Research on World Agricultural Economy | Vol.4,Iss.1 March 2023

Research on World Agricultural Economy
Editor-in-Chief
Guido Van Huylenbroeck, Ghent University, Belgium
Cheng Sun, China Branch of World Productivity Federation of Science and Technology; Academic Committee of the
United Nations NGO International Information Development Organization, China
Associate Editors
Jesus Simal-Gandara, University of Vigo, Spain
Filippo Sgroi, University of Palermo, Italy
Yu Sheng, Peking University, China
Editorial Board Members
Man-Keun Kim, Utah State University, United States
Fabian Capitanio, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
G M Monirul Alam, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Bangladesh; University of
Southern Queensland(USQ), Australia
Alberto J. Nunez-Selles, Universidad Nacional Evangelica (UNEV), Dominican Republic
Jiban Shrestha, National Plant Breeding and Genetics Research Centre, Nepal
Zhiguo Wang, China Association for Science and Technology, China
Xiaoyong Huang, International Energy Security Research Center, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, China
Giuseppe Pulighe, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA), Italy
Alamgir Ahmad Dar, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, India
Keshav D Singh, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Canada
K. Nirmal Ravi Kumar, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, India
Zhengbin Zhang, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Rishi Ram Kattel, Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal
Jianping Zhang, Chinese Academy of International Trade and Economic Cooperation, China
Lin Shen, China Agricultural University, China
Juan Sebastián Castillo Valero, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Kassa Tarekegn, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
Shahbaz Khan, National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan
Gioacchino Pappalardo, University of Catania, Italy
Alisher Tleubayev, Suleyman Demirel University, Kazakhstan
Ali Darub Kassar, University of Anbar, Iraq
Shaobo Long, Chongqing University, China
Wenjin Long, China Agricultural University, China

Volume 4 Issue 1 • March 2023 • ISSN 2737-4777 (Print) 2737-4785 (Online)
Research on World
Agricultural Economy
Editor-in-Chief
Guido Van Huylenbroeck
Cheng Sun

Volume 4 ｜ Issue 1 ｜ March 2023 ｜ Page1-82
Contents
Research Articles
1 Socioeconomic Assessment of Mandarin Postharvest Loss: A Case of Gandaki Province, Nepal
Yogendra Acharya Namdev Upadhyaya Sudha Sapkota
10 Assessment of Dairy Production System, Handling, Processing and Utilization Practices in South Ari and
Malle District of South Omo Zone, Ethiopia
Demerew Getaneh
25 A Multi-group Analysis of Gender Difference in Consumer Buying Intention of Agricultural Products via
Live Streaming
Bing Zhu Ping Xu Ke Wang
36 Farmer’s Perception on Climatic Factors and Social-economic Characteristics in the Agricultural Sector
of Gujarat
Ajay K. Singh Shah Nawaz Ashraf Sandeep Kumar Sharma
54 Economic Analysis of Locally Produced Aquaculture Feeds with Complements of Plant-based Ingredi-
ents in Kainji Lake Basin, Nigeria
Julius Emeka Omeje Anthonia Ifeyinwa Achike Godfrey O Nwabeze Lenient Mercy O Ibiyo
Samuel Preye Jimmy
62 Cluster-based Improved Sorghum Production and Commercialization in Nyangatom Woreda of South
Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia
Awoke Tadesse Asmera Adicha Tekle Yosef Anteneh Tadesse
73 The Contribution of Work Experience on Earnings Inequality of Migrant Workers: Decompositions
Based on the Quantile Regression Equation
Jiaqi Peng Jun Li Ling Ma Zhiwang Lv

1
Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 01 | March 2023
https://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i1.787
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by NanYang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
*Corresponding Author:
Yogendra Acharya,
Planning Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Singha Durbar Plaza, Kathmandu, P.O. Box 5459, Nepal;
Email: yogendraacharya9@gmail.com
Received: 2 December 2022; Received in revised form: 3 January 2023; Accepted: 10 January 2023; Published: 12
January 2023
Citation: Acharya, Y., Upadhyaya, N., Sapkota, S., 2023. Socioeconomic Assessment of Mandarin Postharvest
Loss: A Case of Gandaki Province, Nepal. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 4(1), 787. http://dx.doi.
org/10.36956/rwae.v4i1.787
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Socioeconomic Assessment of Mandarin Postharvest Loss: A Case of
Gandaki Province, Nepal
Yogendra Acharya1*
Namdev Upadhyaya1
Sudha Sapkota2
1. Planning Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Singha Durbar Plaza, Kathmandu, P.O. Box 5459, Nepal
2. Monitoring and Evaluation Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Singha Durbar Plaza, Kathmandu, P.O.
Box 5459, Nepal
Abstract: This study focused on the socioeconomic assessment of mandarin postharvest loss in the Gandaki Province
of Nepal. Two mandarin growing districts Tanahun and Syangja of Gandaki province were selected for study purposes.
A simple random method of sampling was employed to select 45 mandarin farmers from each district making a
total sample size of 90. Primary data were collected with the help of a pre-tested semi-structured interview schedule
along with two focus group discussions and field observation of the mandarin orchard. Data were analyzed by using
both descriptive and inferential statistics. This paper explored the mandarin production status, major post-harvest
practices, marketing channels, and barriers to post-harvest technology adoption. The findings revealed that farmers
were producing 5.4 tons of fresh mandarin each year earning around 50 thousand Nepalese rupees as profit from
mandarin farming. Similarly, the result showed that the post-harvest loss was 8%-9% during the harvesting, grading,
and packaging operation while a loss of 2%-3% was recorded during the transportation of mandarin from the production
site to the wholesaler site. In total, loss ranging from 14%-18% was recorded in all chains of mandarin postharvest
operations. Also, it was found that more than two-thirds (76.7%) of farmers practiced mandarin marketing based on pre-
harvest contracts. The technical know-how of farmers about post-harvest technologies was a major challenge associated
with the low adoption of mandarin post-harvest technologies. The concerned government agency, I/NGOs, and other
organizations need to emphasize post-harvest loss issues by incorporating loss minimization activities in their program
ensuring higher adoption of postharvest technologies by mandarin farmers and traders.
Keywords: Agro-pastoralists perception; Post-harvest; Mandarin; Technology; Adoption

2
1. Introduction
Citrus, particularly mandarin fruit (Citrus reticulate
Blanco) is one of the most important and highly commer-
cial fruit crops in Nepal. Mandarin being a sub-tropical
fruit is highly suitable for undulating and marginal topog-
raphy of the country. It is grown widely in mid hills of
Nepal covering 56 districts of Nepal. Mandarin plays a
significant role in the national economy which contributes
0.97% share in AGDP and 0.33% in GDP [1,2]
. Production
and marketing of mandarin fruit is an important source
of income not just for mandarin farmers and traders, but
also provides seasonal employment for many agriculture
laborers. Mandarin being a non-climacteric and perishable
fruit, losses of mandarin fruit during harvesting, handling
and marketing are reported to vary between different per-
centages. In Nepal the postharvest loss for citrus fruit was
estimated from 15%-20% [3]
. Minimizing postharvest loss
of mandarin fruit is a very effective way to increase fruit
availability and reduce the cost of cultivation for farmers
which ultimately helps increase farmers’ income.
Although mandarin has been grown widely as an im-
portant commercial fruit crop in mid-hilly terrain, farmers
are not fully acquainted with orchard management and
post-harvest practices. Despite the ecological advantage,
the production of mandarin fruits is still insufficient to
meet the domestic demand of the country. Mandarin culti-
vation provides a better profitable farming option to hilly
farmers; however considerable attention has not been
given to increasing post-harvest loss issues. Although the
losses of mandarin fruits differ upon many factors as like
management techniques, topography, climate, and varie-
ties, the shelf life of horticulture production is greatly
influenced by adopted postharvest management practices.
Similarly, in the case of diverse farmers’ economic condi-
tions and the farmers’ involvement in fruit production,
there exist several issues related to production and post-
harvest practices. The adoption of post-harvest technolo-
gies at the farmers’ level demands awareness, knowledge
and thereafter decision process. Mostly men are involved
in decision-making tasks and most commonly those works
which require more physical strength. Unlike this, emale
are more likely expected to do manual and repetitive
works which do not require more physical strength but
encounter a lot of drudgeries [4]
. The development of suit-
able post-harvest technologies and their wider adoption
among all mandarin farmers is crucial into reducing post-
harvest losses. Reducing post-harvest losses can bring
more food without bringing additional land in production
and all post-harvest horticulturist need to coordinate their
effort with those involved in production to the marketing
system [5,6]
. Although post-harvest is a worldwide issue, its
challenge and impact are more prominent in developing
countries like Nepal. Keeping this in view, a socio-eco-
nomic assessment of mandarin post-harvest loss has been
carried out to understand farmers’ knowledge and practice
on post-harvest activities and associated losses in different
stages of mandarin post-harvest operations.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study Area
The research was conducted in two districts of Gandaki
province. Out of eleven, nine districts of Gandaki prov-
ince are somehow popular for mandarin production except
for Manang and Mustang. Both Syangja and Tanahun dis-
tricts were purposively selected for the study purpose as
both districts rank first and second in terms of production
area [1]
. In total four locations were identified from two
districts. Mygde and Shuklagandaki rural municipalities
of Tanahun and Putalibazar and Arjunchaupari Munici-
palities of Syangja were selected for study purposes.
2.2 Primary Information
Primary data were collected by using pretested inter-
view schedule administered to the 90 mandarin-growing
farmers. Two focus group discussions were organized to
get surplus and validate the information. Mandarin Or-
chard, collection centers were visited in the study site in
two districts of Gandaki province. Apart from farmers,
AKC and farmers’ super zone program under PMAM-
project was consulted for gathering all mandarin related
information.
2.3 Secondary Information and Data Analysis
Mandarin-related reports, scientific papers and books
were reviewed to get the required secondary information
on mandarin post-harvest-related technology. Data entry
and analysis were done by using Statistical Package for
Social Science (SPSS) and Microsoft excel software pack-
age. Socio-demographic characters, mandarin production,
and post-harvest loss were analyzed by using descriptive
tools such as frequencies, percentages and mean as per
need. Similarly, the barriers to the adoption of postharvest
loss minimization technologies were ranked by using a
five-point scale (Figure 1). The index related to the bar-
rier factor was calculated by using the weightage average
mean. The index of intensity was computed by using the
following formula and ranking scale.
Iprob = ∑Sifi/N,
where, Iprob = Index value for intensity

3
Si = Scale value for the ith intensity
Fi = Frequency of the ith intensity
N = Total number of respondent
Iprob= Index ((0<I<1)
Figure 1. Five-point ranking scale.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Study on Knowledge, Perception and Adop-
tion of Postharvest Technology along the Supply
Chain
3.1.1 Descriptive Statistics of Variable
The descriptive statistics of variables include the demo-
graphic and socio-economic variables of surveyed house-
holds. Table 1 represents the mean, standard deviation and
minimum maximum value of the given variables. Mainly
age, gender, education, farming experience, migration and
mandarin cultivation status were some major variables
given in the table. Mainly the average age of the respond-
ent was 52 years with an age range from 22 to 79 years. In
the case of gender, the majority of them were male (80%).
The literacy level of the surveyed households was classi-
fied as the number of schooling years. The result indicated
that the average education level was 7 years of schooling.
Also, outmigration for an employment opportunity is an
important variable that indicates the status of household
labor supply and household income status. The result
showed that 43% of households had at least one member
engaged in an overseas job. Similarly farming experience
of respondent households can be considered an important
variable as it is helpful in determining the choice behav-
ior of farmers in adopting production and postharvest
technologies. In this study, it was found that farmers have
been cultivating mandarin for 18 years on average. Farm-
ers have been growing mandarin traditionally since long
ago, however production areas may vary as per land area
availability and interest of farmers. Likewise, on average,
the number of parcels used for mandarin production was
found 2.26 in the study area. The detail of the value is
given in Table 1.
3.1.2 Mandarin Farming
Information regarding total mandarin plants, number
of fruiting plants, sold quantity and annual income from
mandarin was collected during the household survey. The
result showed that farmers have been cultivating mandarin
plants from 30 to 2500 in number. The average holding of
the mandarin plant by farmers was 294 plants per house-
hold while the value decreases to 178 plants if considering
only fruiting mandarin plants per household (Table 2).
Most of the farmers have been cultivating mandarin as a
major farming business and one of the important sources
of household income. In most cases, farmer earned their
income by selling fresh fruit to traders and pre-harvest
contractors. The finding indicated that on average farmers
sold 5.3 tons of mandarin per year. Also, results showed
that mandarin has contributed 50 thousand per year to
farmers’ annual profit by selling fresh mandarin.
3.1.3 Social Class (Caste)-wise Number of Man-
darin Plants
There exists a social class category in most societies.
In this study, three major classes were identified, Brah-
min/Chettri, Janajati and Dalit. Among them majority of
respondents were Brahmin/Chettri (62%), followed by
Janajati (22%) and Dalit (16%) (Table 3). The Brahmins/
Chettri was the dominating caste in the surveyed area as
shown below in the table. The results showed that among
Table 1. Demographic variables.
Variables Value Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
Age of respondent Year in number 51.58 13.680 22 79
Education Years in number 6.96 4.762 0 17
Outmigration Abroad, yes=1, otherwise=0 0.43 0.498 0 1
Experience in mandarin farming Years in number 18.30 10.883 1 45
Total cultivated land Land area in ropani*
12.51 12.885 0 92
Land allocated for Mandarin Land area in ropani 8.40 9.97 1 80
No. of parcel for Mandarin Number of parcel 2.26 1.32 1 7
* Ropani= 508.74 m2
Source: Field survey (2020).

4
three groups, Brahmins have a higher average holding of
mandarin plants in their orchards than others.
3.1.4 Training Received by Mandarin Farmers
Figure 2 showed that farmers received a different kind
of mandarin training. Among them, most farmers had re-
ceived mandarin production-related training (37.8%) fol-
lowed by orchard management training (32.2%). The per-
centage of farmers getting postharvest training was quite
less as compared to production and orchard management
training. Only 10% of farmers were trained in postharvest
knowledge and skills. Likewise training onthe marketing-
related issue was negligible, and only 3.3% of farmers
were lucky to receive such training. These low percent-
ages indicated that concerned institutions and programs
had given less priority to postharvest and market-related
training.
3.2 Mandarin Postharvest Operation, Farmer’s
Knowledge and Practice
3.2.1 Harvesting Criteria, Time and Collection
Harvesting criteria are considered the beginning step of
the postharvest operation. The different types of harvest-
ing criteria may affect the postharvest quality of mandarin
Table 2. Mandarin plant and annual income.
Variables Value Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
Total Mandarin plants (fruiting and non-fruiting) Number of plant 293.53 357.92 30 2500
Fruiting mandarin plants Number of fruiting plants 177.18 275.40 0 2000
Last season mandarin production Production in kg 5481.13 12175 0 75000
Last season sold mandarin Sold mandarin in kg 5380.19 12195.67 0 75000
Total annual profit from mandarin Annual profit in NPR 49475 144818.93 0 950000
Source: Field survey (2020)
Table 3. Caste-wise mandarin plants.
Caste N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Minimum Maximum
Brahmin/Chettri 56 317.16 420.799 56.232 30 2500
Janajati 20 277.10 239.271 53.503 30 750
Dalit 14 222.50 189.643 50.684 50 600
Total 90 293.53 357.921 37.728 30 2500
37.80%
32.20%
10%
3.30%
62.20%
67.80%
90%
96.70%
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
120.00%
Mandarin production training Orchard management training Postharvest related training Marketing related training
Total Yes
Total No
Training received by farmers
Figure 2. Training received by mandarin farmers.

5
to some extent. The result showed that most farmers fol-
low mandarin harvesting based on the color of the fruit
(54%) followed by the order of traders (28%). Also some
farmers decide to harvest mandarin as per market price.
The timing of mandarin harvesting could affect the
shelf life of mandarin after harvest. In most cases, farmers
do harvest mandarin fruit in the late morning time (53.3%),
however still many farmers (45.6%) harvest fruits in the
midday time. Higher temperatures during midday time
and subsequent handling practices could affect the post-
harvest quality of mandarin. Similarly, the result showed
that after harvest, the majority of farmers used a plastic
crate to collect the harvested fruits followed by a local bam-
boo bucket (38%) (Figure 3). However, still some farmers
were using jute/plastic sacks to collect the mandarin.
0
44.50%
37.80%
16.70%
1.10%
Plastic Crate
Bamboo bucket/Doko
Jute/Plastic Sacks
Other
Figure 3. Collection of mandarin fruits after harvest.
3.2.2 Sorting of Mandarin after Mandarin Harvest
Mandarin sorting after harvesting helps to avoid mixing
fresh and healthy fruits with diseased and damaged fruits.
Generally commercial farmers were more aware of sorting
operations than normal farmers. The result depicted that
almost 89% of farmers performed sorting operations sepa-
rating 2.2% of mandarin as damaged and diseased ones.
3.2.3 Management of Sorted Mandarin
Farmers performing sorting operations were asked
to know what they do with sorted fruits. The findings
showed that more than one-third of farmers (35.6%) did
nothing with sorted fruits and left those decayed fruits in
the orchard. In general, it is not suggested to leave those
affected fruits in the orchard as it helps to spread disease
infection and create a favorable environment for the pest
population (Figure 4). Similarly, the result indicated that
34.4% of farmers were utilizing those sorted mandarin by
making local wine. Among wine-making households, it
became a source of small income for female member by
selling homemade wine to local hotels and neighbors.
3.2.4 Mandarin Grading and Criteria for Grading
Mandarin grading is one of the important and popu-
lar postharvest operations among commercial mandarin
growers. In this case selling purpose-graded mandarin
fetches higher price than non-graded mandarin. Among
surveyed farmers, almost all farmers (96%) had been prac-
ticing grading operations. The common method of man-
darin grading at a local level is a traditional method. The
first choice of a farmer to grade their mandarin is based on
the size and shape of the fruits. Farmers grade their fruits
by deciding on the greater size, middle size and small-
est size (locally called Jethi, Maili and Kanchi). Besides,
some farmers also perform grading operations based on
the color of fruits (24.4%) followed by damage made by
inspecting pests (16.3%) and physical injury (12.8%).
3.2.5 Farmers’ Knowledge on Mandarin Process-
ing Operation
Due to its perishable nature, the processing of hor-
ticultural crops is considered one of the key operations
addressing postharvest loss issues. Further it helps to add
monetary value to the product too. Although processing
operation in mandarin is quite popular, farmers in the
35.60%
20%
10%
34.40%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
Left in orchard Throw in open pit Burry in pit Local wine making and other
Management of sorted mandarin
Figure 4. Management of sorted mandarin by farmers.

6
studied area were found to be less aware. Only 45% of
farmers knew it while 43% of farmers were unaware of
it (Figure 5). The reason behind less awareness among
farmers might be due to no surplus production in the main
season. All the products get marketed easily, local and
pre-harvest contractors play the lead role in marketing ac-
tivity.
44.40%
12.20%
43.30%
Yes Little bit No
Figure 5. Farmers’ knowledge on mandarin processing
operation.
3.2.6 Packaging Materials for Mandarin
Plastic crate use was highly popular among mandarin
farmers. Almost 98% of farmers had adopted plastic crates
as a means for mandarin packaging. The types of packag-
ing materials use greatly determine the extent of damage
during subsequent handling, storage and transportation.
Among different materials, some farmers (5.6%) were us-
ing a bamboo bucket (doko) followed by paper cartoons
(1.1%) (Figure 6). In the past decade, farmers used to face
significant loss of mandarin annually due to not adopting
proper packaging materials, but the trend of using plastic
create has increased rapidly these days. However, still
some farmers are forced to use a local bamboo bucket and
even jute sacks due to the unavailability of plastic create.
In some cases, carrying mandarin in the plastic crate was
found difficult due to difficult hilly terrain.
5.60%
97.80%
1.10% 2.20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Bamboo Doko Plastic crate Paper carton Other
Packaging materials
Figure 6. Packaging materials use for mandarin.
Although plastic crates are simple and common pack-
aging materials, their availability at local a level is ques-
tionable. In general, the cost for one piece of the crate
goes from 400 to 700 Nepali rupees which can hold up
to 20-22 kg of mandarin. However the durability of crate
was reported to be less satisfactory for farmers. Also for a
local contractor, the life span of one crate is no more than
one year and for wholesalers at the national level; one
crate can be used hardly for six months only.
3.3 Mandarin Transportation
Depending upon packaging materials means of trans-
portation, road condition and temperature a large volume
of loss occurs during mandarin transportation. Figure 6
revealed that pick-up was the most used means of trans-
portation for mandarin. Apart from a pickup, 28% farmers
were using mini trucks and 12% of farmers were trans-
porting mandarin manually (Figure 7). The result sug-
gested that farmers’ preference was higher for pick up and
still some farmers were not connected with vehicle trans-
portation.
56.70%
27.80%
12.20%
1.10% 2.20%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Pick up Mini truck Manual Three wheeler/auto Others
Transportation means
Figure 7. Transportation means for Mandarin.
3.4 Mandarin Marketing
Farmers act as the primary producer of mandarin. In
general, farmers were involved as primary sellers whereas
contractors, traders were primary buyers. Mainly farmers,
and preharvest contractors/traders were the main actors
involved in the marketing of mandarin, however, the role
of traders was always dominating in purchasing mandarin
from producers and supplying it to other districts [7]
. The
result showed that more than two third of farmers (76.7%)
preferred mandarin marketing by means of contractors.
Those pre-harvest contractors usually visit the farmers’
field after a few months of fruiting and negotiate the total
value of the whole orchard with the producers. Different
criteria such as the number of fruit trees, number of fruits
per tree, shape, etc were used by both contractors and pro-
ducers to finalize the monetary value of the orchard. After
contract fixation, farmers were free to look after their
mandarin; all tasks like harvesting, grading, packaging

7
and transporting of fruits were done pre-harvest harvest
contractors. Although the contract basis of marketing was
popular among farmers the profit margin of farmers had
been compromised greatly. Farmers preferred pre-harvest
contracts because of the low risk associated with harvesting
and transportation.
3.5 Post-harvest Loss at Different Stage of Post-
harvest Operation
Since mandarin is a perishable and non-climacteric
fruit, it shows great losses after harvesting. Worldwide
postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables are high, but the
rate is even higher for developing nation. The questions
on perceived postharvest loss at different steps of posthar-
vest operation were asked to mandarin farmers to assess
the loss calculation. The study reported that higher loss
was observed at the harvesting stage (3.14%) followed by
transportation (2.95%) and the lowest loss was found in
the packaging operation (1.2%). In total, mandarin post-
harvest loss from harvesting to transportation stage was
11.41% in the first stage of marketing (Figure 8).
3.6 Barrier to Postharvest Technology Adoption
Nepal faces the great postharvest loss of mandarin an-
nually due to not adopting proper handling practices dur-
ing different stages of postharvest operations. Minimizing
these losses is only possible when farmers start adopting
postharvest loss-minimizing technologies. As farming is
subsistence in nature, the problems of mandarin farmers
are mostly associated with a lack of technical knowledge
related to production and marketing [8,9]
. However, at the
field level, farmers hesitate to adopt available postharvest
technology due to technical and other reasons. The study
results showed that a lack of knowledge of postharvest
technology was the most important barrier to adopting
available postharvest technologies (Table 4). Further,
farmers believed that adopting those technologies was
more expensive for them and also lack of reliable exten-
sion service had made farmers more reluctant to technol-
ogy adoption.
3.7 Marketing Channel and Postharvest Loss
Mandarin reaches consumers’ hands through the in-
3.14%
2.12% 2.00%
1.20%
2.95%
0.00%
0.50%
1.00%
1.50%
2.00%
2.50%
3.00%
3.50%
Harvesting Storage Grading Packaging Transportation
Post harvest loass at different stages of postharvest operation
Figure 8. Post-harvest loss at different stages of postharvest operation.
Table 4. Barrier to the adoption of postharvest loss minimization technology.
Barrier
Score/Frequency
Index value Rank
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Lack of reliable extension service 16 47 10 1 16 0.70 III
Lack of knowledge about PH technologies 38 49 1 0 2 0.87 I
Credit constraint 10 36 29 2 13 0.33 V
Unwillingness to adopt technologies 6 32 31 3 18 0.61 IV
High cost of technology adoption 13 50 22 1 4 0.75 II

8
volvement of different actors like producers, preharvest
contractors, wholesalers and retailers. The route through
which mandarin from orchard to consumers is marketed
is commonly called a marketing channel. In the study
site, the majority of mandarin farmers preferred contract-
based marketing to preharvest contractors or local traders.
A postharvest loss of 8%-9% was recorded for harvest-
ing, grading and packaging operation. A loss of 2%-3%
was noted during the transportation of mandarin from the
production site to the wholesaler site. The study showed
that the total postharvest loss of mandarin within the chain
goes up from 14% to 18% (Figure 9). The study done by
Gangwar [10]
in India also found that aggregate post-har-
vest losses of kinnow mandarin from orchard to consumer
in two different market ranges from 14.87% in Delhi mar-
ket to 21.91 in Banglore market.
Figure 9. Marketing channel and postharvest loss.
3.8 Economic Gain
The observed postharvest loss of mandarin was 14% to
18% within the chain from production to consumer site.
As per production data, the country had produced 0.17
million MT of mandarin with productivity of 10.30 MT/
Ha [11]
. The the loss of mandarin in different stages of post-
harvest operations indicates not only the loss of fresh pro-
duce but also loss of money in importing mandarin from
a foreign country. The two ways loss caused by a higher
rate of postharvest loss can be minimized is by increasing
the adoption of postharvest loss minimization technol-
ogy at the farmer’s level. In general, it was estimated that
reducing postharvest loss by at least 7% would be a direct
gain of 620 million annually. If it was the case, it would
also check Nepalese currency to go out of the country for
importing mandarin.
4. Conclusions
Mandarin contributes as a high-value fruit crop in the
hilly area of Nepal from east to west helping cash earning
for marginalized and poor farmers. The study indicated
post-harvest loss ranges from 13%-18% in different stages
of post-harvest operation. Although various that post-
harvest technologies have been recommended, farmers
face a great loss of mandarin annually due to not adopting
proper post-harvest technologies during different stages of
post-harvest operation. Most farmers had adopted plastic
crates as one of the viable means of post-harvest technolo-
gies. Uses of the plastic crate have increased rapidly these
days playing an important role in minimizing post-harvest
loss of mandarin to some extent. Promoting postharvest
technologies within farmers’ and traders’ practices could
be the best solution to reduce the direct loss of fresh man-
darin fruits which ultimately minimizes the import quan-
tity of mandarin from a foreign country. Similarly, there
exist issues of higher price spread in the mandarin value
chain. Poor marketing systems and weak institutional
mechanisms could be major reasons behind it. Reliable
extension service should be made easily available and
extensional personnel should be regularly trained with
recent postharvest management technologies. To make
an impact, concerned programs and organization need to
incorporate postharvest management activities in their
programs ensuring that mandarin farmers and traders can
be better involved in reducing postharvest loss.
Author Contributions
The corresponding author took the lead in writing the
manuscript while all other co-authors provided critical
feedback and helped in analysis, interpretation, and manu-
script preparation.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the VCDP/KOICA project for fund-
ing this research. Similarly, our sincere appreciation
goes to Nepal Agricultural Research Council and to all
respondent farmers and traders for their valuable time and
suggestions.
Data Availability
All data are available in the main text or in the support-
ing materials, whereas raw data can be obtained from the
corresponding author upon request.

9
Conflict of Interest
The authors disclosed no any conflict of interest.
References
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10
Received: 16 November 2022; Received in revised form: 10 January 2023; Accepted: 30 January 2023; Published: 16
February 2023
Citation: Getaneh, D., 2023. Assessment of Dairy Production System, Handling, Processing and Utilization Practices
in South Ari and Malle District of South Omo Zone, Ethiopia. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 4(1), 773.
http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i1.773
Demerew Getaneh,
Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Jinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 96 Jinka, Ethiopia;
Email: getademe12@gmail.com
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Assessment of Dairy Production System, Handling, Processing and
Utilization Practices in South Ari and Malle District of South Omo
Zone, Ethiopia
Demerew Getaneh*
Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Jinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 96 Jinka, Ethiopia
Abstract: Milk is produced, processed and utilized in different parts of Ethiopia and the majority in rural areas is
processed at the household level into milk products using traditional technologies and marketed through informal
channels. This study was initiated to assess and describe the traditional knowledge of milk production, handling,
processing and utilization practices in South Ari and Malle district. Three dairy potential Kebeles from each district
were selected via a purposive sampling procedure. Then, 196 households were selected through a systematic random
sampling procedure. Data were collected using a semi-structure questionnaire and analyzed by SPSS (Version 23)
software. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in livestock composition across the study districts. About 75%
in South Ari and 72.9% in Malle have their own grazing land. Feed shortage (73%) and improved breed access (26%)
in South Ari, and feed shortage (52.1%), drought (44.8%) in Malle were among the main constraints affecting dairying.
About 65% of South Ari used plastic buckets for milking and clay pots for fermentation and churning. In Malle
88.5% used calabash containers for milking, accumulation and churning. The average days of raw milk fermentation
before churning in South Ari and Malle were 4.2 ± 0.1 and 2.9 ± 0.0 days. The average butter-making time was
63.4 ± 1.8 minutes in both districts. The amount of milk fermented and butter produced from this fermented milk is
significantly different (P < 0.05) across districts. Nearly 95% of South Ari milk is traditionally processed into yogurt,
butter, buttermilk and cheese; and used for home consumption and marketing. However, in Malle 72.9% of yogurt and
buttermilk processing is used for home consumption; and 26% of butter processing is only used for marketing. It is
possibly concluded that dairy production was commonly practiced and it was a good source of income in both districts.
Therefore, it is vigorous to support the dairy linkage with extension services by enhancing the input provision.
Keywords: Milk production; Handling; Processing; South Omo; Utilization practices

11
1. Introduction
Agriculture is the lifeblood and the main economic
backbone of Ethiopia and livestock is an essential share of
the agricultural sector [1]
. Ethiopia has the huge livestock
population in Africa and the estimated livestock popula-
tion in Ethiopia were 70 million head of cattle, 42.9 mil-
lion sheep, 52.5 million goats, 2.15 million horses, 10.80
million donkeys, 0.38 million mules and about 8.1 million
camels [2]
. Livestock husbandry in Ethiopia is an essential
and integral sector of agriculture and rural livelihood con-
tributing about 17%-25.3% of the national gross domestic
product (GDP) and 39%-49% of agricultural GDP and
over 50% of household income [3]
, 12%-15% of the export
earnings and 60%-70% provide for employment [4]
. The
livestock in Ethiopia is amended to different agroecolo-
gies of the highlands (mixed livestock farming system)
to the lowlands (extensive nomadic farming system) [5]
.
Despite the current immense potential for the dairy sector
due to vast livestock resources and promising environ-
mental conditions, the potential of the dairy industry in
Ethiopia has not been boosted [6]
. Now a day, the dairy
sector has persisted constrained by multi-faceted produc-
tion and reproduction-related constraints among which
feed sources and feeding systems, poor genetic potential,
poor health follow-up, poor access to services and inputs,
low adoption and limited access to improved technologies,
marketing and other factors are listed [7]
. Currently, Ethio-
pia has a deficiency of dairy products and due to this im-
ports these products from other countries [8]
. Furthermore,
to increase dairy production from each animal, it is better
to increase the productivity of these animals in terms of
improved management practice because the current milk
production per cow is relatively low even with fairly some
potential for improvement. This low production potential
of milk needs to further improve the productivity of dairy
cattle through improving animal health, particularly udder
and reproductive health [9]
.
In Ethiopia, the huge majority of milk produced and
processed in rural areas is at the home level into milk
products such as yogurt, Butter, Ghee, and Cheese using
old-style technologies and marketed through informal
channels [10]
. Diversified fermented milk products are
made and consumed in many parts of the country. As it is
known that milk is exceedingly perishable by nature, con-
sequently it requires emphasizing care starting from pro-
duction up to consumption particularly in handling during
milking, collection and succeeding storage and transporta-
tion. In the fact that, milk is fairly perishable and a high
percentage of it is consumed in a relatively natural state
due to this, milk and its products handling to preserve its
natural characteristics are very vital [11]
. The less perish-
ability of milk products, the longer the smallholders can
preserve it to gain a good price and the surplus—made
during the milk production season can be also stored for
consumption during the season of the products in short
supply. In different parts of the country the milk produc-
ers add different spices to butter as a preservative way to
enhance its natural flavor for cooking [11]
.
Storage stability problems of dairy products are intensi-
fied by ambient temperatures and distances that producers
have to travel to bring the products to market places mak-
ing it necessary for smallholders to seek products with a
better shelf life. The first step that the product handlers
can take to ensure a high-quality product is to make as-
sured that the production and industrialized process are
should be hygienic [11]
. The southern nation is the highest
and second region in milk production potential next to
Oromia region in Ethiopia [12]
. Though the kinds of materi-
als utilized for milking, storage and processing differ from
place to place, about 50% of milk producers used tradi-
tional clay pots for churning milk, about 25% used plastic
vessels, 6.3% aluminum cans and 18.3% used calabash
in the southern part of Ethiopia [13]
. Additionally, a clay
pot or calabash is used as a churner to make butter in the
Gurage zone [14]
and also the clay pot is used for churning
milk (100%) in West Shewa Zone, Oromia Region [15]
.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess and describe
the traditional knowledge of milk production, handling,
processing and utilization practices in South Ari and Malle
district.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Areas
The study was conducted in milk-producing potential
areas in and around South Ari and Malle district (Table 1).
Table 1. Study areas.
Parameters
Districts
South Ari Malle
Areas 1520 km2
1432 km2
Altitude
850-2800 m above sea
level
600-1500 m above sea
level
Mean annual rainfall 100-1600 mm 800-1200 mm
Temperature 15 and 35°C 18-35°C
Sources: Demerew, G.[5]
.
2.2 Sampling Procedure and Data Collection
A rapid pre-study survey was conducted at the zone
level with the help of Agricultural Development Offices

12
to identify milk producers who reared dairy cattle and
milk production potential areas in both district’s agro-
ecological zones; for this current study South Ari and
Malle district were purposively selected depend on the
potential of milk production and from the total Kebeles in
the two districts in the first phase potential sites (Kebeles)
in milk production was purposely selected with the assis-
tance of the office of agriculture information. In the sec-
ond phase, from the potential Kebeles six Kebeles were
selected randomly each three Kebeles from a district. In
the third phase, the numbers of sampled households from
each sampled site were determined from the lists of these
households by using proportional to the size. Hence, the
relative homogeneity of households based on their so-
cioeconomic features and living style sample was drawn
through a simple random sampling technique from each
selected Kebele.
Accordingly, a total of 196 households (100 households
from South Ari and 96 households from Malle) represent-
ing the two districts and who had at least one dairy cow
and were interested to participate in the study were selected
through a systematic random sampling procedure and indi-
vidually interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire.
The questionnaire was designed based on how to get infor-
mation related to milk production and its utilization which
includes milk product types, methods of handling, process-
ing and marketing. Furthermore, to validate the survey in-
formation a semi-structured questionnaire was prepared and
information on their status was collected from key inform-
ants or producers who were found within the two districts.
Primary and secondary data were used for the analysis.
Different age and gender groups such as elders, youth and
women were involved in the study.
2.3 Sample Size Determination
The basic factors to be considered to determine the ap-
propriate sample size are the level of precision required
by users, the confidence level desired and the degree of
variability. It is determined by using a simplified formula
provided by Kothari [16]
.
n = 2 
2 −1 +2
where, n is the sample size for a finite population; n is the
size of the population which was the number of house-
holds in the districts; p: population reliability (or fre-
quency estimated for a sample of size n); p was 0.5 which
was taken for all developing countries population and p +
q= 1. e: margin of error considered was 7%. Zα/2: normal
reduced variable at 0.05 level of significance and z 1.96.
The sampling unit in this study was households and the
sampling frame was all the six Kebeles household lists
that were available in the Kebeles. Therefore, based on the
above formula the number of households to be sampled
was determined.
2.4 Statistical Analysis
The data collected were coded and analyzed qualitatively
and quantitatively using SPSS version 23.0 (IBM, USA)
software for all the statistical analyses to compute descriptive
statistics for the variables. Descriptive statistics, like means,
percentages and standard error of the means were used to
present the results. The Chi-square (χ2
) test was used to com-
pare proportions of categorical variables among the districts.
A t-test was used to compare means. The differences were
considered significant at p < 0.05.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Livestock Composition
The study indicated that there was a statistical differ-
ence (P < 0.05) in livestock composition across study
districts (Table 2). The numbers of goats, cattle, sheep
and chickens were higher in (P < 0.05) the Malle district.
There was no significant difference in the numbers of
cross-breed cattle reared between the two studied districts.
The current results for the number of goats and sheep
were higher than Ayeneshet [17]
who reported 6.66 and
5.59 goats and sheep, respectively in North Gondar Zone.
The cattle holdings in the Malle district are higher than
those reported by Girma [18]
. This indicates that following
goat, cattle holding per household are the second highest
proportion in the Malle district. The high numbers of cat-
tle followed by goats, particularly in the lowlands may be
due to the local culture and cattle are considered sources
of wealth and social pride, often given off as dowry; these
show cattle play various roles in the livelihood of their
keepers [5]
.
Table 2. Livestock species (mean ± SE).
Livestock species
Districts
South Ari Malle Overall
Cattle (local) 5.8 ± 0.3b
12.2 ± 0.9a
9.0 ± 0.5
Cattle (cross) 3.6 ± 0.3 2.5 ± 0.3 3.4 ± 0.2
Goats 1.7 ± 0.4b
13.6 ± 1.7a
11.2 ± 1.4
Sheep 3.7 ± 0.3b
5.5 ± 0.9a
4.4 ± 0.4
Chicken (local) 3.7 ± 0.3b
5.5 ± 0.9a
4.4 ± 0.4
Chicken (cross) 6.5 ± 0.5 6.6 ± 0.6 6.5 ± 0.3
n = number of respondents; SE = standard error; a;b = values
with different superscripts in a row differ significantly P < 0.05.

13
3.2 Feed Source and Feeding Practices
Feed resources and feeding practices in the studied
areas are presented in Table 3. The accessibility of feed
resources in the study districts depends on the seasons. As
respondents revealed, crop residues and natural pasture
are the major sources of feed in the study areas with 55%
and 53.1% for South Ari and Malle district, respectively.
However, most of the research studies reported that natu-
ral pastures are dominant as a source of animal feed [19-21]
.
It has been also reported that the pasture quality has
been declining over time. This can be ascribed to bush
encroachments, overgrazing and other many anthropo-
genic factors. The majority in South Ari (75%) and Malle
(72.9%) districts have grazing land for their livestock.
This result was similar to the report of CSA [2]
which
reported grazing is the major type of feed (54.54%) fol-
lowed by crop residue which is 31.13%. Nearest to the
current result, in the central highlands of Ethiopia, the
dominant sources of dairy cattle feed resources were crop
residues, hay, communal pasture, private pasture, concen-
trates and improved forage [22,23]
. About 61% of South Ari
district private grazing holders and about 39.6% of Malle
district communal grazing landholders were observed as
the main sources of green fodder. The current result is also
comparable with the result of Ayeneshet [17]
in the Alefa
district North Gondar Zone. Free grazing is reported to
predominate in the Malle district (63.5%). Overstocking
livestock in one place may excessively lead to overgraz-
ing and there may be fights among the bulls, particularly
during the mating (breeding) season. However, keeping cat-
tle together has numerous merits as it requires less labor, it
provides safety to the cows and their calves. Demerew et al. [5]
reported that feeding cattle through rotational grazing is
better than continuous grazing to improve natural graz-
ing pastures in terms of quantity and quality. On the other
hand, the zero-grazing feeding technique will also in-
crease productivity compared to rotational grazing [17]
.
3.3 Major Problems Related to Dairy Cattle Pro-
duction
3.3.1 Seasonal Feed Shortage and Supplementary
Practice
Seasonal feed shortage is a common phenomenon in
South Ari (97%) and Malle (94.8%) districts, respectively
Table 4. The main season of feed shortage in South Ari
(82%) and Malle (96.9%) districts was during prolonged
seasonal fluctuation. During the short rainy season in both
districts frequent feed shortages are common particularly
in Malle the duration of the rainy season shortens and the
drought is persistent. The common seasons of feed short-
age in South Ari district were starting from the beginning
of December to the end of February. In Malle district
feed shortage starts from the middle of December to the
end of April. The majority of the respondent in South Ari
(92%) district practiced supply of supplementary feed to
their dairy cow and while in Malle district only 33.33%
were having experience giving supplementary feed. The
rest 66.7% of respondents in this area have not practiced
Table 3. Feed resources and feeding practices (%).
Districts
Activities South Ari Malle Overall X2
Have you grazing land for your animals? 0.44
Yes 75 72.9 74
No 25 27.1 26
What type of grazing land do you use? 0.04*
Communal 27 39.6 33.2
Private 61 37.5 49.5
What is feed sources for your animals? 0.09
Natural pasture 33 39.6 36.3
Crop Residues 12 73 48.5
Both (natural pasture & crop residues) 55 53.1 81.5
Grazing/feeding methods animals? 0.00**
Stall feeding 3 0 1.5
Zero grazing (cut and carry system) 4 0 2
Open grazing (Herding) 13 63.5 38.2
Tethering 80 36.5 58.2
The values observed between the two Districts were significantly different at *
(X2
< 0.05);**
(X2
< 0.01); X2
= Pearson Chi-square.

14
any supplementation. The reason for this is that the area
is infected by prolonged drought and most of the time the
animal used free grazing due to a shortage of fodder. In
South Ari district 61.9% of forage that is frequently used
as subsidized feeds was a mixture of Arkinti and Girawa
(Figure 2a), white banana leaf or Gumiza (local name)
(Figure 1b), Arkinti (local name) (Figure 1c), Girawa
(Figure 1d), coffee leaf and crop residues. Particularly,
the white banana variety is better in terms of resistance to
drought, so it is fodder for cattle. The remaining supple-
mentary feeds were improved forage (21.6%), gruel (muk)
with salt (15.4%) and Atela (1.1%) whereas in Malle
district 47.5% of respondents supplemented their dairy
cow banana leaf (white) or Gumiza (local name), crop by
product and coffee leaf (in some instance). In Malle Atela
(37.5%), improved forage (12.5%) and Gruel (muk) with
salt (2.5%) were used as supplementary feeds for the dairy
cow during the dry season.
According to respondents, Arkinti (grass type) and gi-
rawa (leaf) by mixing together and boiled or mixed with
boiling/steaming water and salt are added to it to increase
milk yield when given to dairy cattle. The reason why it
is boiled in boiling water is to reduce the bitterness of the
milk from girawa. The respondents assumed that, when
the animals eat girawa leaves it makes their blood bit-
ter so that the flies and insects do not land on them and
protected themselves. Because girawa has a bitter effect
on milk, it is given to dairy cattle in small amounts or by
mixing with Arkinti (grass type).
3.3.2 Constraints Related to Dairy Cattle Produc-
tion
According to Sintayehu et al. [24]
constraints and prob-
lems related to dairy production differ from one produc-
tion system to another and from location to location. The
current findings revealed that grazing land/feed shortage
(73%) and limited access to improved breed (26%) are the
major constraints limiting dairy cattle production in South
Ari whereas feeding/grazing land shortage (52.1%) and
prolonged drought and seasonal fluctuation (44.8%) are
the main factors contributing for low production in dairy-
ing Table 4. A parallel result was noticed by Tsedey and
Bereket [13]
who reported that feed shortage (71%), low
milk yield (69%) and unavailability of improved breed
(68%) are listed as the main dairy production constraint
in Dilla and Hawassa districts of Southern Ethiopia. The
study of Jiregna et al. [25]
reported that feed shortage in ad-
dition to diseases and poor genetic makeup of indigenous
animals are also the main cause for lower production in
Western Oromia. Similarly, Minale and Yilkal [26]
in Chen-
cha and Kucha Districts stated that feed shortage for dairy
cattle was the central problem.
3.4 Type of Milk Storage and Processing Materials
The respondents across the two districts used differ-
ent milking equipment for storage, milking and churning
(Table 5). Among the interviewed respondents 65% and
88.5% used clay pot (Figure 2a) and calabash (Figure 2b)
containers for milk storage/fermentation before process-
ing in South Ari and Malle district, respectively. A com-
parable result to the current study by Shewangizaw and
Addisu [27]
was reported who used clay pots and a plastic
bucket for milk storage and fermentation in Wolayita
Sodo. Another report by Minale and Yilkal [26]
showed the
majority of about 92.5% and 97% of the milk producers in
Chencha and Kucha districts used clay pots for milk stor-
age, respectively. This result disagrees with different find-
ings in the country [28,29,6]
they reported that about 80%-
100% were mostly used plastic containers. This result was
also in contrast with Befekadu et al. [30]
who reported all
of the respondents reported to used equipment made from
animal skin for milking in Borena zone. The finding by
Pandey and Voskuil [31]
reported the use of plastic vessels
can be a potential source for milk contamination because
it is difficult to remove all residual milk from such milk
storages due to its soft nature, thus increasing the micro-
bial load of milk.
The majority of respondents in South Ari district used
clay pots (82%) and plastic baths (16%) for churning/
processing milk. This finding was parallel to Tsedey and
a b c d
Figure 1. Mixture of Arkinti and Girawa (a), Arkinti (c), Banan leaf (Gumiza) (b), Girawa leaf (d).

15
Bereket [13]
who reported that about 50% of dairy produc-
ers used clay pots for churning and 25% plastic vessels
in southern Ethiopia. The other reports showed that clay
pot or calabash is used as a milk churner to make butter in
the Gurage zone [14]
. In South Ari, the plastic pitcher was
used for milking and the plastic bucket was used for stor-
age and transportation of milk sales. In the Malle district
almost all respondents (100%) used calabash for milk
churning/processing and clay and plastic containers are
not commonly used this result is comparable with Sisay [32]
.
A comparable report was noticed by Onyango et al. [33]
who reported the dried calabash, used as fermentation
gourd. This result goes against the findings of FAO [15]
who reported that the clay pot was used for milk churning
and fermented milk (100%) in West Shewa Zone, Oro-
mia Region. The present result was also consistent with
the reports of Tigist [34]
she observed Jerrycan, Calabash
(Qill) and Mazzican were the materials used for milk-
ing and milk handling. A significant number (95%) of
the respondents in South Ari district processed different
milk products and used them for home consumption and
marketing (yogurt, butter, buttermilk, cheese, and whey).
Similar findings reported by Abraha [35]
find that in the
Southern Highlands of Tigray raya, 93.6% fresh milk,
yogurt, buttermilk, butter, whey and cheese were among
the common dairy products. Whereas in the Malle district,
72.9% of respondents processed only yogurt, butter, and
buttermilk and the remaining 26% processed only butter
for marketing. In Malle culture, dairy products such as
butter, buttermilk, and yogurt (rarely) are used for home
consumption while, cheese, whey and fresh milk are not
commonly used or consumed at home; the study was able
to notice that no dairy product is sold in the market except
butter in Malle due to cultural restriction. According to the
Malle community perception selling raw milk and cheese
is considered as shame and they believe that selling these
products reduces fertility, brings drought and is a manifes-
tation of poverty.
a b
Figure 2. The two major churning materials clay pot (a)
and calabash (b).
Table 4. Major problems related to dairy cattle production (%).
Districts
Activities South Ari Malle Overall X2
Is there seasonal feed shortage? 0.33
Yes 97 94.8 95.9
No 3 5.2 4.1
Season of feed shortage 0.01**
Dry season 82 96.9 89.3
Rainy season 18 3.1 10.7
Do you supply supplementary feed to your cows? 0.00**
Yes 92 33.3 63.3
No 8 66.7 36.7
What are the feeds you supplemented? 0.00**
White banana leaf & Coffee leaf, Crop by product, Arkinti and Girawa 61.9 47.5 54.7
Gruel (muk) with salt 15.4 2.5 8.9
Improved forage 21.6 12.5 17.0
Atela 1.1 37.5 19.3
What are the major problems related to milk production?
Feed or grazing land shortage 73 52.1 62.8
Prolong drought and seasonal Fluctuation 1 44.8 22.4
Diseases 0 3.1 1.5
Access to improved breed 26 0 13.3
The value observed between the two Districts significantly different at*
(X2
< 0.05);**
(X2
< 0.01); X2

16
Milk processing reason different from district to district
even from place to place (Table 4). In South Ari 79% of
respondents practice milk processing reason to increase
household income via sales of processed products, 10% of
respondents processed milk to have a variety of products,
9% of respondents assume that processed milk gives better
income than fresh milk sales, the rest 2% processed milk
for home consumption. The milk processing reason for this
finding is comparable with the result of Befekadu et al. [30]
that 72.73% of respondents in Borena zone processed the
milk to diversify the products and for income generation.
The result is also similar to Ayantu [36]
who reported that
milk is processed to increase the household’s income, to
diversify the product type for home consumption and to
increase the shelf-life of the dairy products in Delbo water
shed Wolayta zone. In Malle district, 62.5%, 28.1% and
9.4% of respondents’ milk processing reason to have a va-
riety of products, to increase household income via sales of
processed products and processed milk give better income
than fresh milk sales, respectively. This result agreed with
Abraha [35]
who reported that reason for processing milk is
to diversify the products. Unless the milk producers could
not produce a diversity of milk products, they could not ac-
quire the expected value-added milk products.
3.5 Milk Processing and Utilization Practices
The system of milk production, milk processing and
utilization varies according to the tribes and culture of
the region. This makes the indigenous knowledge of milk
production, milk processing and utilization practice pecu-
liar to the specific area [37,30]
. Cows are the foremost source
of milk and which is the focus for processing many prod-
ucts in Ethiopia [38]
. In the study districts, milk production
and processing are carried out most often in the family
households, and all operations in milk processing are done
manually. Processing milk into varying products is an im-
portant measurement for the preservation of the product as
a source of income and nutrients for consumption. Abebe
et al. [38]
stated that, milk is traditionally preserved into dif-
ferent products like butter, ghee and cheese. Meanwhile,
preserved milk and its products are more stable than raw
milk due to they are more acidic and comprise moisture.
Befekadu et al. [30]
indicated that milk that is naturally fer-
mented is the base for processing the milk into more shelf-
stable and, consumer preferences for fermented dairy
products. According to Ethiopian culture, the common
milk products that are produced in these study districts are
raw whole milk, yogurt (Ergo), butter (Kibe), buttermilk
(Arera), cheese (Ayib) and whey (Aguat). Traditional fer-
mented milk products observed in this study were similar
to Tsedey, A.[13]
, Befekadu, T.[30]
, Kefyalew, G.[39]
. Milk
processing and utilization of these products varied in dif-
ferent parts of the country; from one area to another area
and from household to household based on experience,
Table 5. Type of milking container, processing and storage materials in the study districts (%).
Activities
Districts
South Ari Malle Overall X2
What are milk storage materials before processing? 0.00**
Clay pot 65 7.3 36.7
Metallic containers 30 0 15.3
Plastic materials or improved churner 5 4.2 4.6
Calabash 0 88.5 43.4
Which milk product you processed? 0.00**
Yogurt 2 0 1
Cheese 1 0 0.5
Butter 2 26 14
Yogurt, butter, butter milk 0 72.9 36.45
Yogurt, butter, butter milk, cheese, whey 95 1 48.05
What is your reason to process milk? 0.00**
To increase household income via sales of processed product 79 28.1 53.55
Preference for home consumption 2 0 1
Processed milk gives better income than fresh milk sales 9 9.4 9.2
To have variety of product 10 62.5 36.25
What kind of milk churning materials you used? 0.00**
Clay pot 82 0 41.8
Calabash 2 100 50
Plastic bath 16 0 8.2
The value observed between the two Districts significantly different at*
(X2
< 0.05); **
(X2
< 0.01); X2

17
purpose, cultural reason and preference. Milk processing
is typically deliberated to eliminate water from milk and/
or minimize the moisture content of the products [38]
.
Raw milk (whole milk): This is milk that is milked or
collected directly from the cow before being coagulated.
In the study areas, especially in South Ari district raw
milk was used as a source of income by selling it to city
dwellers of milk suppliers. Others earn income by renting
milk to their neighbors. In South Ari, raw milk is used as
a supplement for children and orphaned pets (calf, kid and
lamb). Raw milk is collected and comes from early morn-
ing before 8 a.m. or early evening after 6 p.m.
Yogurt (Ergo): The milk that is milked from the cow
turns thick (naturally fermented) after a period of hours
and days through the bacterial process (Figure 3). Accord-
ing to Desalegn [40]
yogurt is the most common tradition-
ally prepared fermented milk product in Ethiopia and yo-
gurt is prepared through the natural fermentation of milk
under the ambient temperature without the addition of
appetizer cultures using traditional vessels under non-hy-
gienic. Yogurt is nutritious, and palatable and it comprises
all the milk components in a concentrated form. In the
study areas, when the farmer is tired after work it gives
great strength and it can be also used as a stable food for
injured persons and children. In many Ethiopian parts,
culturally yogurt is an important part of the traditional diet
and is considered a big invitation when a distinguished or
special guest received it at a home. It is further processed
into more stable fermented milk products. According to
respondents, preparing yogurt for home consumption can
take two to three consecutive days, but it should be kept
for three to six consecutive days to prepare other milk
products like cheese and butter. The present result was
equivalent to the result of Befekadu et al. [30]
who reported
96% of the respondents described that the yogurt fermen-
tation time for immediate usage is three days and the rest
for long-term preparation takes six days. There is no sure
length for the fermentation it is the visual appreciation
of the gel that determined the finish of the processing [41]
.
The variation of fermentation time to prepare yogurt de-
pends on the local environmental condition, on its purpose
whether it is for home consumption or for the production
of other products and hygiene of milking or storage equip-
ment. In warmer climates, milk will curdle faster and in
colder climates, it may take longer time to be curdled. If
it is used for home consumption it needs a short day but,
if it is to get other products it will be kept for a day. On
the other hand, if milk storage is regularly cleaned and
smoked it helps the milk to ferment quickly. To increase
the taste of the yogurt and to improve its palatability the
practice of adding local leaves called Tena Adam has been
seen in many study areas.
Butter (Kibe): This is the result of the churning of
fermented milk after days of raw milk accumulation. The
fresh milk that is milked every day is added to the previ-
ously curdle milk until the required amount is accumulat-
ed. Butter can be extracted by hand pushing or rotating the
churn on its base from 30 to 64 minutes. As respondents
stated, the milk churning time to make butter would be de-
termined by different factors such as the amount of milk,
type and size of churner, cleanliness of churner, breed
of cow and temperature of the local environment. The
churning equipment used to churn the curd to make butter
varies from place to place. After churning is completed,
the butter grains are collected together by hand finally
they wash the butter with cold water. The reason why it
is washed with water is so that the butter become hardens
and thickens. The other reason for adding water to the
butter is if want it to last for a long time, particularly dur-
ing fasting. This result was consistent with the reports of
Befekadu et al. [30]
. Apart from being a source of income
and its nutritional value, butter has many functions in the
a b
Figure 3. Locally fermented Yogurt ready for agitation in South Ari and Malle district.

18
rural community. Among its benefits, it is used for cook-
ing food in the form of Ghee (adding it to the stew), hair
lubrication/cosmetics (hair cream) and remedy for head-
aches. Ghee is a very popular dairy product for making
traditional chicken stew (Ethiopian doro wot) in Ethiopia,
particularly during New Year and other festivals. Ghee is
the butter-fat prepared chiefly from butter. As observed in
the study areas, before processing butter different spices
are added to improve its flavor and to add market or con-
sumer attractive appearance of yellowish color.
Buttermilk (Arera): This is made after the butter is
removed or separated from churned milk. It is a slightly
thick milk product that remains after butter making. It
is used in different forms for home consumption either
directly or processed in to other cooked products (cheese
and whey). Most of its characteristics and tasty are alike
to those of ergo. According to Abebe et al. [38]
, Arera con-
tains 91.5% moisture, 3.1% protein, 1.4% fat, 3.4% carbo-
hydrate, and 0.6% ash. In both districts, it was possible to
see that it is the most preferred milk-type product in both
districts. It is often used as the main food in the home
with a large family and it is often eaten with Fosesi (locally
favorite food). On the other hand, in South Ari district
cheese is sold, instead of using it as it is they convert it
into cheese and use the cheese for market and domestic
consumption. Zelalem and Inger [42]
stated that buttermilk
is directly consumed within the family or is changed to
cheese (Ayib).
Cheese (Ayib): This is prepared by boiling or heating
the remaining buttermilk after the butter is separated. The
buttermilk is cooked or heated on a clay pot and kept for
a few minutes, in order for the quality of the cheese to be
good the heating fire should be moderate and not too much.
For the making of this traditional Ethiopian cheese (Ayib),
buttermilk is heated by a clay pot on a low fire to about
50 °C [43]
. As stated by FAO [44]
, an average of 8 liters
of Arera are required to yield one kilogram of Ayib and
which having on an average of 20.42% total solid, 2.25%
fat and 1.23% ash and an average moisture percentage be-
ing 79.58%. In South Ari, cheese is highly sought by con-
sumers during the festivity season, so it is sold and used
as an income source for the family just like butter. Ac-
cording to the culture of Malle community selling cheese
is considered shameful, so the community does not have a
culture of selling or buying cheese this cheese is not pre-
pared by the community nor is it sold to the market. Some
respondents have experience in adding spices to give the
cheese a desirable aroma and extend its shelf life. This
is applied after the cheese was drained sufficiently. The
spices mainly used were Ruta chalepensis (Tena Adam),
Zingiber officinalis (Zigibl) and Turmeric (Erd).
Whey (Aguat): This is the final by-product of milk
that remains after the cheese has been removed from the
heated buttermilk. It is the liquid form that leftovers after
most of the fat and the protein in the milk are detached
during the cheese making [43]
. In South Ari whey have
many functions which are used as food for humans and
supplementation to animals such as milking cow, and
calves and plowing ox by mixing with other feedstuff. As
stated by Abebe et al. [38]
, it holds important nutrients such
as proteins, minerals and carbohydrates.
3.6 Butter Making Practices
Butter-making and manipulation practices are present-
ed in Table 6. In South Ari district 68% and 32% of the
respondents processed and make butter from indigenous
and cross-breed cattle, respectively. In Malle district,
91.7% and 8.3% of households processed and make butter
from indigenous and cross-breed cattle respectively. The
average days of raw milk fermentation before churning in
South Ari and Malle district were 4.2 ± 0.1 and 2.9 ± 0.0
days, respectively. Approximate this result was reported
by [37,6]
milk deposited to produce fermented milk for three
and five days in Mekelle milk shed, northern Ethiopia and
Borana plateau, respectively. The average butter-making
time from starting to finishing up was 1.05 hours (63.4 ±
1.8 minutes) in both districts. The average churning time
in the current study is lower than the result of Befekadu
et al. [30]
in Borena plateau of Ethiopia which indicated 1.2
hours (72 minutes). In South Ari district 76%, 22%, and
2% of the respondents make butter in the evening, after-
noon and morning, respectively (Figure 4a). In the mid
and highland areas of the country, it is common to churn
milk in the evening which is used to participate all the
family members in churning when get together after work.
On the other hand, in Malle district, almost all (99%) of
respondents make butter in the morning (Figure 4b) and
only 1% in the evening. It is not possible to churn milk
and make butter during the daytime in the lowland areas
because butter becomes melts. Because the environment
is warm enough in the daytime to churn in the evening the
heat of the day does not dissipate, so the butter melts or
mixes with milk butter.
The amount of milk fermented and butter produced
from this fermented milk is a significant difference (P <
0.05) across districts. This variation may be due to feed-
ing availability and other management practice between
the districts. From indigenous cows, the average amount
of milk churned in one session (liter) and the average
amount of butter produced from all this fermented milk
(kg) was 7.3 ± 0.3l liters and 0.6 ± 0.0 kg butter in South
Ari district. The amount of milk fermented for one churn

19
in this study was lower than the result of Befekadu et al. [30]
who reported the average volume of milk processed at
each processing time is 7.82 liters in Borena zone. On the
other hand, from the cross cow, the churned milk amount
and butter produced from this fermented milk in this
district were 6.9 ± 0.5 liters and 0.7 ± 0.0 kg butter. In
Malle district, the result showed that, the average amount
of milk churned in one session (liter) and the average
amount of butter produced from all this fermented milk
(kg) from indigenous and cross cows were 5.7 ± 0.1 liters;
4.6 ± 0.1 liters and 0.4 ± 0.0kg and 0.4 ± 0.0 kg milk and
butter, respectively. This milk amount difference may be
the feeding behavior and feed conversion efficiency of the
two breeds. On the other hand, it is an area where frequent
drought occurred, due to this it may not suitable for hy-
brid cattle. The purpose of the processing of butter across
the two districts was a statistical difference difference
(X2
< 0.05). In South Ari district, most (75%) of butter is
used for sale and some for consumption; most (20%) but-
ter is used for consumption and some for sale; 3% used all
butter for home consumption and 2% used butter for the
purpose of sale only. On the other hand, in Malle district,
a b
Figure 4. Butter preparation practice in South Ari and Malle district.
Table 6. Amount of fermented milk churned and amount butter from this fermented milk at a time (%).
Activities
Districts
South Ari Malle Overall X2
Which cow breed do you use to process butter? 0.00**
Indigenous 68 91.7 79.6
Cross 32 8.3 20.4
At what time do you make butter? 0.00**
Morning 2 99 49.5
Afternoon 22 0 11.2
Evening 76 1 39.3
Butter making or churning time (minute) 62.9 ± 2.3 64.2 ± 2.7 63.4 ± 1.8
Raw milk accumulation (day) 4.2 ± 0.1a
2.9 ± 0.0b
3.6 ± 0.0
Milk amount churned and butter product from local cow
Amount of milk churned in one session (liter) 7.3 ± 0.3a
5.7 ± 0.1b
Amount of butter produced from all this milk (kg) 0.6 ± 0.0a
0.4 ± 0.0b
Milk amount churned and butter product from cross cow
Amount of milk churned in one session (liter) 6.9 ± 0.5a
4.6 ± 0.1b
Amount of butter produced from all this milk (kg) 0.7 ± 0.0a
0.4 ± 0.0b
Purpose of processing butter? 0.00**
All for sale 2 8.3 5.1
All for home consumption 3 0 1.5
Most of it for sale and some for consumption 75 86.5 80.6
Most of it for consumption and some for sale 20 5.2 12.8
The value observed between the two Districts significantly different at *
(X2
< 0.05);**
(X2
< 0.01); X2
= Pearson Chi-square, a,b =
values with different superscripts in a row differ significantly P < 0.05.

20
86.5% of respondents used butter for the purpose of most
of it for sale and some of it for consumption the rest 8.3%,
5.2% used butter all for sale and most of it for consump-
tion and some for sale, respectively.
3.7 Type of Milk and Milk Product Marketing
Types of milk product selling practices by the house-
holds are presented in Table 7. Milk is naturally perish-
able and it needs special handling to ensure better quality
and extended shelf-life. Due to perishability and special
requirement, milk and its products in the country are
marketed at different places in safe and unsafe ways [13]
.
In South Ari district, 65% and 69% of households have
experience selling raw milk and cheese; the rest 35% and
31% of respondents do not have the practice of selling
it, respectively. Similar to this study Getabalew et al. [45]
noticed that in Ethiopia, fresh milk, butter, fermented
whole milk (ergo), cottage cheese and buttermilk are sold
through both formal and informal marketing channels.
Regarding cheese marketing the current finding agreed
with Tesfaye [46]
who stated that household was not selling
traditional cottage cheese (Ayib) in all the surveyed areas
of Metema district rather it was consumed by the family
members and given to calves and pet animals together
with the whey (Aguat). The study revealed that, 96% and
100% of the household experienced selling of butter in
South Ari and Malle district, respectively. In contradiction
to the current result Ayeneshet et al. [17]
noticed that the
majority (76.0%) of households’ in Alefa district had no
practice of selling milk and its products in North Gondar
Zone. Similarly, Abebe et al. [38]
in Gurage Zone noted
that, cultural restrictions (taboos), inefficient milk produc-
tion and poor market access were the main constraints to
selling milk products.
About 72% and 95% of surveyed households have not
experienced adulteration in South Ari and Malle district,
respectively. The remaining 28% in South Ari and 5% in
Malle district confirmed that they have practices of adul-
teration. Among these to be adulterated milk products
were raw milk with water, butter with banana, cheese and
yogurt. This result agreed with the report of Mekonen and
Mengistu [47]
who reported that 76.7% of milk samples
collected from farmers around Bair Dar were free from
adulterants. In the same way Asrat and Zelalem [48]
report-
ed that about 95% of the respondents in Boditti town and
its surrounding areas agreed that there is an adulteration
of milk and milk products. In line with this study Amistu
et al. [49]
noticed that the major type of adulteration re-
ported by consumers was 67 and 33% of the butter they
purchase is adulterated with banana and ‘sheno lega’ re-
spectively in Damot Woyde Woreda, Southern Ethiopia.
Adulteration is often implemented to purposely reduce
the quality (increase the quantity) of milk to gain profit
dishonestly. It is the intentional substitution, addition and
abstraction of substances that adversely affect nature,
substances and quality of milk and its products [50]
. Adul-
teration is also the central medium to reduce the nutritive
Table 7. Types of milk products sold by the respondents in the study area (%).
Activities
Districts
South -Ari Malle Overall X2
Do you sale fresh milk? 0.00**
Yes 65 0 33.2
No 35 100 66.8
Do you sale butter? 0.06
Yes 96 100 98
No 4 0 2
Do you sale cheese? 0.00**
Yes 69 0 35.2
No 31 100 64.8
Is there adulteration practice in the communities? 0.00**
Yes 28 5 16.5
No 72 95 83.5
Methods of transportation to sale the products? 0.00**
On foot 67 95.8 81.1
Through vehicle 6 0 3.1
Motorbike 27 4.2 15.8
The value observed between the two Districts significantly different at *
(X2
< 0.05); **
(X2
< 0.01); X2

21
value of milk due to the dilution effect and which is di-
rectly affecting the further processing of milk to produce
other dairy products such as yogurt and cheese [50]
.
Nearly 67% and 95.8% of respondents’ milk delivery
and transportation to sell milk products were by foot in
South Ari and Malle district, respectively. The rest 27% in
South Ari and 4.2% in Malle used motorbikes for trans-
portation to sell their products. A similar study by For-
tunate [51]
revealed the most common means of transport
used by farmers in delivering milk was on foot in Tanza-
nia. In the rural areas of the country, the milk production
system accounts for about 97% of the total milk production
in the country where it is difficult to transport the raw milk
to the marketing places due to poor infrastructure [52]
. The
current findings are also in line with the view of Sintayehu
et al. [24]
and Yousuf [53]
they reported that the distance from
market centres mainly to urban sites had a major prohibiting
effect on producers from selling raw milk to consumers of
urban resident and other dairy producers who live a distance
from urban centres it could fetch a comparatively lower sell-
ing price than farmers in close to urban areas. For increasing
milk production the provision of assured marketing channels
is the primary condition that is sufficiently profitable to milk
producers [54]
.
4. Conclusions and Recommendation
The study was conducted in South Ari and Malle dis-
trict of South Omo Zone, to assess and describe the indig-
enous knowledge of milk production, handling, processing
and utilization practices. The majority of the respondents
in South Ari (75%) and Malle (72.9%) districts have their
own grazing land. Seasonal feed shortage is common in
South Ari (97%) and Malle (94.8%) districts, respectively.
About 92% in South Ari district practiced supply of sup-
plementary feed and 33.33% in Malle district had the ex-
perience of giving supplementary feed for their dairy cow.
Grazing feed shortage (73%) and limited access to im-
proved breed (26%) in South Ari; and grazing land short-
age (52.1%), prolonged drought and seasonal fluctuation
(44.8%) in Malle were identified as constraints of dairy-
ing. Major milking and milk-handling utensils were clay
pot (65%) and calabash (88.5%) in South Ari and Malle
district, respectively. Milk is typically stored to produce
ergo for either short-term (three days) fermented milk
for home consumption or making butter and production
of other products longer-term (up to six days) fermented
milk. The milk products are separated by traditional hand
churning. For making butter, fresh milk is collected over
a period of three to six days in a traditional clay pot ves-
sel. About 95% of the respondent in South Ari processed
different milk products such as yogurt, butter, buttermilk,
cheese and whey. All these milk products were used for
home consumption and marketing. However, in Malle
district, 72.9% of respondents processed only yogurt,
butter, and buttermilk and 26% processed only butter for
marketing. Therefore, it is concluded that supporting the
dairying extension services in the areas via enhancing the
input provision system for dairy producers is vital. More
efforts are required to improve milking, milk handling and
processing by creating awareness and standard utensils
utilization. The majority of the dairy producers followed
inadequate milk sanitary practices hence the milk sanitary
practices of the study areas should be improved.
Funding
This research activity was conducted funds from the
Pastoral, Agro-pastoral and special support requiring
regions Research and Capacity building (PAP) and Ethio-
pian Institute of Agricultural and Research (EIAR) col-
laboration with Jinka Agricultural Research Center (JARC)
to improve livestock through assessing dairy husbandry
practices in South Omo.
Acknowledgements
This research has been made possible through the fi-
nancially support of Pastoral, Agro-pastoral and special
support requiring regions Research and Capacity build-
ing (PAP) and Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural and
Research (EIAR) collaboration with Jinka Agricultural
Research Center (JARC). Sincere appreciation also goes
to the South Ari and Malle district dairy cattle keeper.
Data Availability
All data are available in the main text or in the support-
ing materials, and raw data can be obtained from the cor-
responding author upon request.
Conflict of Interests
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
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25
Received: 26 December 2022; Received in revised form: 11 February 2023; Accepted: 15 February 2023;
Published: 27 February 2023
Citation: Zhu, B., X u , P., Wang, K., 2023. A Multi-group Analysis of Gender Difference in Consumer Buying
Intention of Agricultural Products via Live Streaming. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 4(1), 789.http://
dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i1.789
Ping Xu,
Department of Educational Psychology, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangdong, 510500, China;
Email: xupprivate@hotmail.com
RESEARCH ARTICLE
A Multi-group Analysis of Gender Difference in Consumer Buying
Intention of Agricultural Products via Live Streaming
Bing Zhu1
Ping Xu2*
Ke Wang2
1. Department of Marketing, Assumption University, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand
2. Department of Educational Psychology, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangdong, 510500, China
Abstract: This study tries to understand the determinants of Chinese consumers’ purchase behavior and reveal the role
of gender in shaping consumers’ buying decisions for agricultural products from live-streaming platforms. For this
purpose, an online survey was carried out to collect data in Southern China. Partial least squares structural equation
modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed for path analysis and multi-group analysis. The results confirm the substantial
influences of consumer attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on consumer buying intention. Next,
gender difference only exists concerning the effect of perceived behavioral control on consumer intention. However, the
gap between male and female consumers on this point is small. Furthermore, as each factor affects consumers’ purchase
intention differently, corresponding implications are provided.
Keywords: PLS-SEM; Permutation test; Live-streaming commerce; Gender differences; Agriculture marketing
1. Introduction
Agricultural products refer to “any agricultural com-
modity or product, whether raw or processed, including
any commodity or product derived from livestock for
human or livestock consumption” [1]
. Generally, fresh
products like vegetables and fruits are easily perishable [2]
.
In this case, an effective agricultural product supply chain
is critical. For example, if perishable products can be
sold and quickly delivered to consumers in the shortest
possible time, the losses of farmers can be significantly
reduced [2]
. Hence, live-streaming commerce plays a cru-
cial role. Yu and Zheng (2022) [2]
defined live streaming as
“an emerging online social and commerce tool”, and live
streaming commerce emerged when many anchors used
live streaming as a means of real-time interaction with
customers to sell products [3]
. Therefore, live-streaming
commerce is deemed the latest trend in e-commerce [4,5]
.
The emergence of COVID-19 has given birth to new

Research on World Agricultural Economy | Vol.4,Iss.1 March 2023

Research on World Agricultural Economy | Vol.4,Iss.1 March 2023

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