Representation

What does
representation mean?

• Representation can be defined as one thing
standing for something else in the sense of
re-presenting it in a different view. Most
simply then, texts are often thought to
represent some form of reality, more or less
accurately.
• Representation has largely dealt with hoe
particular social groups are, or have been
represented in the media. Focusing on
women, ethnic minorities, young people, old
people, gender and particularly sub cultures.

Example
• For example, black people may be
represented in particular jobs and roles
within films where as Asians people
are nearly always presented as
shopkeepers in British films and
television programs such as soaps,
despite the fact that, statistically this a
minority occupation for such groups.

Connotation
• Contrast refers to much wider
range of associations that the
image or text might have.

Connotations
• Certain objects and individuals carry specific
connotations. We learn to associate signs with particular
meanings. (Add in schemas)
• For example:
• A feather alongside a bow and arrow is likely to connote
the Native North American. Individuals too have
association, which most people of that culture know. For
example: a president of a country would possess
connotations of power and world leadership. In fictional
texts, iconography can be used to signify a genre (the
western’s ten-gallon hat, revolvers, saloons, and sheriff’s
badge and so on) where as certain actors can become
associated with a particular genre for example John
Wayne and Clint Eastwood are associated with
particularly the western genre.

Denotation
• Within semiology or semiotic
analysis, denotation refers to
the most basic and specific
level of meaning of a text or
image.

Example explaining the
difference
• While a picture of two clasped hands
denotes a handshake, its connotation
might be friendship or meeting for the first
time.
• The denotative meaning of the Cross of St
George maybe the English flag flown on
ceremonial occasions but its connotative
meaning of the image is of patriotism,
nostalgia for empire or the England
football team.

Barthes, Roland (1950-80)
• He identified hemeneutic (or enigma),
proairetic (or action), referential, semic and
symbolic codes from structuralist and
semiotic perspective.
• He is best known in media and cultural
studies for his application of the ideas of
semiology to the nature of everyday life.
• Barthes dug below the surface of everyday
life and representation for deeper meaning to
show the operation of power.

Branston and Stafford
• Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions
about particular groups or individuals. According to
Branston and Stafford stereotypes have the following
characteristics:
• They involve both categorising and an evaluation of the
group being stereotyped.
• They usually emphasise some easily grasped feature(s)
of the group in question and suggest that these are the
cause of the group’s position.
• The evaluation of the group is often, though not always,
a negative one.
• Stereotypes often try to insist on absolute differences
and boundaries where the idea of a spectrum of
differences is more appropriate.

Why is stereotyping
necessary ?

• Stereotyping is a form of
categorisation; it could be argued that
it is necessary to make sense of the
world, and the flood of information and
impressions we receive minute by
minute. We often make sense of people
we meet on the basis of gestures,
dress, and voice and so on, very much
as we construct a sense of characters
in the media.

Schemas- British psychologist,
Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969)
• is an organised packet of information about the world , events,
or people that is stored in long-term memory.
• For example: most people have a schema containing
information about the normal sequence of events for instance in
a restaurant having a mean.
- Waiters
- Order dinner
- Bar to order drinks
- Table and chairs
- Smell of food
- Talking
- Table manners
- Table layout of glasses and cutlery

Bartlett
• Memory does not simply involve remembering the
information presented to us.
• He claimed that our prior knowledge in the form of
schemas influences what we remember and we
remember it.
• He believed in the reconstructive memory- with
memory being an active process in which what we
remember depends on the information we were
exposed to at the time of learning and our relevant
schematic knowledge.
• Schemas are stored in the long-term memory and
help us make sense of the world.
Example: if we are exposed to a actor in a film
wearing a short sleeved top, are schemas would tell
us that is likely to be summer in the film

How do stereotypes work?
• Stereotypes generally work on the basis of taking some
easily grasped features presumed to belong to a group.
They put these at the center of the figure, and then imply
that all members of the group always have those
features. These features would then be taken to the final
stage of suggesting that these characteristics are
themselves the cause of the groups’ position. One of the
seductions of stereotypes is that they can point to
features that apparently have a ‘grain of truth’. But they
then repeat, across a whole range of media jokes yet
stereotypes are forever changing over time. Critics of
realism would argue that such texts merely disguise their
nature as discourse and that their meanings do not
spring naturally from empirical observation, but are
constructed by ideology.

Characteristics of Stereotypes
• They involve both a categorising and
evaluation of the group being stereotyped
• They usually emphasise some easily grasped
features of the group in question and suggest
that these are the cause of the groups position
• The evaluation of the group is often, though
not always, a negative one
• Stereotypes often try to insist on absolute
differences and boundaries where the idea of
a spectrum of difference is more appropriate

• People respond to each other almost
automatically using stereotypes based on
race, age, and gender. Perceptions and
judgments about others are made
instantaneously, without conscious thought or
effort, which is why stereotypes remain
insidious. Stereotypes typically exaggerate
certain characteristics of some members of a
group and attribute the negative characteristic
to aging. They do not recognize that individual
characteristics vary greatly and also change
over time.

Stereotyping-Gender
• The distinction between sex and gender
is a key one, even though the two terms
may be used in different ways, sex
difference refers here to the classification
of people depending upon whether they
are male or female, depending on their
physical characteristics, emotions, actions
ect.
• Gender differences are culturally formed,
though they exist in the basis of biological
classification they hugely differentiate.

Example
• they insist that because women bear
children, that they should stay at home
and bring them up and be a ‘house
wife’ model. This is an example of
gender representation that also works
with taken for granted textual habits
especially powerful within audio-visual
media such as films is ‘the look’.

John Berger (1972), Erving
Goffman (1976) and Laura
Mulvey (1975)
• they suggested that women have learned
to see themselves as being ‘looked at’
within Hollywood in such roles as a
mother, maid, house wife, nurse (jobs
that serve the needed and men, whereas
men however have been represented as
mostly the ones who do the active
looking, along with other kinds of socially
valued and purposeful action such as
police officer, builder, FBI agent ect.

Cinderella
• Here is a very stereotypical
representation of a female character
being put to work in kitchens and the
home to the extreme, although this is a
Disney film called Cinderella this is a
perfect example to get the point across
where she is forced to clean the floors
be remains happy in herself and does
not let it get her down or ruin her
dreams.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-F5qgEBHAVM

The Duchess
• Another very stereotypical aspect in which I
have already picked up upon is the way in
which women have excepted the way they are
put into films as roles to be looked at this is
confirmed from The Duchess trailer where a
male voice says ‘when she appears, all eyes are
to be turned towards her’ this shows a women’s
sense of placement in such stereotypical roles
as figure heads. This trailer also shows the
typical role of a child bearer in which the
Duchess is to provide the duke with a son.
• “she is the subject of universal conversation”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLRoimyj9BE

Tomb Raider
• Some directors seem to subvert the stereotypical
roles played by characters such a women
whereby in the case or Tomb Raider (played by
Lara croft) she is a secret agent who is forceful,
powerful, strong minded and determined to
overcome any problem standing in her way. She is
the face of good when it comes against the villain
who is played by male figures who seem to be
intimidated by her presence and every move. This
would have shocked earlier films whereby she is
no typical young lady who stays at home and
cleans all day. She is tough, macho, gets in
serious and death defying situations and
possesses very much ‘male’ aspects and roles.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1yu-HGSSLk

Mr & Mrs Smith
• In this trailer again Lara Croft is presented to us as a
typical house wife making her husband dinner and she
also has her own make up table and a glass of wine
before…
• She is then presented as a dangerous assassin and so is
her husband. She is forceful and strong against her
husband as they fight it off against one another, she
keeps up and seems more in control than her husband.
• She is carrying dangerous weapons, her make up table
is a gadget that turns into a closet for weapons and
ammunition.
• She is also seen scaling a building and being shot at by
her husband. There are two completely different
representations of herself within this film, the sweet
loving house wife vs. the deadly assassin.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IuW-UKadvNY

Stereotyping Cultures
• Racism: doesn’t necessarily mean a hatred of non-white
groups. More accurately it involves any account of the world
which argues that-
- People can be divided into races usually via observable
differences in appearance. Some accounts are obsessed with
‘colour, hair and bone’ difference, which are used to argue for
an absolute difference between ‘black’ and ‘white’
Here in Slumdog millionaire we can see some differences that
people may imply upon their stereotypical culture and some
aspects that we also relate to them which can be seen throughout
the film and clips. This includes their music, saris clothing, colour
of their skin, their dancing, slum areas of living against a
Bollywood area as well. The colours seems bright and reflect their
culture even when things can be tough in some areas. Their
jewellery is also very important to them .
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AIzbwV7on6Q Slumdog Millionaire

Stereotyping Cultures
The next steps of the racist position imply that:
- These supposed simple groupings give fundamental
explanations for behaviour and character, indeed that
they account for more than any other factor, such as
class, upbringing, gender…
- And that some races are inferior to others, and ‘innately’
prone to certain kinds of behaviour
Racism resembles stereotyping in the way it takes broadly
observable features of a group, puts them at the centre of
any account of that group, exaggerates then and (usually)
gives them a negative value.

Characters
• The use of character types has a long
history, particularly in literature (films).
Types of characters are defined by
what they represent rather than being
genuine individuals.
• The type is signified by an actor’s
appearance and behaviour and unlike
the stereotype, does not exist in the
real world.

Vladimir Propp Fairy Tale
Transformations
• Propp suggested that all folk tale narratives he analysed can
be reduced to a limited number of functions (31) and only 7
basic character types (dramatic personae):
The hero — the protagonist (can be a hero or a victim)
The dispatcher — a character in the story who sends the hero
on his or her quest.
The helper — helps the hero in the quest, appears at critical
moment to provide support.
The villain — an antagonist, struggles against the hero.
The donor — gives the hero some magical object (e.g. talisman),
frequently the donor is a supernatural creature.
The princess and her father — the King gives the task to the
hero, identifies the false hero. The princess marries the hero,
identifies the false hero, often is the object sought for during
the narrative, or a reward.
False hero — a competitor, takes credit for the hero’s actions or
tries to marry the princess

Intertextuality
• this is the process in which meanings from one text becomes
part of, or refer to, another
• This process can deliberate for example in the way that a
comedy may parody other texts, or in the way that post-
modern texts are thought to operate by the incorporation of
other texts or fragments of texts
• Here are some example from pulp fiction:
- Buddy Holiday is a waiter in pulp fiction and previously
appeared in Reservoir Dogs as a character who was known for
hating waiters
- Vincent Vega (John Travolta) is shown in a dance sequence as
this was his former come back where is playing himself in a
similar role from his previous career in such films as Greece
and Saturday Night Fever.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ik-RsDGPI5Y&feature=related –
pulp fiction dance contest
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c48Ol9xkaqM&feature=fvst-
Greece Greased Lightening song

Intertextuality…However
• However those writers such as Roland
Barthes and Michel Foucault who have
heralded the end of the death of the author,
would hold that, in effect all texts are
produced through a process of mobilisation or
other texts and discourses such that the text is
actually made up of many other texts (pulp
fiction) and is written through the author
• In this sense Intertextuality is not a deliberate
tactic of an author, but the way in which all
texts are produced

• Diegetic- refers to those things that are
on the screen in a film and can be
accounted for by what occurs visually
Example: this may include such things
like the dialogue spoken by the actors
• Extra-diegetic/non-diegetic- refers to
those things that cannot be accounted
for by what is on the screen.
Example: many trailers/films include
such phenomena as voice-overs or music
added to create atmosphere

Erwin Panfosky (1979)
• Described The types derived from the
theatre, which were used in early cinema:
“the Vamp and the Straight Girl…,the
Family Man, and the Villain, the latter
marked by a black mustache and walking
stick…A checkered table cloth meant…a
‘poor but honest’ milieu.”
• Character types were particularly useful
in early cinema, which could not use
dialogue to establish character and
setting

Representation and Ageism
• The term ageism refers to a deep and profound
prejudice against the elderly (Butler). In simple
terms, ageism occurs when people stereotype others
based on old age. Ageism occurs throughout society
in varying degrees, in television, advertising,
movies, stores, hospitals, and jobs.
• Ageism is a process of stereotyping and
discriminating against people because they are old.
From a definitional perspective, ageism is like
racism or sexism in that it treats people differently
based on stereotypes about a group.

Representation and Ageism
• Ageism as a term and as a process to be studied is
relatively new, an ironic twist for the study of how
society views getting old. Most studies of ageist
attitudes tend to focus on its negative aspects.
However, ageism can also have a positive
perspective, such as when the attributes of age are
deemed advantageous. For example, a positive view
perceives an association between aging and greater
wisdom, patience, and an enhanced appreciation of
life's benefits.

Old Vs. Young
• Ageism appears in many forms. A few examples illustrate how
the behaviour of an older person is described in an ageist
manner, where the same behaviour by a younger person is
explained without stereotypes.
• When older people forget someone's name, they are viewed as
senile.
• When a younger person fails to recall a name, we usually say
he or she has a faulty memory.
• When an older person complains about life or a particular
incident, they are called cranky and difficult, while a younger
person may just be seen as being critical.
• If an older person has trouble hearing, she is dismissed as
"getting old," rather than having difficulty with her hearing.
• Children also can hold negative stereotypes about older people.
Some young children equate aging with being sick, unfulfilled,
unhappy, or dying

Genres and Realism
• Texts do not have a straightforward relationship to the rest of
the real world. They may belong to certain genres which is not
experienced by audiences in the same way as, say the news
or current affairs.
• Audiences and especially fans degree of familiarity with
genres conventions will influence its ‘reality effect’ and what
they take for granted in order to get at its pleasures.
• The idea of images as reflecting reality is far too
straightforward and mirror-like, especially for fantasy forms
(horrors, comedies, sci-fi or animation). It suggests there is a
fairly simple thing called reality to be reflected in a one-to-one
undistorted glass.
• Yet comedy for example: seems to depend on the exaggeration
of stereotyping which are understood playfully by audiences,
not always as a reflection on the real.

Evaluation
• There maybe a range of different
representations of groups or individuals
in texts or cultures. Thus, rather than
speaking simply of the representation of a
group, it is important to pay attention to
diversity. This can relate to the amount of
realism in which it is not so much a
particular for as the claim, implicit or
explicit, of a text that its representations
are a direct, unmediated reflection of real
life, and hence that its meanings have a
value of truth.

Dyer’s Typography
• Re-presented: this consists essentially of media
language, the conversations which are used to represent
the world to the audience;
• Being representative: the extent to which types are used
to represent social groups, this dealt with here in a
consideration of stereotypes;
• Who is responsible for the representation, how the
institution creating media text influences representation:
this is particularly contentious in the representation of
gender, as it is often men who are doing the
representing;
• What does the audience think is being represented to
them: as we known audiences can make different
readings of media texts from the one offered.

References
• GILL BRANSTON and ROY STAFFORD- the
Media Student’s Book (Fourth Edition)
• Nicholas Abercrombie & Brian Longhurst-
Dictionary of Media Studies
• IMAGE AND REPRESENTATION- KEY
CONCEPTS IN MEDIA STUDIES- nick lacey
• http://www.youtube.com/
• AS LEVEL PSYCHOGOLOGY /FOURTH
EDITION- MICHAEL W. EYSENCK
• MEDIA STUDIES: The Essential resource-
Philip Rayner, Peter Wall and Stephen Kruger

Representation

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