2. Between independent clauses closely related
in meaning
Between items in a series when any of the
items contains a comma
Before coordinating conjunctions used to join
independent clauses when any of the clauses
contains a comma
3. To introduce an illustrative statement or list
of examples (NOT after a verb or preposition)
To introduce a long quotation (four or more
lines)
After the opening of a business letter
Between parts of certain conventional
notations (Bible verses, time, subtitles, ratios)
4. Direct quotations
Title of short works
Calling attention to a word’s use (use with
caution)
5. Means words have been omitted
Use to shorten a quotation without changing
the meaning
NOT necessary at the beginning of a
quotation
6. In place of omitted letters (contractions or
reproducing slang)
To indicate possession
To indicate some plurals
◦ I got mostly B’s in high school
◦ Her posts contains too many !’s.
Common abbreviations do NOT need
apostrophes
◦ SATs, DVDs, UFOs, the 1980s
7. A parenthetic sentence between two other
sentences or at the end of a paragraph
At the end of a sentence
A parenthetic sentence inside another
sentence
After a word that would be followed by a
comma
Enclosing numbers or letters assigned to
items in a series
Enclosing inserted dates and abbreviations
◦ Frank Lloyd Wright (1869-1959) was a great
architect.
◦ Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) sponsored
the fundraiser.
8. To break a word
To combine words into an adjective or noun
Between a combined number and word
After certain prefixes
To write certain numbers
dash (--)
When typing a dash, don’t leave a space
between the words that precede or follow the
dash.
To highlight a thought or idea
The package arrived—badly damaged.
