This document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature in quantum physics. It begins by explaining that at the atomic scale, objects exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, depending on how they are observed. For example, electrons can act as particles or waves. It then outlines some of the key discoveries and scientists that helped develop our understanding of quantum mechanics, including Planck, Einstein, de Broglie, Bohr, Heisenberg and Schrodinger. The document concludes that the quantum view of the world is probabilistic rather than deterministic, and that objects cannot be definitively described as either waves or particles prior to observation.
1) The document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature and how our understanding of physical objects has changed in the 20th century with the development of quantum mechanics.
2) Key developments included the realization that light behaves as both waves and particles, and that electrons and other particles can also exhibit wave-like properties.
3) Quantum mechanics, developed by Heisenberg, Schrodinger and others, established that physical objects cannot be definitively described as either particles or waves, and are best described by probability distributions and mathematical wave functions.
This document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature in the quantum world. It outlines how early experiments showed that light behaves like particles (photons) and electrons behave like waves. This challenged the classical view that physical objects are either purely particles or waves. The document then summarizes several milestones in quantum physics from Planck to Heisenberg that established matter has both wave and particle properties and can only be described probabilistically. Measurements in the quantum world influence the observed system and there is an inherent uncertainty.
Quantum theory describes the behavior of small particles like electrons and photons. It seems counterintuitive because particles can act like waves and exist in multiple states at once until observed. The theory was developed between 1900-1930 and helped establish modern physics. It includes ideas like wave-particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and quantum fluctuations that allow particles to briefly exist from nothing. While still incomplete, quantum theory is well-supported by evidence and critical to technologies like computers.
This document discusses the development of quantum mechanics. It summarizes that classical physics could not explain certain experimental observations, leading to quantum theory. Key events were Planck's blackbody radiation law, Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect using light quanta (photons), and Compton's discovery that photons transfer momentum to electrons. The photoelectric effect showed that light behaves as particles (photons), while the de Broglie hypothesis and Davisson-Germer experiment showed that electrons can behave as waves. This established the wave-particle duality of both light and matter.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation is like a history book of various discoveries that led to the development of quantum mechanics. The presentation also tries to address the debate between the radicals (supporters of quantum theory) and classical (supporters of Newtonian physics).
This document summarizes a lecture on the inadequacies of classical mechanics and the introduction of quantum mechanics. It discusses how classical mechanics could not explain blackbody radiation spectra, the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, or the emission spectrum of hydrogen. Quantum mechanics was introduced to account for these experimental observations, including the concept of photons and quantized energy levels in atoms like the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. The document also discusses the wave-particle duality of light and how it exhibits both wave and particle properties depending on the situation.
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity established by Bohr.
- That matter can behave as waves according to de Broglie's theory of the dual nature of matter.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
1) The document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature and how our understanding of physical objects has changed in the 20th century with the development of quantum mechanics.
2) Key developments included the realization that light behaves as both waves and particles, and that electrons and other particles can also exhibit wave-like properties.
3) Quantum mechanics, developed by Heisenberg, Schrodinger and others, established that physical objects cannot be definitively described as either particles or waves, and are best described by probability distributions and mathematical wave functions.
This document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature in the quantum world. It outlines how early experiments showed that light behaves like particles (photons) and electrons behave like waves. This challenged the classical view that physical objects are either purely particles or waves. The document then summarizes several milestones in quantum physics from Planck to Heisenberg that established matter has both wave and particle properties and can only be described probabilistically. Measurements in the quantum world influence the observed system and there is an inherent uncertainty.
Quantum theory describes the behavior of small particles like electrons and photons. It seems counterintuitive because particles can act like waves and exist in multiple states at once until observed. The theory was developed between 1900-1930 and helped establish modern physics. It includes ideas like wave-particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and quantum fluctuations that allow particles to briefly exist from nothing. While still incomplete, quantum theory is well-supported by evidence and critical to technologies like computers.
This document discusses the development of quantum mechanics. It summarizes that classical physics could not explain certain experimental observations, leading to quantum theory. Key events were Planck's blackbody radiation law, Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect using light quanta (photons), and Compton's discovery that photons transfer momentum to electrons. The photoelectric effect showed that light behaves as particles (photons), while the de Broglie hypothesis and Davisson-Germer experiment showed that electrons can behave as waves. This established the wave-particle duality of both light and matter.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation is like a history book of various discoveries that led to the development of quantum mechanics. The presentation also tries to address the debate between the radicals (supporters of quantum theory) and classical (supporters of Newtonian physics).
This document summarizes a lecture on the inadequacies of classical mechanics and the introduction of quantum mechanics. It discusses how classical mechanics could not explain blackbody radiation spectra, the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, or the emission spectrum of hydrogen. Quantum mechanics was introduced to account for these experimental observations, including the concept of photons and quantized energy levels in atoms like the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. The document also discusses the wave-particle duality of light and how it exhibits both wave and particle properties depending on the situation.
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity established by Bohr.
- That matter can behave as waves according to de Broglie's theory of the dual nature of matter.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity stating that particles can behave as both waves and particles.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
CYBER LAWS IN INDIA
CYBER CRIMES
OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE
CYBER LAWS AMENDMENTS
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
What is Cyber Law?
Cyber Law is the lawgoverning cyber space.Cyber space is a very wideterm and includescomputers, networks,software, data storagedevices (such as hard disks,USB disks etc), theInternet, websites, emailsand even electronic devicessuch as cell phones, ATMmachines etc.
Cyber lawencompasses lawsrelating to
:
1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and DigitalSignatures
3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection andPrivacy
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
TACKLING CYBERCRIMES
INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS ANDCOPYRIGHTSPROTECTION ACT
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
1. Cyberspace is an
intangible
dimension that is impossible togovern and regulate usingconventional law.
2. Cyberspace has complete
disrespect for jurisdictionalboundaries
. A person in Indiacould break into a bank’selectronic vault hosted on acomputer in USA and transfermillions of Rupees to anotherbank in Switzerland, all withinminutes. All he would need is alaptop computer and a cellphone.
3. Cyberspace
handlesgigantic traffic volumesevery second
. Billions ofemails are crisscrossing theglobe even as we read this,millions of websites are beingaccessed every minute andbillions of dollars areelectronically transferredaround the world by banksevery day.
4. Cyberspace is
absolutelyopen to participation by all.
A ten year-old in Bhutan canhave a live chat session with aneight year-old in Bali withoutany regard for the distance orthe anonymity between them
ABOUT AUTHOR
Sumit Verma
Chitkara University
Undergraduate
PAPERS
1
FOLLOWERS
575
Follow
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The document discusses wave-particle duality and the Davisson-Germer experiment that helped verify this phenomenon. The Davisson-Germer experiment from 1927 fired an electron beam at a nickel crystal and observed that electrons were diffracted at specific angles, providing evidence that electrons exhibit wave-like properties as predicted by de Broglie's hypothesis. This supported the idea in quantum mechanics that particles can behave as both particles and waves, and helped establish the field of quantum mechanics.
Wave-particle duality postulates that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties under different experimental conditions. Historically, debates centered around whether light was a wave or particle. Key experiments and theorists helped establish the dual nature of light and matter, including:
- Einstein showing light has particle-like photons; Compton effect confirming this.
- De Broglie proposing electrons and matter have wave properties like wavelength and frequency. Davisson and Germer experimentally verified the wave nature of electrons.
- The double slit experiment demonstrated the wave behavior of electrons through an interference pattern, shocking as electrons were considered particles. This supported matter having wave-particle duality.
1. Light was originally thought to be particles but experiments showed it exhibited wave-like properties. Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism and light by describing light as electromagnetic waves. Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing light into discrete "quanta" called photons, showing light has both wave and particle properties.
2. The photoelectric effect and double slit experiments further supported the dual nature of light. De Broglie hypothesized that if light acts as particles then particles should act as waves, which was confirmed. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle emerged from this understanding.
3. Lasers exploit stimulated emission to produce intense, coherent beams of light. Applications include microscopy, which uses lasers' tunability and focusing
1. Light was originally thought to be particles but experiments showed it exhibited wave-like properties. Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism and light by describing light as electromagnetic waves. Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing light into discrete "quanta" called photons, showing light has both wave and particle properties.
2. The photoelectric effect and double slit experiments further supported the dual nature of light. De Broglie hypothesized that if light acts as particles then particles should act as waves, which was confirmed. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle emerged from this understanding.
3. Lasers exploit stimulated emission to produce intense, coherent beams of light. Applications include microscopy, which overcomes the diffraction limit using techniques like
This document provides an overview of the history and development of our understanding of the nature of light. It begins in the late 1600s when Newton proposed that light was made of particles. In the late 1600s and 1700s, Huygens and Young provided evidence that light behaves as waves through experiments demonstrating diffraction and interference. In the 1860s, Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism and showed that light is an electromagnetic wave. In the early 1900s, Planck and Einstein provided evidence that light also behaves as discrete packets of energy called photons. Later experiments demonstrated that light and other quantum objects exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, leading to the modern understanding of light in quantum mechanics.
Heisenberg uncertainity principle & wave particle duality roll (422) d1Omkar Rane
1) Davisson and Germer observed that electrons exhibited wave-like interference patterns when reflected off a crystal, providing evidence that particles can behave as waves.
2) De Broglie derived mathematical relationships between the particle properties of a wave-particle and its wave properties, relating momentum to wavelength and kinetic energy to frequency.
3) Wave-particle duality describes how light and other quantum objects behave as either particles or waves depending on the observation, as evidenced in experiments showing light's dual nature.
1) Light is the ultimate tool for understanding the universe, as almost all information we have about the cosmos comes from light.
2) Light was first emitted around 379,000 years after the Big Bang, and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation provided evidence of this first light.
3) Understanding light led to breakthroughs like the invention of lenses and telescopes, and the realization that light behaves as both a particle and a wave. Max Planck's work on blackbody radiation helped establish the foundations of quantum mechanics and spectroscopy.
On request from a friend - a journey that starts from Young's double split experiment and ends up with fundamental questions about the nature of reality and the essence of science...
The document discusses the evolution of atomic models from early Greek ideas to modern particle physics. Early models included plum pudding and solar system models that had problems explaining phenomena like spectra and photoelectric effect. Bohr proposed discrete electron orbits allowing quantum jumps that solved these issues. Later, particles like protons, neutrons, and quarks were discovered, leading to the standard model of subatomic particles and four fundamental forces. Modern techniques like scanning tunneling microscopes allow seeing atoms. Radioactivity and fusion reactions also involve atomic nuclei.
This document contains information about a team of 5 students and milestones in quantum physics. It discusses J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron, Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect using the photon model, and key observations about the photoelectric effect that classical physics could not explain but quantum theory could.
History Of Atomic Structure Pisay Versionjeksespina
The document summarizes the history of atomic structure from ancient Greek philosophers to J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897. It describes how ancient Greeks proposed that matter was made of indivisible atoms, while Aristotle believed matter was continuous. In the 17th century, experimental evidence supported the atomic theory. In 1808, Dalton proposed his atomic theory that all matter is composed of atoms that combine in simple whole number ratios. The discovery of the electron began with experiments showing that charged materials attracted small pieces of other materials. Thomson's 1897 experiment showed that cathode rays were composed of negatively charged particles smaller than atoms, which he called electrons.
1. Thomson's experiment in 1897 discovered the electron as a fundamental negatively charged particle inside the atom.
2. Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 found that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center containing positive charge, with electrons orbiting the outside, mostly empty space.
3. This led to Rutherford proposing a nuclear model of the atom with electrons orbiting a small, dense positively charged nucleus.
Classical mechanics fails to explain several experimental observations such as:
1) Black-body radiation spectrum
2) Photoelectric effect
3) Compton scattering
4) Spectrum of hydrogen emissions
Quantum mechanics was developed to account for these phenomena by treating electrons as both particles and waves. Max Planck proposed quanta to explain black-body radiation, while Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr used quanta to explain the photoelectric effect and hydrogen spectrum respectively. Arthur Compton also explained Compton scattering using photons colliding with electrons.
This document outlines the development of atomic theory from Democritus' idea of indivisible atoms to modern atomic structure. It describes key contributors such as Dalton who proposed atoms as fundamental units of matter, Thomson who discovered the electron, and Rutherford whose gold foil experiment showed atoms have a small, dense nucleus. Later scientists such as Bohr, de Broglie, Schrödinger, Chadwick, and Curie further refined atomic models through discoveries like isotopes, wave-particle duality, and subatomic particles like neutrons. Their work disproved early ideas of atoms as indivisible and showed matter is made of even smaller constituents that can change form through radioactivity.
History of atomic structure pisay versionMika Gancayco
1. Ernest Rutherford conducted an experiment where he fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil and detected their scattering with a fluorescent screen.
2. Contrary to expectations, some alpha particles were scattered at high angles or even back in the direction of the source.
3. This unexpected result led Rutherford to conclude that atoms are mostly empty space, with a tiny, dense positively charged nucleus at their center that could deflect the alpha particles. This challenged the prevailing plum pudding model of the atom.
The evolution of the atomic structure is a fascinating journey of discovery and understanding that spans several centuries. It involves the contributions of numerous scientists and experiments that have gradually shaped our current understanding of the atom. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the evolution of atomic structure
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity stating that particles can behave as both waves and particles.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
CYBER LAWS IN INDIA
CYBER CRIMES
OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE
CYBER LAWS AMENDMENTS
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
What is Cyber Law?
Cyber Law is the lawgoverning cyber space.Cyber space is a very wideterm and includescomputers, networks,software, data storagedevices (such as hard disks,USB disks etc), theInternet, websites, emailsand even electronic devicessuch as cell phones, ATMmachines etc.
Cyber lawencompasses lawsrelating to
:
1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and DigitalSignatures
3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection andPrivacy
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
TACKLING CYBERCRIMES
INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS ANDCOPYRIGHTSPROTECTION ACT
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
1. Cyberspace is an
intangible
dimension that is impossible togovern and regulate usingconventional law.
2. Cyberspace has complete
disrespect for jurisdictionalboundaries
. A person in Indiacould break into a bank’selectronic vault hosted on acomputer in USA and transfermillions of Rupees to anotherbank in Switzerland, all withinminutes. All he would need is alaptop computer and a cellphone.
3. Cyberspace
handlesgigantic traffic volumesevery second
. Billions ofemails are crisscrossing theglobe even as we read this,millions of websites are beingaccessed every minute andbillions of dollars areelectronically transferredaround the world by banksevery day.
4. Cyberspace is
absolutelyopen to participation by all.
A ten year-old in Bhutan canhave a live chat session with aneight year-old in Bali withoutany regard for the distance orthe anonymity between them
ABOUT AUTHOR
Sumit Verma
Chitkara University
Undergraduate
PAPERS
1
FOLLOWERS
575
Follow
RELATED PAPERS
Important question answers Information Technology Act, 2000
Suvo Chatterjee
Download
More Options
IT ACT 2000 – PENALTIES, OFFENCES WITH CASE STUDIES From
aru mugam
Download
More Options
Information Technology
trinisha chakroborty
Download
More Options
OVERVIEW OF CYBER LAWS IN INDIA Index
aneesh tvm
Download
More Options
Critical analysis of proposed cyber Crime Bill 2015
Shahid Jamal T U B R A Z Y Cyber Lawyer
Download
More Options
Final Cyber Cri
Prashant Dabhade
Download
More Options
Cyber Laws in India
Vikas Khatkar
Download
More Options
Commentary on THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT, 2000
Rohas Nagpal
Download
More Options
INTRODUCTION TO THE ACT 2. NEED AND OBJECTIVES 3 ROLE OF IT IN ECOMMERCE 4 CYBER CRIME 5 ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES 6 E-GOVERNANCE
keshav agarwal
Download
More Options
NON BAILABLE OFFENCES( Cyber Crimes) UNDER The IT Act, 2000 (Cyber Law)
Adv Prashant Mali, Ph.D.
Download
More Options
P a g e Fundamentals of Cyber Law Rohas Nagpal Asian School of Cyber Laws
vijay onlinesangli
Download
More Options
SEMINAR AND WORKSHOP ON DETECTION OF CYBER CRIME AND INVESTIGATION Presented by
chayapathi A R
Download
More Options
Cyber Crime Investigation and Trial Procedure in Bangladesh: Comparison with India
Thohedul Islam Talukdar
Down
The document discusses wave-particle duality and the Davisson-Germer experiment that helped verify this phenomenon. The Davisson-Germer experiment from 1927 fired an electron beam at a nickel crystal and observed that electrons were diffracted at specific angles, providing evidence that electrons exhibit wave-like properties as predicted by de Broglie's hypothesis. This supported the idea in quantum mechanics that particles can behave as both particles and waves, and helped establish the field of quantum mechanics.
Wave-particle duality postulates that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties under different experimental conditions. Historically, debates centered around whether light was a wave or particle. Key experiments and theorists helped establish the dual nature of light and matter, including:
- Einstein showing light has particle-like photons; Compton effect confirming this.
- De Broglie proposing electrons and matter have wave properties like wavelength and frequency. Davisson and Germer experimentally verified the wave nature of electrons.
- The double slit experiment demonstrated the wave behavior of electrons through an interference pattern, shocking as electrons were considered particles. This supported matter having wave-particle duality.
1. Light was originally thought to be particles but experiments showed it exhibited wave-like properties. Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism and light by describing light as electromagnetic waves. Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing light into discrete "quanta" called photons, showing light has both wave and particle properties.
2. The photoelectric effect and double slit experiments further supported the dual nature of light. De Broglie hypothesized that if light acts as particles then particles should act as waves, which was confirmed. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle emerged from this understanding.
3. Lasers exploit stimulated emission to produce intense, coherent beams of light. Applications include microscopy, which uses lasers' tunability and focusing
1. Light was originally thought to be particles but experiments showed it exhibited wave-like properties. Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism and light by describing light as electromagnetic waves. Planck explained blackbody radiation by quantizing light into discrete "quanta" called photons, showing light has both wave and particle properties.
2. The photoelectric effect and double slit experiments further supported the dual nature of light. De Broglie hypothesized that if light acts as particles then particles should act as waves, which was confirmed. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle emerged from this understanding.
3. Lasers exploit stimulated emission to produce intense, coherent beams of light. Applications include microscopy, which overcomes the diffraction limit using techniques like
This document provides an overview of the history and development of our understanding of the nature of light. It begins in the late 1600s when Newton proposed that light was made of particles. In the late 1600s and 1700s, Huygens and Young provided evidence that light behaves as waves through experiments demonstrating diffraction and interference. In the 1860s, Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism and showed that light is an electromagnetic wave. In the early 1900s, Planck and Einstein provided evidence that light also behaves as discrete packets of energy called photons. Later experiments demonstrated that light and other quantum objects exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, leading to the modern understanding of light in quantum mechanics.
Heisenberg uncertainity principle & wave particle duality roll (422) d1Omkar Rane
1) Davisson and Germer observed that electrons exhibited wave-like interference patterns when reflected off a crystal, providing evidence that particles can behave as waves.
2) De Broglie derived mathematical relationships between the particle properties of a wave-particle and its wave properties, relating momentum to wavelength and kinetic energy to frequency.
3) Wave-particle duality describes how light and other quantum objects behave as either particles or waves depending on the observation, as evidenced in experiments showing light's dual nature.
1) Light is the ultimate tool for understanding the universe, as almost all information we have about the cosmos comes from light.
2) Light was first emitted around 379,000 years after the Big Bang, and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation provided evidence of this first light.
3) Understanding light led to breakthroughs like the invention of lenses and telescopes, and the realization that light behaves as both a particle and a wave. Max Planck's work on blackbody radiation helped establish the foundations of quantum mechanics and spectroscopy.
On request from a friend - a journey that starts from Young's double split experiment and ends up with fundamental questions about the nature of reality and the essence of science...
The document discusses the evolution of atomic models from early Greek ideas to modern particle physics. Early models included plum pudding and solar system models that had problems explaining phenomena like spectra and photoelectric effect. Bohr proposed discrete electron orbits allowing quantum jumps that solved these issues. Later, particles like protons, neutrons, and quarks were discovered, leading to the standard model of subatomic particles and four fundamental forces. Modern techniques like scanning tunneling microscopes allow seeing atoms. Radioactivity and fusion reactions also involve atomic nuclei.
This document contains information about a team of 5 students and milestones in quantum physics. It discusses J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron, Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect using the photon model, and key observations about the photoelectric effect that classical physics could not explain but quantum theory could.
History Of Atomic Structure Pisay Versionjeksespina
The document summarizes the history of atomic structure from ancient Greek philosophers to J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897. It describes how ancient Greeks proposed that matter was made of indivisible atoms, while Aristotle believed matter was continuous. In the 17th century, experimental evidence supported the atomic theory. In 1808, Dalton proposed his atomic theory that all matter is composed of atoms that combine in simple whole number ratios. The discovery of the electron began with experiments showing that charged materials attracted small pieces of other materials. Thomson's 1897 experiment showed that cathode rays were composed of negatively charged particles smaller than atoms, which he called electrons.
1. Thomson's experiment in 1897 discovered the electron as a fundamental negatively charged particle inside the atom.
2. Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 found that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center containing positive charge, with electrons orbiting the outside, mostly empty space.
3. This led to Rutherford proposing a nuclear model of the atom with electrons orbiting a small, dense positively charged nucleus.
Classical mechanics fails to explain several experimental observations such as:
1) Black-body radiation spectrum
2) Photoelectric effect
3) Compton scattering
4) Spectrum of hydrogen emissions
Quantum mechanics was developed to account for these phenomena by treating electrons as both particles and waves. Max Planck proposed quanta to explain black-body radiation, while Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr used quanta to explain the photoelectric effect and hydrogen spectrum respectively. Arthur Compton also explained Compton scattering using photons colliding with electrons.
This document outlines the development of atomic theory from Democritus' idea of indivisible atoms to modern atomic structure. It describes key contributors such as Dalton who proposed atoms as fundamental units of matter, Thomson who discovered the electron, and Rutherford whose gold foil experiment showed atoms have a small, dense nucleus. Later scientists such as Bohr, de Broglie, Schrödinger, Chadwick, and Curie further refined atomic models through discoveries like isotopes, wave-particle duality, and subatomic particles like neutrons. Their work disproved early ideas of atoms as indivisible and showed matter is made of even smaller constituents that can change form through radioactivity.
History of atomic structure pisay versionMika Gancayco
1. Ernest Rutherford conducted an experiment where he fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil and detected their scattering with a fluorescent screen.
2. Contrary to expectations, some alpha particles were scattered at high angles or even back in the direction of the source.
3. This unexpected result led Rutherford to conclude that atoms are mostly empty space, with a tiny, dense positively charged nucleus at their center that could deflect the alpha particles. This challenged the prevailing plum pudding model of the atom.
The evolution of the atomic structure is a fascinating journey of discovery and understanding that spans several centuries. It involves the contributions of numerous scientists and experiments that have gradually shaped our current understanding of the atom. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the evolution of atomic structure
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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1. Yodh 1
OUR QUANTUM WORLD
Wave Particle duality of Nature
Gaurang Yodh
Physics and Astronomy
University of California Irvine
2. Yodh 2
OUTLINE
Atom and its size
Waves and Particles
Waves as particles and Particles as Waves –
Quantum View
Milestones of Quantum physics
Wave nature of Matter : de Broglie
Interference of waves
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Quantum versus Classical world view
3. Yodh 3
How big are atoms ?
Democritus : Atoms as
building blocks.
Size?
Shape ?
Substance?
17000 Copper
atoms
Diameter 10-7 cm
Atomic size determined not till the 19th century
Atoms are very small ; about 0.5 nanometers.
Nanotechnology deals with atomic manipulations.
1 nm = 10-9 meters
4. Yodh 4
Objects
T
Techniques of observation
eye
VLA Radio Tel
KECK Tel
Optical microscope
http://www.vendian.org/howbig/
Helps you visualize sizes
5. Yodh 5
Waves and Particles : What do we mean by them?
Ball, Car, person, or point like objects called particles.
They can be located at a space point at a given time.
They can be at rest, moving or accelerating.
Falling Ball
Ground level
Material Objects:
6. Yodh 6
Waves and Particles: What do we mean by them
Ripples, surf, ocean waves, sound waves, radio waves.
Need to see crests and troughs to define them.
Waves are oscillations in space and time.
Direction of travel, velocity
Up-down
oscillations
Wavelength ,frequency, velocity and oscillation size defines waves
Common types of waves:
7. Yodh 7
Particles and Waves: Basic difference in behaviour
When particles collide they cannot pass through each other !
They can bounce or they can shatter
Before collision After collision
Another after
collision state
shatter
8. Yodh 8
Collision of truck with ladder on top with a
Car at rest ! Note the ladder continue its
Motion forward ….. Also the small care front
End gets smashed.
9. Yodh 9
Head on collision of a car and truck
Collision is inelastic – the small car is dragged along
By the truck……
10. Yodh 10
Waves and Particles Basic difference:
Waves can pass through each other !
As they pass through each other they can enhance or cancel
each other
Later they regain their original form !
11. Yodh 11
Waves and Particles:
Waves
Spread in space and time
Wavelength Frequency
Can be superposed – show
interference effects
Pass through each other
Particles
Localized in space and time
Cannot pass through each other -
they bounce or shatter.
12. Yodh 12
OUR QUANTUM WORLD
In the 20th century, study of atomic systems required a
fundamental revision of these classical ideas about
physical objects.
1. Light waves exhibited particle like properties –
phenomena called photo-electric effect in which light impinging
on certain metals cause instanteous emission of electrons
in a billiard ball like impact.
– the basis of automatic door openers in grocery stores
2. Electrons (particles) exhibit wave like properties – they
can pass through each other ! Phenomenon of
electron interference – basis of electron microscopes
13. Yodh 13
OUR QUANTUM WORLD
.
This quantum picture of the world is at odds
with our common sense view of physical objects.
We cannot uniquely define what is a particle and
what is a wave !!
Neils Bohr and Werner Heisenberg were the architects of this
quantum world view, along with Planck, Einstein, de Broglie,
Schrodinger, Pauli and Dirac.
14. Yodh 14
TRUE UNDERSTANDING OF NATURE REQUIRED
THAT PHYSICAL OBJECTS, WHATEVER THEY ARE,
ARE NEITHER EXCLUSIVELY PARTICLES OR WAVES
No experiment can ever measure both aspects at the same
time, so we never see a mixture of particle and wave.
WHEN ONE OBSERVES A PHYSICAL PHENOMENON
INVOLVING A PHYSICAL OBJECT, THE BEHAVIOUR
YOU WILL OBSERVE – WHETHER PARTICLE LIKE OR
WAVE LIKE – DEPENDS ON YOUR METHOD OF
OBSERVATION.
THE OBJECT IS DESCRIBED BY MATHEMATICAL
FUNCT IONS WHICH ARE MEASURES OF PROBABILITY .
15. Yodh 15
MILESTONES OF QUANTUM PHYSICS:
J.J.Thomson Established electron as a fundamenta
particle of nature. He measured its charge to mass
ratio using a Crooke's tube.
Electric current = flow of electrons
Crooke's tube:
Evacuated tube
Visualization of
electron beam.
Animation of electrons moving
and being deflected by an electric
or magnetic field.
16. Yodh 16
Marie Curie and Radioactivity - 1898
Discovered that certain elements ‘ spontaneously ‘
emit radiations and change into different elements.
Only woman scientist to receive two Nobel Prizes:
One in chemistry and the other in physics.
17. Yodh 17
The Quantum of Light or the Photon
Particle nature of light was proposed by
Einstein in 1905 to explain the photo-electric
effect. Photo-electric effect – automatic door
openers in grocery stores. Particles of light
are called light quanta or photons.
Energy of a Photon = h (frequency of light)
h is a fundamental constant of nature and it is
very small in size.
Packet of energy in photon is so small that we are not aware
of the rain of photons of light impinging on our eyes – just as
you cannot feel the impact of individual air molecules, you
only feel a breeze.
18. Yodh 18
R
r
Rutherford and his Nuclear Atom: 1898 -1911
Ernest Rutherford used alpha rays to discover the
nucleus of the atom. The nucleus was positvely
charged and contained almost all of the mass of
the atom. Most of the atom was empty space.
Electron cloud
Classical physics required
that this atom is unstable
electrons would fall into
the nucleus in 10-7 sec!
Atomic size
Nuclear size
19. Yodh 19
Planck and quantization of atomic “ vibrations “
Before Einstein, Planck postulated from study
of radiation from hot bodies that the radiating
atoms can only radiate energy in discrete amounts
– or that atoms exist only in discrete states, called
Quantum states.
This was the birth of quantum physics in 1900
20. Yodh 20
THE BOHR ATOM:
Bohr model explained how atoms emit light
quanta and their stability. He combined the
postulates of Planck and Einstein to build
characteristic energy states that atoms should
possess. Model gave excellent agreement with
experiment on atomic spectra.(1913)
Bohr proposed a revolutionary model:
An atom with discrete (Quantum) states
– an ad hoc model
21. Yodh 21
Bohr atom
Bohr’s atom model achieved three important results:
1. Atoms are stable
3. Atoms regenerate if they are taken apart and
then allowed to reform.
2. Different atoms of the same element are identical
22. Yodh 22
THE BOHR ATOM:
Understanding the origin of Bohr's model required an
essential bold step – enter Louis de Broglie.
23. Yodh 23
Wave nature of material bodies:
If light, which classically is a wave,
can have particle nature
As shown by Planck and Einstein,
Can material particles exhibit wave nature ?
Prince Louis de Broglie while doing
his Ph.D. research said particles
should have wave like properties.
24. Yodh 24
Wave Nature of Matter
Louis de Broglie in 1923 proposed that
matter particles should exhibit wave
properties just as light waves exhibited
particle properties. These waves have
very small wavelengths in most situations
so that their presence was difficult to observe
These waves were observed a few years later by Davisson and
G.P. Thomson with high energy electrons. These electrons show
the same pattern when scattered from crystals as X-rays of simila
wave lengths.
Electron microscope
picture of a fly
25. Yodh 25
A SUMMARY OF DUAL ITY OF NATURE
Wave particle duality of physical objects
LIGHT
Wave nature -EM wave Particle nature -photons
Optical microscope
Interference
Convert light to electric current
Photo-electric effect
PARTICLES
Wave nature
Matter waves -electron
microscope
Particle nature
Electric current
photon-electron collisions
Discrete (Quantum) states of confined
systems, such as atoms.
26. Yodh 26
QUNATUM MECHANICS:
ALL PHYSICAL OBJECTS exhibit both PARTICLE AND WAVE
LIKE PROPERTIES. THIS WAS THE STARTING POINT
OF QUANTUM MECHANICS DEVELOPED INDEPENDENTLY
BY WERNER HEISENBERG AND ERWIN SCHRODINGER.
Particle properties of waves: Einstein relation:
Energy of photon = h (frequency of wave).
Wave properties of particles: de Broglie relation:
wave length = h/(mass times velocity)
Physical object described by a mathematical function called
the wave function.
Experiments measure the Probability of observing the object.
27. Yodh 27
A localized wave or wave packet:
Spread in position Spread in momentum
Superposition of waves
of different wavelengths
to make a packet
Narrower the packet , more the spread in momentum
Basis of Uncertainty Principle
A moving particle in quantum theory
28. Yodh 28
ILLUSTRATION OF MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRON
POSITION
Act of measurement
influences the electron
-gives it a kick and it
is no longer where it
was ! Essence of uncertainty
principle.
29. Yodh 29
Classical world is Deterministic:
Knowing the position and velocity of
all objects at a particular time
Future can be predicted using known laws of force
and Newton's laws of motion.
Quantum World is Probabilistic:
Impossible to know position and velocity
with certainty at a given time.
Only probability of future state can be predicted using
known laws of force and equations of quantum mechanics.
Observer Observed
Tied together
30. Yodh 30
BEFORE OBSERVATION IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO SAY
WHETHER AN OBJECT IS A WAVE OR A PARTICLE
OR WHETHER IT EXISTS AT ALL !!
QUANTUM MECHANICS IS A PROBABILISTIC THEORY OF NATURE
UNCERTAINTY RELATIONS OF HEISENBERG ALLOW YOU TO
GET AWAY WITH ANYTHING PROVIDED YOU DO IT FAST
ENOUGH !! example: Bank employee withdrawing cash, using it ,but
replacing it before he can be caught ...
CONFINED PHYSICAL SYSTEMS – AN ATOM – CAN ONLY
EXIST IN CERTAIN ALLOWED STATES ... .
THEY ARE QUANTIZED
31. Yodh 31
COMMON SENSE VIEW OF THE WORLD IS AN
APPROXIMATION OF THE UNDERLYING BASIC
QUANTUM DESCRIPTION OF OUR PHYSICAL
WORLD !
IN THE COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION OF
BOHR AND HEISENBERG IT IS IMPOSSIBLE IN
PRINCIPLE FOR OUR WORLD TO BE
DETERMINISTIC !
EINSTEIN, A FOUNDER OF QM WAS
UNCOMFORTABLE WITH THIS
INTERPRETATION
Bohr and Einstein in discussion 1933
God does not play dice !