Changes in the number of superposition states that occur instantaneously between an observer and observed system can result in energy changes without information transfer by waves. The document discusses three assumptions: 1) changes in superposition states cause energy changes, 2) changes occur during observer reset or observation, and 3) changes are instantaneous. It also discusses how the number of possible superposition states varies with the number of observers and slits in a double-slit experiment. Experiments are proposed to test the timing and energy effects of changing superposition states during observer reset and observation.

1. Effect of Change in Number of Superposition
States at Reset/Observation on System Energy
Dr. Martin Alpert
Universal Empowering Technologies
Cleveland, OH
Mobile: 440-725-7871
Email: msecura@aol.com
March 5, 2020
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2. Goal: Determine effect of Changes in Number of
States on Energy during Measurement Process
Different energy exchange mechanism
Differentiating energetic effect of instantaneous change in number of
superposition states from effect of time-based change of value of
state (“meaningful” information)
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3. Three Independent Assumptions
State is each discrete interaction in system that can result in an
observable
1. Changes in the number of superposition states result in an energy
change1
2. Changes in the number of superposition states at observed occurs at
observer reset (ability to determine state) and observation
3. Changes in the number of superposition states with observer reset
and observation occurs instantaneously
1J. Klatzow, J.N. Becker, P.M.Ledingham, C. Weinzetl, K.T. Kaczmarek, D.J. Saunders, J. Nunn, I.A.
Walmsley, R. Uzdin, and E. Poem. Phys. Rev. Lett, 122, 110601 (2019)
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4. Analogy: Information Theory (Computer Gates) & Quantum Mechanics
Justification: Gates: Energy used to reset memory
Slits: Energy used to reset observer
AND Gate – Irreversible Particle-Slit System – Irreversible (Interference)
# inputs> # outputs
Inputs are in superposition state
Information lost (Cannot determine inputs from outputs)
Energy required to reset observer or add memory 4

5. Analogy: Information Theory (Computer Gates) & Quantum Mechanics (2)
AND Gate - Reversible Double-Slit System – Reversible (no interference)
Energy used in reset (not calculation) Energy used to reset observer (not observation)
# inputs= # outputs (2 memory locations) # inputs= # outputs (slits & final detector screen)
Superposition eliminated when memory (observer) added
Information conserved (Can determine inputs from outputs)
No energy change in environment
Inputs in superposition state after output measured
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6. What is State in Double-Slit Experiment?
• State is each discrete interaction in system that can result in an observable
• Differentiated from typical definition of state of system
• System possible interactions between the source and slits (probability space)
– energy changes with change in number of possible interactions
• Particle characteristic interactions – distinguishable states
• Wave characteristic interactions – indistinguishable states (superposition)
• Applies to multi-slit systems – greater number of possible
changes
Change in number of observers capable of making an observation
(reset) or eliminating capability of making observation (observation)
occurs in time, adding information, decreases/increases number of
possible interactions (Assumption 2) in observed instantaneously
(Assumption 3) resulting in energy change (Assumption 1) at the
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7. State Energy and Entropy
• If the number of states (multiplicity, ω,) not value, is physically
significant then quantum mechanics can be related to statistical
mechanics in physical system
• Both deal with number of physical microstate possibilities that result in
macroscopic physical observations
• Reset and Observation results in discrete changes in the number of possibilities
• Bit energy (kTln(2)2) increments or something different determinable by
experiment
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8. Number of States Change in Discrete Increments (1)
One observer – instantaneous large change in observed number of
superposition states
For N equal-sized, discrete slits, the maximum number of changes of state in observed is
proportional to maximum number of indistinguishable (superposition) state changes:
𝜔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2 𝑁
(No change in number of distinguishable states)
𝜔𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2 𝑁(𝑁−1) for no slit observers (number of superposition states)
𝜔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2(𝑁−𝑅) for R=slit observers
𝜔𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2(𝑁−𝑅)(𝑁−𝑅−1)
𝜔 = 2((𝑁−𝑅)2+𝑅)
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9. Number of States Change in Discrete Increments (2)
• The number of possibilities is equivalent to the number of terms in the
probability expression in multi-slit systems. For double slits:
• Distinguishable (2 states):
• Indistinguishable (4 states):
• For N slits, R observers, the number of terms is:
Indistinguishable Distinguishable Total
• Without slit observer:
• With slit observers:
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( 1)N N 
( )( 1)N R N R  
N 2
N
2
( )N R R N
2 2
AB A BP   
2 2 * *
AB A B A B B AP         

10. Exp. 1: Observer Reset/Observation Effect on Observed
• Monitor energy changes in Observed (Box1) and Observer (Box2) independently
throughout entire measurement process
• Classic double-slit system different than interferometer model
• Energy change from initial equilibrium state in Box1 (Assumption 1)
• Reset – “collapse of wavefunction” (Box2): ↓ # of superposition states; ↑ energy at observed (Box1)
• Observation (Box2): ↑ # of superposition states; ↓ energy at observed (Box1)
• Reciprocal change for entire observation process – no net change in # of superposition states
• Not dependent on value (“meaningful” information) – determine path information
• Determine if energy change occurs at observer (Box2) 10

11. Instantaneous Changes
Adding/removing slit from multi-slit system occurs in time but
changes in the number of states in system occurs
instantaneously with physical result
Quantum Information, as number of states, is amount of
information; changes instantaneously as in entanglement
Value (“Meaningful” Information) communicated by wave
between observed and observer at speed of light or less
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12. Exp. 2: Timing Relationship – Observer/ Observed (1)
• Experiment: Resetting observer and then moving it away from observed so
signal distance travels between observer and observed at reset is less than
signal distance travels between observed and observer after reset
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13. Exp. 2: Timing Relationship – Observer/ Observed (2)
Observer reset instantaneously changes number of states at observed
• Four possible relationships for signal between observer and observed – which
signal transfer is significant to obtain path information
• observer to observed (slit) – no interference
• Observed (slit) to observer – interference
• Observer to observed and observed to observer – interference or no interference
dependent on distance of observer from observed and speed of observer
• Observer reset instantaneously changes number of states at observed
(entanglement-type process) – no interference
• Not dependent on time relationship between source transit to screen detector
• Delayed Choice – Reset of observer has ability to determine path information
before final screen observation (space-like)
• Not dependent on observer speed

14. Relationship of Mechanism to other Quantum
Phenomena
Based on instantaneous energy changes (Assumption 3) due to a change in
number of states at observed (Assumption 1) as a result of observer reset
and observation (Assumption 2) does not explain quantum mechanics but
could provide additional insights into some quantum mechanical
mechanisms:
• Zeno and Anti-Zeno Effect
• Modified Uncertainty to include uncertainty in discrete state of Observer/Observed
• Wave/Particle relationship to Energy/Mass
• Implications for Dark Matter/Energy without additional particles
• Instantaneous energy changes at celestial distances
• Function of ratio of #resets:#observations
• Delayed Choice
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15. THANK YOU
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOLLOWS

16. Goal: Determine effect of Changes in Number of
States on Energy during Measurement Process
Different energy exchange mechanism
Differentiating energetic effect of instantaneous change in
number of superposition states from effect of time-based change
of value of state (“meaningful” information)
I will discuss a different way for energy changes to occur without a wave transfer of energy based
on changes in the number of superposition states that occur instantaneously between an
observer and observed when the observer is reset or makes an observation. The energy change in
this situation is a transfer to (reset) or from (observation) the environment. I will discuss
justification and consequences this may have on explaining quantum mechanical phenomena.
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17. Three Independent Assumptions
State is each discrete interaction in system that can result in an observable
1. Changes in the number of superposition states results in an energy change 1
1. Based on recent experiments demonstrating power increase for quantum heat engines greater
than classical heat engines
2. Changes in number of superposition states at observed occurs at observer reset (ability to
determine state) and observation
1. One observer change can result in large energy change at observed
1. Depends on number of superposition states at observed (Changes with a change in number of
observers in multi-slit systems)
2. Energy change in observed required to create quantum heat engine (superposition states)
1. Conservation of energy
2. Energy changes reversed between observer reset and observation
3. Number of superposition states at observed (slits) decrease at reset, transfer energy to environment
and increase at observation, transfer energy from environment
3. Changes in the number of states with observer reset and observation occurs instantaneously
1. Physical basis for Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, instant change
2. Waves communicate value of states (“meaningful” information) in time at the speed of light or
less as opposed to possible number of states that exists in space
171J. Klatzow, J.N. Becker, P.M.Ledingham, C. Weinzetl, K.T. Kaczmarek, D.J. Saunders, J. Nunn, I.A. Walmsley, R. Uzdin, and E. Poem. Phys. Rev. Lett,
122, 110601 (2019)

18. What is State in Double-Slit Experiment?
• State is each discrete interaction in system that can result in an observable
• Differentiated from typical definition of state of system
• System possible interactions between the source and slits (probability space) – energy changes
with change in number of possible interactions
• Particle characteristic interactions – distinguishable states
• Wave characteristic interactions – indistinguishable states (superposition)
• Distinguishable – particle characteristics (# slits=# observers)
• Complete information – for double-slit systems (2 observers), slit observer and final detector
screen
• Commuting – Observation independent of each other (observation order does not change
results)
• Number of states constant for given physical slit system (No change in number with added
observer)
• Indistinguishable – wave characteristics (# slits > # observers)
• Missing information – some inputs in superposition
• Binary, non-commuting – Observation mutually dependent pairs, (observation order changes
results)
• Varies with number of observers and number of slits
• Applies to multi-slit systems – greater number of possible changes
Change in number of observers capable of making an observation (reset) or eliminating capability of making observation
(observation) occurs in time, adding information, decreases/increases number of possible interactions (Assumption 2) in
observed instantaneously (Assumption 3) – energy change (Assumption 1) at the observed
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19. Number of States Change in Discrete Increments (1)
One observer – instantaneous large change in observed number of
superposition states
For N equal-sized, discrete slits, the maximum number of changes of state in observed is
proportional to maximum number of indistinguishable (superposition) state changes:
𝜔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2 𝑁
(No change in number of distinguishable states)
𝜔𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2 𝑁(𝑁−1) for no slit observers (number of superposition states)
𝜔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2(𝑁−𝑅) for R=slit observers
𝜔𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2(𝑁−𝑅)(𝑁−𝑅−1)
𝜔 = 2((𝑁−𝑅)2+𝑅)
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