The document summarizes key thinkers from the Age of Reason and Enlightenment, including their ideas about rationality, natural law, sovereignty, and individual rights and liberties. Francisco de Vitoria argued for natural law and equal rights and liberties for all humans. Jean Bodin promoted the idea of absolute sovereignty and divine right of kings. Francisco Suarez believed man-made laws could be broken but not infringe on individual freedom. Hugo Grotius removed natural law from theology and applied it to all people, promoting concepts like just war and free access to oceans. These thinkers helped establish ideas that influenced the development of democracy, international law, and human rights.

1. CHAPTER REVIEW: ‘RATIONALITY AND ENLIGHTMENT’
Submitted to: Dr. Aftab Kazi
Submitted by: Hareem Syed
1217-106
BS-SS 8

2. The ideology of western politics can be traced back to the ‘Age of Reason.’ Invention of printing
press, discovery of the Americans and the rise of nationhood led to the transition from Middle
Ages to Age of Reason. The idea of absolute state emerged that was based on two basic
fundamental concepts that included ‘Divine right from God’ and ‘Natural law’ that analyzed
human behavior. Furthermore, Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes came up with the idea of state
sovereignty that reject the idea of ‘Divine right to rule’ and rather focused on legitimacy of
power. Francisco de Vitoria and Francisco Suarez paved ways to Enlightenment by interpreting
Bible to use it for rational arguments. On the other hand, Suarez focused more on man-made
laws, divine guidance and natural laws. Similarly Hugo Grotius developed the idea of
‘liberalism’ by discussing that liberty and rights are possessions of individuals. John Lock further
championed the idea of liberalism.
The age of American Enlightenment paved ways for French Revolution in 18th century.
Democracy, international law, human rights and freedom were all modern concept that were
derived from the thinkers of the enlightenment age.
Francisco De Vitoria (1483-1546), Jean Bodin (1529-1596), Francisco Suarez (1548-1617),
Johannes Althusius (1557-1683) and Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) were the prominent personalities
who promoted the idea rationality and enlightenment.
Francisco De Vitoria (1942 – 12th August 1546)
Francisco De Vitoria was one of the main theologians who founded the school of Salamanca in
the 16th century. With the increased authority, Europeans were trying to colonize more land that
was first criticized by the School of Salamanca. De Vitoria argued the concept of natural law and
that all humans are equal right and liberty towards life. He also criticized the illegitimate
conquest. Divine rights of kings to rule also created many disagreements between De Vitoria
(King of Spain) and Charles V (Roman Empire) that was counseled by Francisco De Vitoria.
‘Ownership and dominion are based either on natural law or human law; therefore they are not
destroyed by want of faith.’ - Francisco De Vitoria
De Vitoria’s idea of natural law was also based on the theory of ‘Just war’. The theory
differentiated between just war and the just conduct of war. Religious arguments were not

3. accepted as a justification for war. His idea besides justice and morality from religion, he also
proposed idea of international law and human rights that became a benchmark in the history of
political science.
Jean Bodin (1530-1596)
The most important ideology out forward Jean Bodin was absolutism. He argued that sovereignty
was the key to ensure peace and prosperity. In his treaties six books of Republic, he stated that
sovereignty creates a central authority and to avoid conflicts sovereignty should be enforced by
law, condition and obligation. The idea of absolute sovereignty was the base of absolute
monarchy in Europe. Bodin used a Latin term ‘res publica’ which meant that any political have a
sovereign. Moreover, for Bodin the idea of sovereignty was based on the concept of divine right.
The sovereign prince is accountable only to God. – Jean Bodin.
He believed that sovereignty arise from social contact between the rulers and subject. This idea
was later evolved during the period of Enlightenment by a French philosopher, Jean Jacques
Rousseau. The treaty of Westphalia and other series of treaties signed in 1648 were based on
Bodin’s view of sovereignty. The Westphalia system constructed a framework for international
relations and principles of sovereign state.
Francisco Suarez (5th January 1548 – 25th September 1617)
Francisco Suarez explained how human laws can be just and placed a great stress on individual
liberty and freedom. He believed that man-made rules could be broken at times but no man-made
laws can threaten the liberty and rights of individuals. Saurez’s idea of condemning the divine
rule became controversial about the European rulers. Suarez challenged their authority by
rejecting the relation between secular and sacred. He also proposed idea of social contract which
meant that the rulers govern by the consent of people.
Johannes Althusius (1563 – 12th August 1638)
Althusius elaborated five principal types of association, each a combination of the preceeding:
the family, the voluntary corporation, the local community, the province, and lastly the state. A
series of social contracts sustains the system as new groups are brought into existence. Each of

4. his groups has an independent existence. Through his discussion of the complex relations
between levels and the different types of associational arrangements, he developed a
comprehensive theory of federalism as the means of achieving national unity, in
which sovereignty, resting in the people through their groups, cannot be transferred because it is
essential to the being of the political community.
Hugo Grotius (10th April 1583 – 28th August 1645)
Grotius removed natural law from the jurisdiction of moral theologians and made it the business
of lawyers and philosophers, by asserting that by their very nature, natural laws were
authoritative in themselves, with or without faith in God. He held that the moral ethics of natural
law applied to all social and rational beings, Christian and non-Christian alike. Grotius also
promoted the concept of “Just War” as war which was required by natural, national and divine
law under certain circumstances. He developed a series of rules for “right conduct” of war, based
on the principle that actions in a war should “serve the right." Grotius also wrote De Jure
Praedae , one chapter of which, defending free access to the ocean for all nations, was reprinted
and widely circulated under the title Mare Liberum.