This document discusses various qualitative research methods used in descriptive research, including different types of observation techniques (naturalistic observation, participant observation, structured observation, field experiments), recording behaviors both qualitatively and quantitatively, unobtrusive measures like physical traces and archival data, and the importance of research methods in psychology for understanding behavior, testing hypotheses, and improving lives. It also compares stratified random sampling and snowball sampling.

1. 1
Research Methods-I
Qualitative Techniques
Descriptive research methods:
 Involves gathered data to check hypotheses
 discusses deep and detailed information about the object
 also known as statistical research
 questions like what, when, where, who, how are discussed
a.Observation
i.Naturalistic observation observation without intervention:
 Observing people in real / normal environment with or without any interference
 Recording of spontaneous behavior of an individual/event under examination of natural environment
 provide generalized results due to natural settings.
 great chances of ethical issues of privacy due to interference.
ii.Observation with intervention:
- Participant observation
 observer/researcher itself becomes part of the research
 Researcher perform as an active member of the observed group
 Observer must be careful that other members of the group can’t identify him
 He should maintain the appropriate bond and understanding with the participants under examination
 enables the researcher about the complete method to understand the process from his own
perception as well from participant’s point of view to reduce research biasness.
 This observation is not generalizable due to small research groups.
- Structured observation
 systematically collect data in a controlled manner.
 involves using standardized forms or checklists to ensure consistency in data collection.
 commonly used in fields like psychology, education, and sociology to study human behavior.
 helps researchers gather reliable and quantifiable data for their studies.
 Researchers may use checklists, rating scales, coding systems to record observations.
 aids in the objective analysis of behaviors and phenomena, contributing to a better understanding of
various subjects.

2. 2
- Field experiments
 Performed in natural settings: schools, industries, hospitals.
 consumes more time
 To know whether classroom learning or open environment learning is more appropriate teaching
method for students then researcher will recommend this method.
iii.Recording behavior:
- Qualitative measures of behavior
- Quantitative measures of behavior
Aspect Qualitative Measures of Behavior Quantitative Measures of Behavior
Nature of
Data
 non-numeric data
 Descriptive
 Numeric
 measurable data
Data Type
 Subjective
 based on opinions & interpretations
 Objective
 based on counts, measurements or scales
Examples
 Observations
 Interviews
 open-ended survey responses
 Counts
 Frequencies
 Scores
 Ratings
 measurements
Precision  Less precise and standardized  More precise and standardized
Data
Analysis
 Involves coding, categorizing, and
interpreting text or observations
 Involves statistical analysis, calculations, and
numerical comparisons
Use in
Research
 Useful when exploring new or complex
phenomena, providing insights and
depth
 Suitable for hypothesis testing,
comparisons, and statistical modeling
Deals with
 Characteristics
 attributes
 Amounts
 numerical values
Research
Fields
Commonly used in
 social sciences
 humanities
 ethnographic studies
Commonly used in
 natural sciences
 psychology
 economics
iv. Analysis of observational data Advantages, problems & methodological
issues

3. 3
b. Unobtrusive measures of behavior
- Physical traces
- Archival data
Aspect Physical traces Archival data
Nature of
Data
 Tangible
 tangible remnants or artifacts left
behind by human actions
 Recorded information stored in documents,
records, or databases
source
 Directly observable physical
artifacts, such as footprints, graffiti,
or tools
 Pre-existing records or documents created for
various purposes
collection
 Requires on-site observation and
physical examination
 Requires access to existing archives, libraries,
or databases
Temporal
Characteristics
 Typically reflects past actions and
behaviors in a specific time and
place
 Can cover a wide range of time periods, from
historical records to recent data
Data type
 Often qualitative or semi-
quantitative, describing the nature
of physical traces
 Can be both qualitative and quantitative,
depending on the content
Research
application
 Useful for reconstructing past
events, understanding ancient
cultures, or forensic investigations
 Valuable for historical research, social studies,
policy analysis, and trend analysis
Preservation
and
Accessibility
 May deteriorate over time and
require preservation efforts
 Typically stored and maintained for long-term
accessibility
Examples
 Footprints, archaeological artifacts,
graffiti, broken glass at a crime
scene
 Historical documents, census records,
newspaper archives, digital logs

4. 4
importance of research methods in psychology
1. Understanding Behavior: Research methods help psychologists figure out why people do the things they do.
2. Evidenced Answers: They provide evidence-based answers to questions about the mind and behavior.
3. Improving Lives: Research helps develop better therapies and treatments for mental health.
4. Avoiding Assumptions: It stops us from making guesses about human behavior without proof.
5. Testing Hypotheses: Research methods let us test our ideas and see if they're true.
6. Learning from the Past: We learn from past research to build on our knowledge.
7. Validating Theories: They help validate and refine psychological theories for a better understanding of the mind.
Aspect Stratified Random Sampling Snowball Sampling
Purpose
 To ensure representation from different
subgroups in the population.
 To study hard-to-reach or hidden
populations where no clear sampling frame
exists.
Method
 Divide the population into distinct
subgroups (strata) based on specific
characteristics ( age, gender, income).
 Start with a few participants who meet
your criteria (seed participants). Ask them
to refer others who also fit the criteria.
Selection
Process
 Randomly select samples from each
stratum in proportion to their size in the
population.
 Participants recruit more participants,
creating a "snowball" effect.
Use
 Useful when you want to make sure
each subgroup is adequately
represented in your study.
 Helpful when researching sensitive or
marginalized groups where traditional
sampling methods are challenging.
Example
 If you're studying opinions on a political
issue, you might stratify by age groups
to get a balanced view across
generations.
 If you're studying the experiences of drug
users in a specific community, you might
start with one known user and ask them to
introduce you to others in their network.