to the vesicles in the
axon terminals to be stored and used again (reuptake), or
it is inactivated and dissolved by enzymes.
24. Impulse transmission at a synapse
Axon of
presynaptic neuron
Dendrite of
postsynaptic
neuron
Vesicles of
neurotransmitter
Receptor site
Inactivator
(cholinesterase)
Inactivated
neurotransmitterNeurotransmitter
(acetylcholine)
Mitochondria
25. CHOLINERGICS
ACETYLCHOLINE: Acetylcholine was the first chemical to
be identified and proven as a neurotransmitter.
● Location: ANSsympathetic and parasympathetic
presynaptic nerve terminals, parasympathetic
postsynaptic nerve terminals.
CNScerebral cortex, hippocampus, limbic
structures, and basal ganglia.
● Functions: Acetylcholine is implicated in sleep, arousal,
pain perception, the modulation and coordination of
movement, and memory acquisition and retention.
● Possible implications for mental illness:
Increased levels- Depression
Decreased level- Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease
29. GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA): Inhibitory
amino acid
● Location: hypothalamus, hippocampus, cortex,
cerebellum, and basal ganglia of the brain; spinal cord; and
in the retina.
● Functions: GABA interrupts the progression of the
electrical impulse at the synaptic junction, producing a
significant slowdown of body activity.
● Possible implications for mental illness:
Decreased levels: anxiety disorders, movement disorders
such as Huntington’s disease, and various forms of
epilepsy.
30. ABNORMAL NEUROTRANSMISSION
Deficient neurotransmitter
Excess neurotransmitter
Deficient receptors
Excess receptors
Abnormal neurotransmission causes some mental
disorders because of excess/deficient transmission or
excess/deficient responsiveness of receptors.
31. NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY
-Pituitary gland- under direction of hypothalamus.
-Master gland
-Two major lobes
Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) –Growth
hormone, Thyroid stimulating hormone,
Adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, Gonadotropic
hormone, Melanocyte stimulating hormone.
Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)- Antidiuretic
hormone, Oxytocin