Review 1

1. The United Spanish Monarchy
The Catholic Monarchs

The Iberian Peninsula in
the 15th century
The Iberian Peninsula in
the 15th century

Isabel of Castile
• Trastamara dynasty.
• Crown of Castile continuous
revolts of the nobles trying to
control the king.
• Henry IV dies in 1474
• Civil war between the king’s
daughter, Juana “la Beltraneja”
and the king’s sister, Isabel

• Juana, “la Beltraneja”
supported by Portugal (she was
married to the king of Portugal)
• Isabel
supported by the Crown of Aragon
(she had married prince
Ferdinand of Aragon in1469)

• Isabel was proclaimed
Queen of Castile in 1479 in
the Alcáçovas Treaty.
• Juana secluded herself at a
convent.

Fernando of Aragon
• Trastamara dynasty.
• Son of King Juan II
• Married with princess
Isabel of Castile in 1469.
As they were cousins
they had to obtain a
Papal bull.

The “Concordia of Segovia” (1475)
Set up the terms of the Catholic Monarchs’ government over the two
Crowns: Ferdinand was named King of Castile as Ferdinand V as he
would cogovern with his wife Queen Isabel I

• It was only a dynastic union.
• Although Isabel and Fernando both would rule over the
two Crowns, each kingdom would keep its independence,
its own laws, institutions and customs.
• And after the death of any of the monarchs, the survivor
would go to its own Crown to rule while the other Crown
would be inherited by their first descendant.
A real union?

St. John’s eagle
Castile & Leon
Yugo (Ysabel)
Aragon & Two Sicilies
Granada
Flechas (Fernando)

Common aims
• Although the Crowns were, in fact, independent, the
Catholic Monarchs established some common aims for
both Crowns:
• Territorial expansion
• Strengthening of the Monarchs authority
• Religious unity

The Crown of Castile
• The monarch was the highest
authority - Divine right of the
Monarchy
• The monarch’s power came
from God’s desire. He/she had
been chosen by God to govern
and protect the kingdom’s
subjects.
Subjects

The Crown of Castile: domestic policy
• To assert the monarch’s authority over the nobility and
the clergy:
• Professional and centralized administration
• Holy Brotherhood and Corregidores
• Audiencias and Chancillerías
• Professional Army
• Royal Treasury
1

• To govern the different
territories and attend the
different issues, the Catholic
Monarchs created a polisinodyal
system
• Different Councils in charge of
different territories and
matters.
ROYAL COUNCIL
• To give advice to the monarchs
in all matters connected to the
government of Castile.
• Formed by nobles, clergy and
jurists. The nobles and clergy
position in the council was only
honorary. The jurists were the
ones helping the monarchs in all
governmental matters.

• To unify their subjects on common grounds:
• Ordenanzas Reales: New legal code. Same laws for the whole
Crown.
• Religious unity:
• Conquest of the kingdom of Granada (1492)
• The Tribunal of Inquisition (1478) to prosecute heretics. It didn’t
have authority over Muslims or Jews.
• Compulsory Conversion:
- 1492 Jews were forced to convert or to migrate (the Expulsion of
the Jews). Around 80,000 Jews left the country, the ones that
converted were known as conversos
- 1512, Mudejars (Spanish Muslims) were forced to convert or
migrate. Muslims who converted were known as moriscos.
2
The Crown of Castile: domestic policy

• To build a strong system of alliances to increase their
influence over Europe and obtain support:
• Council of State: to deal with foreign negotiations, hear
embassies, etc.
• Diplomatic System: to represent the monarchs in other kingdoms
and negotiate the Crown’s interests, set up alliances, avoid war,
establish alliances, etc.
• Alliances through marriages
• To expand their territories
The Crown of Castile: foreign policy

Territorial expansion of the Crown of Castile
• Focused in finishing the
Reconquest, expanding through
the Atlantic Ocean and
protecting trade with Flanders

The Crown of Aragon
• The monarch was the highest
authority.
• Pactist monarchy
• The monarch’s power came
from a pact with the subjects
who gave them authority to
govern and organize the
territories but respecting their
natural rights and customs.
Subjects

The Crown of Aragon: domestic policy
• The monarchs tried to assert
their power over the nobility by
reducing some feudal rights
(Sentencia Arbitral de
Guadalupe)
• Their government was a
constant struggle with the
nobility to try to establish an
authoritarian monarchy.
1

• Because of that Fernando spent more time
in Castile attending Castilian bussiness as he
was able to implement decisions easily.
• Lugartenientes: represented the king in the
different territories of the Crown of Aragon.
Then a viceroy, Alonso de Aragon
(ilegitimate son of Fernando) represented
him.
• Polisinodyal system: Counsil of Aragon,

Council of Aragon
• Formed by nobles, clergy
and jurists from the Crown
of Aragon
• Located in Castile
• Advised the monarchs in
governmental matters
connected to the Crown of
Aragon but needed their
approval to implement
measures
Monarch

The Crown of Aragon: domestic policy
• To unify their subjects on
common grounds:
• Religious unity:
• The Tribunal of Inquisition
(1478) to prosecute heretics.
It didn’t have authority over
Muslims or Jews.
2

The Crown of Aragon: foreign policy
• To build a strong system of alliances to increase their
influence over Europe and obtain support:
• Council of State: to deal with foreign negotiations, hear
embassies, etc.
• Diplomatic System: to represent the monarchs in other kingdoms
and negotiate the Crown’s interests, set up alliances, avoid war,
establish alliances, etc.
• Alliances through marriages.
• To expand their territories

Territorial expansion of the Crown of Aragon
• Focused in its Mediterranean
interests.
• Struggle with France for
influence over Italy.
• Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
were kept as an Aragonese
possesion.

Alliances through marriage
• Following the customs
among royal families the
Catholic Monarchs
arranged their children’s
marriages with political
aims:
• To obtain support
• To increase their influence
over Europe
• To annex new territories
through dynastic unions…

Queen Isabel I dies
• Queen Isabel I died in
1504.
• As her only male heir,
Juan, had died as well as
her eldest daughter,
Isabel, the Crown of
Castile was going to be
inherited by Juana, the
mad.

• Juana was living in the Low
Countries with her husband
Philip the Handsome.
• Isabel I’s testament established
that Juana would inherit the
Crown and, only if she was
absent from the country or
could not or did not want to
reign, Fernando would act as a
regent until his grandson Carlos
(son of Juana) would become of
age.

• It also established that Castilian positions
could only be occupied by Castilian
subjects.
• Waiting for the Queen to come to Castile,
the Cortes named Fernando regent.
• Fernando, reluctant to hand power over
to his daughter, who was showing signals
of mental illness, or to his son-in-law
Phillip tried to convince the Cortes to
declare Juana not capable of governing.
But the Cortes did not want to accept
that.

• The Cortes soon realized that Juana
was not capable of ruling. And when
Phillip the handsome suddenly died,
the Cortes established that Carlos,
Juana and Philip’s son, would be
proclaimed king with his mother.
• As Fernando of Aragon and his new
wife Germana did not have a child,
when Fernando died the Crown of
Aragon was also inherited by Carlos.
Juana “la loca” (“the mad”)

The Habsburg Dynasty
Carlos I of Spain, V of the HRE
Juan Antonio López Luque
Chapter 2

• Born in Flanders
• Inherited all Spain’s and Holy Roman
Empire (HRE) territories
• When he first arrived in Spain,he
hardly spoke the Spanish language
• He’s known as Carlos V
• He spent lots of Castilian money in
wars and in his candidacy for
election as HRE
Carlos I of Spain and V of the HRE

European territoriesJuan Antonio López Luque

Carlos V Empire

• He governed using councils like the Catholic
monarchs before him
• His revenues came from taxes from Castilla and
precious metals from America
• BUT he spent a lot of money on expensive wars
to preserve territories and influence
Carlos V

The council system of government
Carlos did not have absolute power
He needed the approval from the
Parliaments of each state.
There was no one capital city – the court
moved around

Problems at home -Revolt of the Comuneros
(1520 – 1521)
• The comunidades were the
representative local communities
during the early Middle Ages
• Carlos angered both Castilian
urban aristocracy (taxes) and some
Castilian nobles (important
positions in government)
• The revolt started in Toledo and
spread to other cities, with the
support of the nobles in the
beginning.
• They were fighting for the right of
the towns and local districts to
control their own affairs and choose
their own Cortes representatives

Problems at home -Revolt of the Comuneros
(1520 – 1521)
• As the middle and lower classes
became more prominent the
revolt became a fight for
economic and social reforms
• The urban upper classes and by
rural hidalgos deserted
• An agreement with the nobles
allowed Carlos to defeat the
revolt in 1521
• Changes in the government were
introduced afterwards

Problems at home -Germanías
• The "Germania" was a militia brotherhood of lower-class volunteers
to help protect the Valencian coast against Muslim pirates
• After an outbreak of the plague interpreted as punishment for
impiety, they started a bloody riot against Muslim peasants
• When officials tried to intercede, the Germania took over the whole
city
• Finally an army led by the nobles had to fight and crush the rebels

A general pattern of troubles
• This revolts in Castile and Valencia are just a part of the general pattern
of social, political, and economic unrest among the middle and lower
classes in Europe during the transition from the middle Ages into the
sixteenth century.
irmandade rising in Galicia
Cataluña and Mallorca revolts
revolts of Bohemia
social risings in
the Low
Countries
upheavals in
Switzerland

• Carlos fought against foreign powers to defend his authority
& the Catholic religion
• He defeated the French, his main rival in 1525
• He fought the Turks (1529-1541) who were invading from the east
• He confronted the German princes who supported Luther &
Protestantism
• He continued his fight against the Moors of North Africa & defended
his territory in Italy
Problems abroad
see next slidesee next slide

• Charles finally abdicated from his
Spanish Empire in January 1556 and
gave it to his son Philip.
• He retired to the monastery of Yuste in
Extremadura where he died on 21
September 1558.
Abdication

Felipe II

Felipe II
• To foreign and Protestant writers
he was the arch-fiend of Counter-
Reformation iniquity, the brutal
instigator of the Inquisition.
• To Spaniards, the great ruler who
guided the empire at the height
of its power, the sword arm of
Catholicism, defender of the
faith and unity of Europe. El
prudente ("the wise")

Felipe II (1556-1598) and the organization of the empire
• Carlos’ empire was divided
• Felipe inherited territories from
Spanish and Portuguese crowns
• Spain as the centre of his
monarchy
• Madrid becomes capital
• It’s the complete hispanization of
the dynasty and the kingdom

Felipe II
• Whereas Carlos V had been a
military and cavalier king,
devoted to battle, Felipe was a
bureaucratic ruler.
• He did not personally lead his
armies
• He refused to delegate central
authority and served as the first
clerk of the imperial bureaucracy

Felipe II the Turkish
• For 15 years the center of
attention for Felipe was not
Western Europe but the Turkish
menace in the Mediterranean.
• In 1570, the Turks launched a
major expedition of conquest
against the Venetian-held island
of Cyprus.
• The papacy helped organize a
Holy League bringing together
the navies of the Spanish crown,
Genoa, and Venice.

The battle of Lepanto
• The largest engagement in the history of naval warfare to that time.
• Carlos V's bastard D.Juan de Austria, won a smashing victory. More
than one-third of the Turkish fleet was destroyed

Problems and more problems
• The English and rebel Dutch navies in the North Atlantic were a
menace to the sea route to Flanders and communications with the
Indies
• French military activity on the Catalan border
• Fear of rebellion and heresy in Catalonia
• Death of Felipe's apparently schizophrenic heir, D. Carlos
• The great Morisco rebellion in the Alpujarra mountains around
Granada

The Low Countries
• After the Protestant revolt in the Low
Countries in 1566 Felipe decided that he
could no longer trust the affairs of that
area to semi-autonomous local
administration
• He dispatched a Hispano-Italian army of
occupation under his leading military
commander, the duke of Alba
• During six years, the "Council of
Troubles" (also called the Council of
Blood) in Brussels executed more than
1000 rebels and heretics, exceeding the
peninsular Inquisition in its harshness.

Felipe II king of Portugal
• In 1578 young king Sebastian of
Portugal died without
descendants.
• His uncle, the elderly Cardinal
Henry, succeeded him as King,
but Henry also had no
descendants.
• Felipe marched then into
Portugal and defeated the other
candidate
• Philip II of Spain was crowned
king of Portugal in 1581

The Empire of Philip II

Spain and England
• In 1554 Felipe had married Mary queen of England.
• The marriage treaty excludes Philip from the throne if
Mary dies childless.
• In 1558 Mary dies, without producing the desired
Catholic heir Mary
Elizabeth
• After Elizabeth's appropriation of Spanish gold on its way
to the Netherlands in 1568, relations between Spain and
England are formally severed for five years.
• By 1585 Elizabeth is actively supporting the Dutch rebels in
the Netherlands
• English incursions into the rich Spanish territories of
America have been escalating since the pioneering efforts
of John Hawkins. The main English voyages of plunder
have been carried out by Francis Drake

Spain and England
• Drake's departure from Plymouth for the
Caribbean in 1585, with a fleet of about thirty
ships. He and his men spend several months
plundering Spanish settlements, burning houses,
sinking ships, and destroying whatever they
cannot profitably remove.
• When Elizabeth dispatches her troops to the
Netherlands in the same year, this provocation
finally persuades Philip that he must invade
England.
• While Philip assembles his fleet in Cadiz in 1587,
Drake sails into the crowded harbor and burns or
sinks some thirty ships

The Armada
• Despite the English attacks the fleet safely reaches Calais, where the plan is to
pick up an army from the Netherlands and to ferry it across the Channel against
England. But the army has not arrived.
• During the night of August 7 the English send fire ships in among the anchored
fleet, causing the Spanish to cut their cables in disarray.
• The Armada escapes into the North Sea.

The Armada
• Ships founder or are wrecked on Scottish and
Irish coasts but the fleet was broken up by a
storm.
• Of the 130 vessels which sailed from Corunna in
June, only 67 limp back to Spain.
• The English, with a very much easier return
voyage to their home ports, lose not a single
ship.
• Perhaps the greatest effect of the Armada was
its psychological impact on the Spanish people.
• Philip II: “I sent my ships against the English,
not against the elements”

Felipe II
• In 1595, the crown was forced to declare bankruptcy for the third time in less
than four decades.
• By the last year of his life, Felipe II was a disillusioned ruler who realized that
dominance of Western Europe and the repression of heresy abroad had escaped
him.
• His last major act was to conclude peace with France before dying in 1598 at the
age of 71.

The Black Legend
• The term Black Legend refers to a centuries-old
view of Spain and its people as particularly cruel,
prejudiced, and greedy.
• The era of Spanish domination almost inevitably
brought the enmity of most of Western Europe
against the Spanish crown and its subjects.
• This hostility was in fact tinged with deference, as
witnessed by the vogue of dark-hued Spanish
clothing and the domination of Castilian literature
and of Castilian as a literary language in Western
Europe.
TRUE BUT EXAGGERATED

War is Hell, but Peace in Cuba under
Spanish Rule is Worse than Hell, 1898.
War is Hell, but Peace in Cuba under
Spanish Rule is Worse than Hell, 1898.
The Black Legend

• Morisco is a derogatory Spanish term, deriving
from moro - meaning Moorish and used
originally of Muslims from Morocco.
• The Catholic Monarchs first declared the
expulsion or conversion of the Muslims of
Granada in 1502.
• Charles V extended the norm in 1525 to the rest
of the kingdom.
• In 1567 Philip II introduces a law banning their
customs and their clothes. The result is a
violent uprising in 1568 by the Moriscos of
Granada, brutality suppressed in 1570.
Moriscos, the «final solution»

• During the 16th century Morisco becomes
applied to Muslim families who have remained
in Spain by converting to Christianity.
• Many Muslims families keep faith with the old
religion, carrying out the rituals of Islam in
private.
• Morisco communities, as often with minorities,
tend to be hard-working and prosperous,
provoking jealousy.
• In the coastal areas of Granada and Valencia
they are also suspected of assisting the Muslim
pirates who regularly raid from North Africa.

• In 1609 Philip III passes a decree ordering the
expulsion from Spain of all Moriscos.
• It takes five years for the process to be carried
out; most of the families are transported in
galleys across the Mediterranean to the coast
of North Africa.
• It is calculated that 300,000 people are
deported.

• These are people skilled in crafts and
agriculture, paying onerous taxation .
• Their departure does great damage to Spain's
economy, just as their arrival eventually
benefits North Africa.
• The final solution of the Morisco problem came
not so much as a protective measure but as a
gesture that Spain still had the strength to
resolve a domestic problem and complete the
unity of Spanish Counter-Reformation society.
• Ironically most of the Moriscos descend from
Christian families converted during the long
centuries of Islam in Spain.

Felipe III

• He lacked the industry and driving sense of
responsibility of his father.
• Reluctant to continue the aggressive policies
of Felipe II
• From the beginning left government to a
personal favorite (valido), the duke of
Lerma.
Felipe III

• Was above all interested in prestige and
fortune.
• Established his control over the aristocracy
and became the wealthiest man in Spain.
• The counciliar system of state administration
was maintained, but there was a growing
tendency to appoint subcommittees to deal
with special problems.
• This resulted in further division in
administrative organization. The government
system tended more and more to get out of
control.
Felipe III: the Duke of Lerma

Felipe IV

• Felipe IV succeeded his father in 1621 when
only sixteen years old.
• He was more frivolous and little disposed to
devote himself to public affairs
• He was young, inexperienced, and not well
educated
• A new valido: the Count-Duke of Olivares
Felipe IV

• Unlike the Duke of Lerma (Felipe III’s
valido) Olivares was well trained and used
to responsibility, a man of great vigor and
energy.
• He was not after personal gain, however,
but sought the vindication of the Spanish
empire.
• He wanted to strengthen the Spanish
empire and lead it to victory over its many
foes.
The Count-Duke of Olivares

• The size and potential: target for European rivals;
• A revitalized France determined to cut Spain down to size;
• The awkward geographic pattern of the European empire (Low Countries and
the France Comte isolated from the southern base difficult to
defend)
• The government refused to recognize the independence of the only dissident
part of the empire, Holland, which had long since broken away and made its
own place in the world.
The Empire: difficulties

• A series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. One of the most
destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest.
• Initially a war between Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmenting Holy
Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a general conflict involving most of
the great powers of Europe
The Thirty Years' War

1) Continued increase in the size of entailed domains withdrawing land from
use and of lowering production;
2) social disruption and vagrancy;
3) overabundance of clerics;
4) The status orientation of society;
5) The negative, charity-oriented religious attitudes toward poverty that precluded
serious thought of reform and new enterprise;
6) Government policy, prohibitive taxes in Castile, inflation and deflation
monetary chaos, over-regulated some aspects of the economy, and was incompetent
in planning and execution.
XVII century decline: Economy

*Bankruptcy during the Habsburgs:
• Carlos I & Felipe II: 1557, 1576, 1596;
• Felipe III: 1607;
• Felipe IV: 1627, 1647, 1652, 1662;
• Carlos II: 1666
XVII century decline: Bankrupcies

• The reigns of Philip III and IV, spanning the
first seven decades of the 17th century,
constitute a peak in Spanish literature and
art.
• Cervantes Don Quijote.
• Velazquez,, Zurbaran, Murillo , Ribera,
etc...
XVII century culture: El Siglo de Oro

Carlos II

• The Spanish monarchs create a problem for their
royal line by constantly marrying within the
Habsburg dynasty.
• Three successive generations of Spanish kings
(Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II) have Habsburgs
as both parents.
• All the immediate ancestors of Charles II (1665-
1700) are descendants of the emperor Maximilian.
• The famous Habsburg jaw, prominent in
Velazquez's portraits of Philip IV, is so extreme in
Charles II that it amounts to a disability - one of
many, for he is sickly from birth.
Carlos II: the end of the dynasty

• Charles II marries twice but has no children and is
assumed to be impotent.
• In his thirties he is so often ill that his early death
is widely expected.
• With no immediate heir, but powerful claimants to
his great empire, the coming crisis obsesses
Europe in the 1690s.
• The issue will be fought out in the War of the
Spanish Succession.
Carlos II: the end of the dynasty

• A grandson of Louis XIV of France ascended the Spanish throne as
Felipe V.
• Other European powers were determined not to permit a great new
Bourbon power bloc (Spain-France) in southwestern Europe.
• A coalition was organized in 1702 between nearly all the other states of
western and central Europe.
• Felipe V, born Philippe d'Anjou, was fully accepted by most opinion in
Castile
• The rival candidacy, the Austrian Archduke Karl, backed by the anti-
Bourbon alliance, relied to a considerable extent on the main
Protestant powers of Europe.
War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1714)

The Bourbon Dynasty
Felipe V

• Felipe V reconfirmed the traditional privileges and
exemptions of the Catalan constitution.
• Aragón and Catalonia were swept into the Habsburg
cause only after allied forces had landed in eastern
Spain.
• The Habsburg candidacy took full advantage of social
tensions and encouraged a peasant revolt against the
seigneurial control of the aristocracy, Archduke Karl
freeing them of many seigneurial exactions.
• Most of the aristocracy, ecclesiastical hierarchy, and
state officials in Aragón and Valencia remained loyal
to the Bourbon succession.
• Only in Catalonia did opposition to the Bourbon
crown include all social classes.
Felipe V & War of the Spanish Succession

• In 1710 all participants were exhausted and
increasingly interested in a solution to the conflict.
• The death of the Habsburg Emperor Josef I in 1711
cleared the path for the Archduke Karl to inherit the
Austro-Habsburg Empire and removed him from the
Spanish struggle.
• By the end of 1710, the Bourbon forces held all of
Spain, save Catalonia. After the siege of Barcelona
(1713-1714), the city was a wreck, the region's
economy ruined, and the historic Catalonia a thing
of the past.

• The remaining imperial possessions on the continent
were swept away, and the English seized Gibraltar
and took over the island of Menorca as well.
• By the peace of Utrecht in 1713, Felipe V is
confirmed as king of Spain and also of the Spanish
America
• The Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and
northern Italy go to the Habsburgs.

War of the Spanish Succession
Bourbon forces
Allies against the Bourbons
Bourbon attacks
Allies attacks
Bourbon forces
Allies against the Bourbons
Bourbon attacks
Allies attacks

Felipe V, the first Bourbon
• The effect of the change of dynasty in Spain
the court and government become dominated by
French advisers.
• This represents an improvement, since French
bureaucracy is superior to that of Spain.
• The support of support of the Habsburg cause
by some regions provides a welcome pretext
for centralization, removing the traditional
liberties still enjoyed by these medieval
Spanish kingdoms.

Felipe V, the first Bourbon
• For the most part of the 18th
century the
Bourbon link with France, signing agreements
which become known as Family Compacts.
• Spain uses these conflicts, and the resulting
treaties, mainly to secure her possessions in
Italy, but some proved a costly disaster, like
the loss of Florida.
Louis XIV of France

The Bourbon Dynasty
Fernando VI

Fernando VI and the Marquis of Ensenada
• The great virtue of Fernando VI as ruler
was that he kept Spain at peace and
avoided further entanglement in European
struggles.
• His outstanding ministerial appointee, the
Marqués de la Ensenada, who tried to
reform taxes, advance commerce and the
navy, and promote the professional
interests of the middle classes.
• The last five years of the reign of
Fernando VI, who ultimately lapsed into
madness like his father, were a time of
vacuity and inaction.

The Bourbon Dynasty
Carlos III

Carlos III, the Enlightenment
• Fernando VI was succeeded by his half-brother Carlos
III (1759–1788), eldest son of Isabella Farnese and
until 1759 king of the Two Sicilies.
• His was the most enlightened and most prosperous
reign in modern Spanish history.
• Carlos III was a very well disciplined prince one and
much given to the out-of-doors and the chase.
• His record as ruler of the Two Sicilies was good:
• the enlightened despotism,
• Italian administrators and reformers to his
government in Spain.

• War against Britain (again as an ally of France, this
time in support of the American colonies).
benefits Menorca is won back from the British
in 1782, and Florida in 1783.
• During the reign of Carlos III, the Spanish empire
overseas reached its greatest extent.
• Also success in its relations with Muslim northwest
Africa:
• peace with Morocco, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli.

the reign of Carlos III owes its fame to its many domestic
reforms:
New efforts to improve urban government and administration,
Attempts to make taxation more equitable and efficient, and
raise the level of church appointments.
First efforts at agrarian reform in modern Spanish history.
Free internal commerce in grain.
The imperial canal of Aragón was completed and new
irrigation projects were started.

 Measures to improve education: establishment of the
royal academies.
 The first censuses were made.
 Work in peninsular cartography, historical archives of
the Indies and the crown of Aragón.
 A national road network was planned
 Paper money was first introduced and the first attempt
at a national bank.
 Currency was slowly becoming standardized in the
peseta.
 …..

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