1) The document discusses the role of puberty in adolescent brain development. It notes that puberty involves hormonal changes that begin the physical and psychological changes between childhood and adulthood.
2) Puberty involves three main events - adrenarche, gonadarche, and growth of the axis. Gonadarche involves the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and the release of hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Animal studies show these hormones influence brain structure and behaviors.
3) However, human studies on the relationship between puberty and brain development are limited. Future studies need to carefully measure puberty stages and relate them to specific brain and behavioral changes to better
The passage describes the physiological process of puberty. It states that between early childhood and ages 8-9, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is dormant with undetectable sex hormones. Starting 1-3 years before puberty, low levels of LH during sleep can be detected, reflecting increasing pulsatile secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus. This pulsatile secretion of gonadotropins causes the enlargement and maturation of the gonads and the production of sex hormones, culminating in the appearance of secondary sex characteristics at the start of puberty. Genetic and environmental factors like nutrition and activity levels can affect the timing of puberty's onset.
Adolescence, transitional phase of growth and development between childhood and adulthood. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an adolescent as any person between ages 10 and 19.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation which enables evolutionary adaptations. Hormones communicate throughout the body, including sex hormones like androgens and estrogens. Sex hormones influence reproductive organs and behaviors through organizing and activating effects, and there are sensitive periods of development when hormones shape the brain and body. Differences exist between male and female anatomy, hormones, sexual behaviors, and cognitive abilities, which some evolutionary perspectives suggest relate to ancestral reproductive strategies.
This study examined how ovulatory status, hormonal birth control use, relationship threat type (emotional vs. sexual infidelity), and rival attractiveness affect distress in women. The researchers found that normally cycling women reported higher distress during ovulation than the luteal phase, to threats of emotional infidelity over sexual infidelity, and to more attractive rivals over less attractive rivals. Patterns of distress differed between normally cycling women and those using hormonal birth control.
This document discusses the physiology of growth and development from conception through adulthood. It defines the key stages of development, describes common growth curves, and lists the major factors that influence growth, including genetics, nutrition, hormones, and the environment. In particular, it focuses on the roles of growth hormone, IGF-1, thyroid hormones, sex hormones, insulin, and cortisol in stimulating or inhibiting growth and development at different life stages.
Physical and cognitive development occurs during adolescence. Puberty leads to sexual maturity between ages 10-14 through hormonal changes that cause growth and development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. This can be an emotional time due to brain development, as the pre-frontal cortex involved in decision making is still maturing.
Common health concerns among American adolescents include lack of physical activity, poor nutrition leading to issues like obesity, substance abuse, depression, and high rates of death from accidents and suicide. Filipino adolescent health issues also involve substance abuse, early pregnancy, and problems from child labor. Drug use stems from enjoyment, environment, curiosity, and personal problems, and preventing widespread use involves education, recreational activities, and healthy living.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3 of Myers' Exploring Psychology (6th Ed) on the nature and nurture of behavior and gender. It discusses genes and chromosomes, evolutionary psychology, behavior genetics, environmental influences on development, and the interaction of biological and social factors in gender development. The chapter examines theories of how children learn gender roles through social learning, reward/punishment, and acquiring cultural schemas of masculinity and femininity.
Growth and development concept, theory and basicsSaeed Bajafar
This document provides definitions and concepts related to growth and development. It discusses:
- Ancient concepts of growth from texts like the Garbha Upanishad.
- Definitions of growth, development, and related terms from sources like Todd, Proffit, and Moyers.
- The patterns of growth including differential growth, the cephalocaudal gradient, and proportional changes.
- Factors that influence growth timing, rate and direction like genetics and environment.
- Major longitudinal growth studies that provide standards and norms for understanding craniofacial development.
The passage describes the physiological process of puberty. It states that between early childhood and ages 8-9, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is dormant with undetectable sex hormones. Starting 1-3 years before puberty, low levels of LH during sleep can be detected, reflecting increasing pulsatile secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus. This pulsatile secretion of gonadotropins causes the enlargement and maturation of the gonads and the production of sex hormones, culminating in the appearance of secondary sex characteristics at the start of puberty. Genetic and environmental factors like nutrition and activity levels can affect the timing of puberty's onset.
Adolescence, transitional phase of growth and development between childhood and adulthood. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an adolescent as any person between ages 10 and 19.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation which enables evolutionary adaptations. Hormones communicate throughout the body, including sex hormones like androgens and estrogens. Sex hormones influence reproductive organs and behaviors through organizing and activating effects, and there are sensitive periods of development when hormones shape the brain and body. Differences exist between male and female anatomy, hormones, sexual behaviors, and cognitive abilities, which some evolutionary perspectives suggest relate to ancestral reproductive strategies.
This study examined how ovulatory status, hormonal birth control use, relationship threat type (emotional vs. sexual infidelity), and rival attractiveness affect distress in women. The researchers found that normally cycling women reported higher distress during ovulation than the luteal phase, to threats of emotional infidelity over sexual infidelity, and to more attractive rivals over less attractive rivals. Patterns of distress differed between normally cycling women and those using hormonal birth control.
This document discusses the physiology of growth and development from conception through adulthood. It defines the key stages of development, describes common growth curves, and lists the major factors that influence growth, including genetics, nutrition, hormones, and the environment. In particular, it focuses on the roles of growth hormone, IGF-1, thyroid hormones, sex hormones, insulin, and cortisol in stimulating or inhibiting growth and development at different life stages.
Physical and cognitive development occurs during adolescence. Puberty leads to sexual maturity between ages 10-14 through hormonal changes that cause growth and development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. This can be an emotional time due to brain development, as the pre-frontal cortex involved in decision making is still maturing.
Common health concerns among American adolescents include lack of physical activity, poor nutrition leading to issues like obesity, substance abuse, depression, and high rates of death from accidents and suicide. Filipino adolescent health issues also involve substance abuse, early pregnancy, and problems from child labor. Drug use stems from enjoyment, environment, curiosity, and personal problems, and preventing widespread use involves education, recreational activities, and healthy living.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3 of Myers' Exploring Psychology (6th Ed) on the nature and nurture of behavior and gender. It discusses genes and chromosomes, evolutionary psychology, behavior genetics, environmental influences on development, and the interaction of biological and social factors in gender development. The chapter examines theories of how children learn gender roles through social learning, reward/punishment, and acquiring cultural schemas of masculinity and femininity.
Growth and development concept, theory and basicsSaeed Bajafar
This document provides definitions and concepts related to growth and development. It discusses:
- Ancient concepts of growth from texts like the Garbha Upanishad.
- Definitions of growth, development, and related terms from sources like Todd, Proffit, and Moyers.
- The patterns of growth including differential growth, the cephalocaudal gradient, and proportional changes.
- Factors that influence growth timing, rate and direction like genetics and environment.
- Major longitudinal growth studies that provide standards and norms for understanding craniofacial development.
Growth and development (orthodontics) by dr venkat giri indugu , asst prof, sjdcVenkat Indugu
Growth and development are interrelated processes involving increases in size and maturation at the cellular and tissue levels. There are several types of growth including cellular hyperplasia/hypertrophy and tissue-level accretionary, appositional, interstitial, and compensatory growth. Growth occurs in phases from prenatal to postnatal to maturity. It is influenced by genetic, hormonal, nutritional, environmental, and other factors. Growth is studied using measurement approaches like craniometry and anthropometry or experimental approaches involving vital staining, radioisotopes, and implant radiography. Growth data is interpreted using distance/cumulative and velocity curves to understand patterns of differential growth along the cephalocaudal gradient and in Scammon's growth curves
1. The document discusses several theories of craniofacial growth including the genetic theory, sutural theory, cartilaginous theory, functional matrix theory, Van Limborgh's multifactorial theory, Enlow's expanding "V" principle, counterpart principle, neurotrophic theory, and servo system theory.
2. The functional matrix theory proposes that bone growth is influenced primarily by function, with soft tissues growing first and bone adapting in response.
3. Van Limborgh's multifactorial theory suggests six factors control growth including intrinsic and epigenetic genetic factors as well as local and general environmental factors.
The document discusses the physical and hormonal changes that occur during puberty, including growth spurts, development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, and increased hormone production. It notes that puberty transforms the body from childhood to adulthood over 3-5 years on average, but can occur between ages 8-14. While puberty involves growth, sexuality, and brain development, it can also cause problems for some adolescents like early sexual activity, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections.
Seminar - Growth and Development and theories of growthMMCDSR , Haryana
Growth and development are complex processes involving both quantitative and qualitative changes over time. Growth refers mainly to increases in size, while development involves increasing organization and complexity of structures and functions. Several theories attempt to explain the patterns and mechanisms of growth, including concepts of growth fields, drift, and remodeling. Understanding the genetic influences and multiple factors that can affect growth timing and rates is important for orthodontic treatment planning.
The document provides an overview of physical and psychological changes that occur during adolescence, including:
- Rapid growth and development of primary and secondary sex characteristics due to increases in sex hormones.
- Differences in the timing of puberty between boys and girls, with girls starting earlier on average.
- Changes in body composition with increases in body fat and muscle.
- Brain development continuing into early twenties with improvements in cognitive abilities.
- Health risks such as obesity, eating disorders, drug and alcohol use that can arise during this transitional life stage.
This document summarizes lifespan development from conception to old age. It describes key stages of physical, cognitive, and social development. These include prenatal development, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood, and discusses factors like genetics and environment that influence the developmental process.
Normal sexuality is determined by anatomy, physiology, culture, relationships and life experiences. It involves stimulation of sex organs and brings pleasure to partners.
Sexual identity refers to biological sex characteristics while gender identity is one's sense of masculinity or femininity. Sexual orientation describes attraction to the same sex, opposite sex or both.
The sexual response cycle involves four phases - desire, excitement, orgasm and resolution. Various organs experience physiological changes like vasocongestion and detumescence during the cycle.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Growth&development /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental acad...Indian dental academy
Welcome to Indian Dental Academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy has a unique training program & curriculum that provides students with exceptional clinical skills and enabling them to return to their office with high level confidence and start treating patients
State of the art comprehensive training-Faculty of world wide repute &Very affordable.
This chapter discusses puberty and biological foundations of adolescent development. It covers:
- What puberty is and its key physical and hormonal changes.
- Determinants of puberty onset like heredity, weight, hormones, and the endocrine system. Environmental factors like urban living can also influence timing.
- Growth spurts during puberty, where height increases by as much as 30% and weight gains 50%. Sexual maturation also occurs.
- Psychological impacts of puberty like changes in body image and potential social/emotional issues from early or late physical development.
- Biological foundations looking at evolution, genetics, and the interplay between heredity and environment in shaping adolescent
The document discusses various aspects of normal human sexuality from anatomical, physiological, psychological, sociological, and legal perspectives. It describes the phases of sexual response including desire, excitement, orgasm, and resolution. Normal sexuality is defined as bringing pleasure to oneself and one's partner without inappropriate guilt or anxiety and not in a compulsive manner.
This document discusses growth and development, providing definitions and key concepts. It defines growth as an increase in size, while development refers to maturation and differentiation at the cellular level. Growth is quantitative and anatomical, while development is qualitative and physiological. Theories of craniofacial growth are examined, including the sutural theory, cartilaginous theory, and functional matrix theory. Growth occurs at differing rates in different tissues through differential growth and growth spurts. Methods for studying growth include longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies, cephalometry, vital staining, and implant radiography.
Introduction
Puberty
Definition
Types of Development
Health problems of adolescent
Health problem related to sexuality
Eating disorders
Serious health problem of adolescent
Bibliography
Human growth occurs in distinct stages from prenatal development through adulthood. Puberty marks the transition to adolescence, a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation. Growth and development are sensitive to environmental factors. Puberty begins earlier in well-nourished girls compared to underprivileged girls from larger families. Life history theory examines how organisms allocate resources between growth, reproduction, and survival.
This document discusses puberty and adolescence. It defines puberty as the period when a child undergoes sexual maturation and transitions from asexual to sexual being, typically between ages 10-16. Puberty involves physical changes like growth spurts and development of secondary sex characteristics. It can be an emotionally difficult time due to rapid changes. Adolescence is defined as the period from ages 13-19 when individuals progress towards adulthood. This involves continued physical development as well as emotional, mental and social maturation. Adolescence presents both opportunities and challenges as individuals work to develop an identity and independence.
This document summarizes key aspects of human sexuality, pregnancy, and childbirth. It describes the male and female reproductive anatomy and hormones. It discusses sexual response, orientation, and health issues. It also covers fertility, pregnancy stages and care, complications, and childbirth options like natural birth and cesarean sections. The postpartum period and parenting are also briefly addressed.
1. The document discusses growth and development, including definitions, physiology, factors affecting it, patterns, variability, and timing.
2. Key points include growth being an increase in size while development involves cellular differentiation; physiology involves hormones like HGH and IGF-1; and factors include heredity, nutrition, illness, socioeconomics, and endocrine function.
3. Growth occurs in patterns with the head growing faster early in development while the legs grow faster later. Variability exists between individuals and timing has critical periods and growth spurts.
This document discusses the physiology and pathology of ejaculation. It begins with an overview of the autonomic and somatic innervations involved in the male sexual response cycle. It then describes the processes of emission and ejaculation, which are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. It discusses various conditions like premature ejaculation, anejaculation, and retrograde ejaculation. It provides diagnostic criteria and treatments for these conditions. It also includes three case studies describing men with premature ejaculation, retrograde ejaculation, and anejaculation after a spinal injury.
Puberty is initiated by increases in hormones like leptin and kisspeptin which activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, triggering the release of sex hormones and setting off physical changes. In females, puberty involves breast development, pubic hair growth, menarche, and ovarian and uterine maturation over 3-5 years starting around age 10. In males, it involves testicular growth, pubic hair growth, penis growth, voice deepening, and a growth spurt over 3-5 years starting around age 11. Throughout puberty, sex hormones influence brain development and increase emotional volatility and risk-taking behavior.
Running head HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR1HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR5Huma.docxcowinhelen
Running head: HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 1
HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 5Human Sexual Behavior
Razalyn Nickola
PSY/340
Janyary 8th, 2016
Teralyn Sell
Human Sexual Behavior
Regulatory behaviors are those human behaviors which can be controlled by and individual through voluntary and involuntary processes. The person who is learning to develop a specific regulatory behavior would like to develop capability of self-control in order to behave in a specific manner.The point to be noted is that self-control may refer to controlling impulses in order to abstain from doing something. For example, for a person to stop drinking alcohol or it may refer to doing something that a person does not want to do. Regulatory behaviors are comprised of various acts like managing energy, emotions and attention towards specific things in order to make them socially admirable or acceptable. Human sexual behavior is an example of a regulatory behavior. “It can be described as any activity solitary between two persons, or in a group that induce sexual arousal. There are two determinants of human sexual behavior: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that are a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality” (Human Sexual Behaviour,” 2015).
Human sexual behavior is an act comprised of various activities displayed by individuals to express their individual sexuality to others.
Human sexual behavior is the behavior depicted by human beings when they indulge themselves in sexual activities during their different phases of life (Gray & Garcia, 2013). Mostly human sexual behavior is thought limited to the sexual intercourse only, which is comprised of sexual arousal and the physiological changes that happen in the sexually aroused human. Some of the psychological changes are more prominent than others. Sexual activities include all those gestures and behaviors that are meant to make individuals sexually attracted to another person. However, in some cases sexual activities are not limited to individuals of the opposite sex only i.e. transgender. Sexual behavior also includes courtships, display and foreplay behavior (Hart, 1977).
The nervous system plays a vital role in regulating human sexual behavior. The reason for this is because thewhole nervous system starts working in sexual activity. The autonomic system of nervous system manages and regulates the involuntary responses of a sexual activity. The afferent cerebrospinal nerves play important role in transmitting sensory messages from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. The cerebrospinal nerves play dual role in transmitting these messages. Spinal cord plays the role of transmission cable in the overall sexual activity. The brain acts as a coordinating center and controls and interprets the sensations ...
Growth and development (orthodontics) by dr venkat giri indugu , asst prof, sjdcVenkat Indugu
Growth and development are interrelated processes involving increases in size and maturation at the cellular and tissue levels. There are several types of growth including cellular hyperplasia/hypertrophy and tissue-level accretionary, appositional, interstitial, and compensatory growth. Growth occurs in phases from prenatal to postnatal to maturity. It is influenced by genetic, hormonal, nutritional, environmental, and other factors. Growth is studied using measurement approaches like craniometry and anthropometry or experimental approaches involving vital staining, radioisotopes, and implant radiography. Growth data is interpreted using distance/cumulative and velocity curves to understand patterns of differential growth along the cephalocaudal gradient and in Scammon's growth curves
1. The document discusses several theories of craniofacial growth including the genetic theory, sutural theory, cartilaginous theory, functional matrix theory, Van Limborgh's multifactorial theory, Enlow's expanding "V" principle, counterpart principle, neurotrophic theory, and servo system theory.
2. The functional matrix theory proposes that bone growth is influenced primarily by function, with soft tissues growing first and bone adapting in response.
3. Van Limborgh's multifactorial theory suggests six factors control growth including intrinsic and epigenetic genetic factors as well as local and general environmental factors.
The document discusses the physical and hormonal changes that occur during puberty, including growth spurts, development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, and increased hormone production. It notes that puberty transforms the body from childhood to adulthood over 3-5 years on average, but can occur between ages 8-14. While puberty involves growth, sexuality, and brain development, it can also cause problems for some adolescents like early sexual activity, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections.
Seminar - Growth and Development and theories of growthMMCDSR , Haryana
Growth and development are complex processes involving both quantitative and qualitative changes over time. Growth refers mainly to increases in size, while development involves increasing organization and complexity of structures and functions. Several theories attempt to explain the patterns and mechanisms of growth, including concepts of growth fields, drift, and remodeling. Understanding the genetic influences and multiple factors that can affect growth timing and rates is important for orthodontic treatment planning.
The document provides an overview of physical and psychological changes that occur during adolescence, including:
- Rapid growth and development of primary and secondary sex characteristics due to increases in sex hormones.
- Differences in the timing of puberty between boys and girls, with girls starting earlier on average.
- Changes in body composition with increases in body fat and muscle.
- Brain development continuing into early twenties with improvements in cognitive abilities.
- Health risks such as obesity, eating disorders, drug and alcohol use that can arise during this transitional life stage.
This document summarizes lifespan development from conception to old age. It describes key stages of physical, cognitive, and social development. These include prenatal development, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood, and discusses factors like genetics and environment that influence the developmental process.
Normal sexuality is determined by anatomy, physiology, culture, relationships and life experiences. It involves stimulation of sex organs and brings pleasure to partners.
Sexual identity refers to biological sex characteristics while gender identity is one's sense of masculinity or femininity. Sexual orientation describes attraction to the same sex, opposite sex or both.
The sexual response cycle involves four phases - desire, excitement, orgasm and resolution. Various organs experience physiological changes like vasocongestion and detumescence during the cycle.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Growth&development /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental acad...Indian dental academy
Welcome to Indian Dental Academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy has a unique training program & curriculum that provides students with exceptional clinical skills and enabling them to return to their office with high level confidence and start treating patients
State of the art comprehensive training-Faculty of world wide repute &Very affordable.
This chapter discusses puberty and biological foundations of adolescent development. It covers:
- What puberty is and its key physical and hormonal changes.
- Determinants of puberty onset like heredity, weight, hormones, and the endocrine system. Environmental factors like urban living can also influence timing.
- Growth spurts during puberty, where height increases by as much as 30% and weight gains 50%. Sexual maturation also occurs.
- Psychological impacts of puberty like changes in body image and potential social/emotional issues from early or late physical development.
- Biological foundations looking at evolution, genetics, and the interplay between heredity and environment in shaping adolescent
The document discusses various aspects of normal human sexuality from anatomical, physiological, psychological, sociological, and legal perspectives. It describes the phases of sexual response including desire, excitement, orgasm, and resolution. Normal sexuality is defined as bringing pleasure to oneself and one's partner without inappropriate guilt or anxiety and not in a compulsive manner.
This document discusses growth and development, providing definitions and key concepts. It defines growth as an increase in size, while development refers to maturation and differentiation at the cellular level. Growth is quantitative and anatomical, while development is qualitative and physiological. Theories of craniofacial growth are examined, including the sutural theory, cartilaginous theory, and functional matrix theory. Growth occurs at differing rates in different tissues through differential growth and growth spurts. Methods for studying growth include longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies, cephalometry, vital staining, and implant radiography.
Introduction
Puberty
Definition
Types of Development
Health problems of adolescent
Health problem related to sexuality
Eating disorders
Serious health problem of adolescent
Bibliography
Human growth occurs in distinct stages from prenatal development through adulthood. Puberty marks the transition to adolescence, a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation. Growth and development are sensitive to environmental factors. Puberty begins earlier in well-nourished girls compared to underprivileged girls from larger families. Life history theory examines how organisms allocate resources between growth, reproduction, and survival.
This document discusses puberty and adolescence. It defines puberty as the period when a child undergoes sexual maturation and transitions from asexual to sexual being, typically between ages 10-16. Puberty involves physical changes like growth spurts and development of secondary sex characteristics. It can be an emotionally difficult time due to rapid changes. Adolescence is defined as the period from ages 13-19 when individuals progress towards adulthood. This involves continued physical development as well as emotional, mental and social maturation. Adolescence presents both opportunities and challenges as individuals work to develop an identity and independence.
This document summarizes key aspects of human sexuality, pregnancy, and childbirth. It describes the male and female reproductive anatomy and hormones. It discusses sexual response, orientation, and health issues. It also covers fertility, pregnancy stages and care, complications, and childbirth options like natural birth and cesarean sections. The postpartum period and parenting are also briefly addressed.
1. The document discusses growth and development, including definitions, physiology, factors affecting it, patterns, variability, and timing.
2. Key points include growth being an increase in size while development involves cellular differentiation; physiology involves hormones like HGH and IGF-1; and factors include heredity, nutrition, illness, socioeconomics, and endocrine function.
3. Growth occurs in patterns with the head growing faster early in development while the legs grow faster later. Variability exists between individuals and timing has critical periods and growth spurts.
This document discusses the physiology and pathology of ejaculation. It begins with an overview of the autonomic and somatic innervations involved in the male sexual response cycle. It then describes the processes of emission and ejaculation, which are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. It discusses various conditions like premature ejaculation, anejaculation, and retrograde ejaculation. It provides diagnostic criteria and treatments for these conditions. It also includes three case studies describing men with premature ejaculation, retrograde ejaculation, and anejaculation after a spinal injury.
Puberty is initiated by increases in hormones like leptin and kisspeptin which activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, triggering the release of sex hormones and setting off physical changes. In females, puberty involves breast development, pubic hair growth, menarche, and ovarian and uterine maturation over 3-5 years starting around age 10. In males, it involves testicular growth, pubic hair growth, penis growth, voice deepening, and a growth spurt over 3-5 years starting around age 11. Throughout puberty, sex hormones influence brain development and increase emotional volatility and risk-taking behavior.
Running head HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR1HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR5Huma.docxcowinhelen
Running head: HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 1
HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 5Human Sexual Behavior
Razalyn Nickola
PSY/340
Janyary 8th, 2016
Teralyn Sell
Human Sexual Behavior
Regulatory behaviors are those human behaviors which can be controlled by and individual through voluntary and involuntary processes. The person who is learning to develop a specific regulatory behavior would like to develop capability of self-control in order to behave in a specific manner.The point to be noted is that self-control may refer to controlling impulses in order to abstain from doing something. For example, for a person to stop drinking alcohol or it may refer to doing something that a person does not want to do. Regulatory behaviors are comprised of various acts like managing energy, emotions and attention towards specific things in order to make them socially admirable or acceptable. Human sexual behavior is an example of a regulatory behavior. “It can be described as any activity solitary between two persons, or in a group that induce sexual arousal. There are two determinants of human sexual behavior: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that are a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality” (Human Sexual Behaviour,” 2015).
Human sexual behavior is an act comprised of various activities displayed by individuals to express their individual sexuality to others.
Human sexual behavior is the behavior depicted by human beings when they indulge themselves in sexual activities during their different phases of life (Gray & Garcia, 2013). Mostly human sexual behavior is thought limited to the sexual intercourse only, which is comprised of sexual arousal and the physiological changes that happen in the sexually aroused human. Some of the psychological changes are more prominent than others. Sexual activities include all those gestures and behaviors that are meant to make individuals sexually attracted to another person. However, in some cases sexual activities are not limited to individuals of the opposite sex only i.e. transgender. Sexual behavior also includes courtships, display and foreplay behavior (Hart, 1977).
The nervous system plays a vital role in regulating human sexual behavior. The reason for this is because thewhole nervous system starts working in sexual activity. The autonomic system of nervous system manages and regulates the involuntary responses of a sexual activity. The afferent cerebrospinal nerves play important role in transmitting sensory messages from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body. The cerebrospinal nerves play dual role in transmitting these messages. Spinal cord plays the role of transmission cable in the overall sexual activity. The brain acts as a coordinating center and controls and interprets the sensations ...
Trauma Safe Schools - Trauma safe education a neurocognitive approach to tea...Michael Changaris
The document discusses the effects of trauma and PTSD on childhood brain development and neurocognitive functioning. It covers how trauma can disrupt typical development of the brain, emotional processing, social skills and theory of mind from early childhood through adolescence. Symptoms of PTSD like re-experiencing, hyperarousal and avoidance can negatively impact attention, memory, learning, behavior and academic performance in school-aged children by interfering with development of the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions. Understanding these neurocognitive impacts can help educators create trauma-sensitive approaches to teaching and curriculum.
How hormones affect behavioral and neural developmentTeresa Levy
This document provides an introduction to a special issue journal on how gonadal hormones affect behavioral and neural development. It summarizes several studies showing that hormones like testosterone and estrogen influence behaviors in humans and other species. For example, females exposed to high testosterone levels prenatally tend to show more male-typical behaviors. The introduction discusses themes across the special issue articles, such as how hormones have both organizational effects during development and activational effects in adulthood. It also provides background on the range of methods used to study hormone-behavior relationships.
Fetal Brain Function in Response to Maternal Alcohol Consumption: Early Evide...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
This study examined the brain function and habituation performance of fetuses exposed to different levels of maternal alcohol consumption. Five groups of fetuses were compared based on their mother's drinking patterns: no alcohol (control), moderate even drinking, moderate binge drinking, heavy even drinking, and heavy binge drinking. Fetuses exposed to heavy binge drinking required more trials to habituate and showed greater variability in performance across test sessions compared to other groups. Both heavy and moderate binge drinking as well as heavy even drinking resulted in poorer habituation compared to no drinking. This suggests that fetal brain function is negatively impacted by maternal alcohol consumption, with heavy binge drinking having the strongest effects.
Development of behavior is influenced by both nature (heredity and maturation) and nurture (learning and environment). Heredity provides the raw materials but the environment shapes how those traits are expressed. Growth and development follows predictable patterns from conception through adulthood and is influenced by endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and gonads. Motor development refers to gaining control over voluntary movements from infancy through complex skills in adulthood.
14Gender and SexualitySeverin SchweigerCulturaGetty Imag.docxaulasnilda
14Gender and Sexuality
Severin Schweiger/Cultura/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Outline the biological, social, and cognitive explanations for the emergence of gender identity.
ሁ Form evidence-based arguments on gender differences in development.
ሁ Summarize the developmental imperative of physical activity for boys and girls during childhood.
ሁ Compare and contrast school achievement and learning between boys and girls.
ሁ Describe differences and similarities among heterosexual girls, heterosexual boys, and LGBT
adolescents with regard to romantic relationships and identity formation.
ሁ Discuss the psychological effects of puberty.
ሁ Evaluate ethnic and national differences in sexual activity among adolescents; explain the
consequences of teenage pregnancy.
ሁ Identify different health outcomes of sex during adolescence, including categorizing STIs and the
effects of HIV among infected children worldwide.
Section 14.1The Development of Gender
Prologue
Recent stories have led to renewed discussion about sex and gender in society. Sasha Lax-
ton from Great Britain; Storm Stocker from Toronto, Canada; and Pop from Sweden have all
made headlines as their parents were determined to raise them without regard to gender. The
children’s rooms were painted in neutral colors; hairstyles, Halloween costumes, and cloth-
ing were chosen without perceived regard for gender standards; exposure to toys and other
activities were not limited by what was considered “normal” for a boy or a girl.
As a result, there has been considerable debate among parents, academics, and the media
about the potential detriment—and benefit—if children are not aware of how they are “sup-
posed” to behave. However, these families are also quite outside the mainstream. It takes
tremendous effort to rid a child of messages related to gender, including limiting exposure
to media, avoiding certain store shelves, and restricting access to preschool and other social
activities.
For most children, though, sex and gender are inescapably connected. It is extremely rare for
a child to be born with undifferentiated sex organs. Even so, those children still generally have
either XX or XY genes. Biological sex is therefore not particularly variable. By contrast, regard-
less of biological sex, gender is much more continuous. Some children are drawn quite strongly
to the behaviors and activities of one gender over another, whereas other children engage
freely in more varied activities. This module explores these issues, as well as concerns related
to adolescent sex and romantic relationships and their developmental consequences.
14.1 The Development of Gender
Recall the many different factors involved in the development of the self and the formation
of gender identity (see Module 12). Gender is a key component in the development of the
self. In psychology, gender refers to the meanings societies and ...
Developmental psychology studies changes that occur across the human lifespan from conception to death. Development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidisciplinary, multicultural, and contextual. It involves the interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Development occurs through distinct periods - prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Key issues in development include the interplay of nature and nurture, stability and change over time, and the degree of continuity versus discontinuity between periods. Major theories to explain development include psychoanalytic theory which emphasizes unconscious processes and early experiences.
AdultsSokol, J. T. (2009) Identity Development Throughout the.docxgalerussel59292
Adults
Sokol, J. T. (2009) "Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of
Eriksonian Theory," Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology1(2), Article 14.
Retrieved from http://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp/vol1/iss2/14
In this article, Sokol reviews the Eriksonian theory through a person’s lifespan. Erikson proposed a life span model of human development that was composed of eight psychosocial stages. A person has to deal with inherent crisis throughout each stage so as to continue with development. He also added the influence that culture and society in general has on people’s development. In this article, the author closely examines the various stages of life span in regard to identity formation as proposed under the Eriksonian theory.
The author discusses identity development in adulthood in regard to the Eriksonian theory. He criticizes the Erikson on his failure to provide details on identity formation beyond adolescence and mainly provision of contradicting ideas. Erikson states that final identity is fixed at the close of adolescence while still maintaining that identity development goes beyond adolescence into adulthood. As per the author, identity development especially in terms of religion, politics, vocations and sexual choices occur during young adulthood. It continues through middle adulthood through change of circumstances where people reorganize goals and ambitions as well as careers. Women take up masculine characters and vice versa to experience perspective shifts. There is continuous examination and evaluation to revise choices and draw up new beginnings hence identity development.
This article is important since it evaluates one of the development theories in regard to human development. Identity formulation even if it mainly occurs in childhood and adolescence, it continues further into adulthood especially since they are more likely to reorganize their lives and take up new
Brent, W. R., & Daniel, M. (2009). Personality Trait Change in Adulthood. National Institute of
Health. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/
The authors define personality traits as enduring patterns of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors among people that distinguish them from others. Recent cross sectional and also longitudinal research has shown that the development of personality traits does occur in all age groups across the life span. It specifically occurs mainly in middle aged people who also tend to score highly on conscientiousness and agreeableness and much lower in traits like neuroticism, openness and extraversion.
The authors conclude that the development of personality traits in ongoing from childhood through to late adulthood. In adulthood, it is mainly positively although that does not mean the final trait in the person. It is influenced by certain factors such as growing responsibility and changing circumstances. Most personality changes occur in adults between 20-40 years. As .
A Self-Image Questionnaire For Young Adolescents (SIQYA) Reliability And Val...Daniel Wachtel
This document describes the development and validation of the Self-Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents (SIQYA). The SIQYA is a downward extension of the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire designed to measure self-image in young adolescents ages 11-13. It includes 9 scales from the original questionnaire and utilizes a 6-point Likert scale with 98 total items. Initial tests found high levels of internal consistency and validity when compared to other self-image measures. The questionnaire was designed to assess the multidimensional nature of self-image and be sensitive to the physical, cognitive, and social changes occurring during early adolescence.
Adolescent Depression Aetiology A Systematic ReviewAudrey Britton
This document summarizes a literature review on the aetiology of adolescent depression. The review finds that depression in adolescents has increased significantly in recent decades and is a major public health issue. It explores biological, environmental, sociological, and psychological risk factors. Biologically, genetics and changes in brain development during puberty can increase vulnerability to depression. Environmental and sociological factors like peer rejection, romantic relationships, parenting styles, family mental health, and excessive social media use are also linked to higher depression risk. Understanding the complex interplay between these various risk pathways is important for addressing the rising rates of adolescent depression.
The Impact of Sex Hormones on Cognition and Treatment: A ReviewAI Publications
Hormones serves as natural chemical triggers that regulate various processes within the human body, including growth, emotional states, and cognitive processing. Extensive research has been conducted to explore the correlation between hormonal effects and cognitive function; these studies have examined a variety of factors such as aging, pregnancy, post-natal states, emotions, and stress. This article focuses on the impact of hormonal changes on neuronal networks and the mechanisms underlying cognitive function. Hormones possess the ability to influence multiple processes in the human body, including emotions and cognition. The effects of hormones on cognitive function vary depending on the specific hormone involved. Furthermore, hormone levels that are too low or too high can lead to both positive and negative outcomes. Therefore, understanding the influence of sex hormones on cognition is a valuable endeavor.
This review paper examines the possibility of a biological link to pedophilia. It summarizes research showing abnormalities in brain regions associated with sexual behavior and aggression in pedophiles. The paper also explores how pheromones may play a role, as they are detected by the brain and can influence physiological and behavioral responses. Specifically, it hypothesizes that repeated exposure to children's pheromones during adolescence could condition pedophilic responses through classical conditioning. Further research is needed to better understand how genetic mutations or abnormalities in brain development may disrupt responses to pheromones and influence the development of pedophilia.
A neuropsychologic profile of homosexuasl and heterosexualsTeresa Levy
This article examines differences in neuropsychological profiles between homosexual and heterosexual men and women. It discusses previous research finding some cognitive differences between gay men and heterosexual men on measures of sex differences. The article also reviews theories that sexual orientation develops from sex-atypical patterns of brain development influenced by prenatal sex hormones, with high androgen exposure during development masculinizing neural substrates related to sexual orientation and cognition.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to locating manufacturingAlyciaGold776
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to locating manufacturing, assembly, or distribution facilities in countries with relatively low wages.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Outline the biological and cognitive contributions in the emergence of gender identity.
Describe the effect of various social in�luences on gender development.
Account for gender differences in physical activity and play in childhood and
adolescence.
Compare and contrast school achievement and learning among males and females.
Discuss the physical and psychological consequences of puberty.
12Gender and Sexuality
iStock/Thinkstock
Evaluate demographic differences in sexual activity among adolescents; explain the
consequences of teenage pregnancy.
Explain how romantic relationships and sexual orientation contribute to identity
formation.
Detail the changes in sexuality that occur during adulthood.
Explain how research has helped identify important elements of romantic relationships.
Prologue
Bruce Jenner won the gold medal in the 1976 Olympic decathlon, and with it he attained the title of
“World’s Greatest Athlete.” Four decades later, in 2015, Jenner surprisingly disclosed lifelong struggles
with gender identity, and at age 66, the desire to transition to a woman. Initial Hollywood sensationalism
of the story shifted to Caitlyn Jenner becoming the face of the transgendered community, speaking
poignantly, and perhaps unexpectedly, to those younger than she who struggle on an everyday basis with
their sexual identity. Sexuality, a broad term that can refer to a capacity for sexual attraction and interest,
gender identity, or sexual orientation, has been spotlighted like perhaps no other time in our history.
Other stories have led to renewed discussion about sex and gender in society. Sasha Laxton from Great
Britain, Storm Stocker from Toronto, Canada, and Pop from Sweden have all made headlines as their
parents were determined to raise them without regard to gender. The children’s rooms were painted in
neutral colors; hairstyles, Halloween costumes, and clothing were chosen without perceived regard for
gender standards; exposure to toys and other activities were not limited by what was considered
“normal” for a boy or a girl. As much as their parents tried, however, it is virtually impossible to remove
all traces of gender from society, which would include limiting exposure to media, avoiding certain store
shelves, and restricting access to preschool and other social activities. Further, it is apparent that biology
pulls in its own direction, regardless of how we try to promote neutrality.
For most of us, sex and gender are inescapably connected. It is extremely rare for a person to be born
with undifferentiated sex organs. Even when someone is born with ambiguous genitalia, they still
generally have either XX or XY genes. Biological sex is therefore not particularly variable. By contrast,
regardless of biol ...
1) Physical growth is determined by both genetic and environmental factors such as nutrition and experience.
2) There are two main patterns of physical growth - from head to toe (cephalocaudal) and from the center of the body outward (proximodistal).
3) Growth occurs very rapidly in infancy, steadily in childhood, with a marked growth spurt at puberty typically between ages 11-13, after which growth may still occur.
Hormones play a significant role in human development, behavior, and identity. Prenatal hormones determine aspects like sex, sexuality, gender, demeanor, and sensitivity. The presence or absence of hormones like testosterone and mullerian inhibiting substance during fetal development masculinize or feminize a developing fetus. Later hormone levels also influence characteristics like aggression, dominance, and response to stress and pain. Abnormal hormone levels during development can result in intersex conditions or differences in gender identity and orientation. Hormone treatments later in life are also able to further masculinize or feminize aspects of the body and mind.
Varieties of male-sexual-identity development in clinical practice a neuropsy...Frans Stortelder
This document presents a neuropsychoanalytic model of male sexual identity development. It discusses how sexual identity starts with neurobiological factors like genes, sex hormones, and brain development in utero. It then develops through social mirroring from parents and peers. Incongruent mirroring can cause alienation in developing a coherent sense of self. The model aims to understand varieties of male sexual identity and implications for psychoanalytic treatment, illustrated through clinical case studies.
This document discusses dementia case management. It begins by outlining the objectives of reviewing dementia symptoms, differentiating dementia from normal aging, examining types of dementia, identifying causes and preventative factors, and exploring needs of people with dementia and their caregivers. It then provides extensive details on dementia symptoms, types, causes, progression, prevention strategies, and the roles of a multidisciplinary care team.
This document discusses different types of anger such as irritation, resentment, envy, and guilt. It explores the function of anger as a response to threats and identifies common threat themes. Different activities are provided to help identify triggers of anger and the threats underlying resentment, envy, guilt, and regret in order to address them in a way that promotes well-being. Forgiveness is presented as a means of letting go of anger and reclaiming one's power.
This document discusses anxiety, its causes, symptoms, and interventions. It begins by reviewing the objectives of exploring anxiety symptoms, impacts, and prevention/intervention strategies. It then discusses how anxiety can be debilitating and a trigger for addiction relapse, depression, and other issues. The document outlines biological, psychological, and social factors that can contribute to anxiety. It provides details on symptoms of generalized anxiety in adults and children. Finally, it discusses various biological, psychological, and social intervention strategies to reduce anxiety, including improving sleep, nutrition, cognitive restructuring, relaxation techniques, and developing supportive relationships.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week in the form of live webinars (https://allceus.com/webinar ) and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week in the form of live webinars (https://allceus.com/webinar ) and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
This document provides an overview of kink and discusses topics relevant for therapists working with clients involved in kink. It defines kink, explores various kink activities and dynamics, discusses prevalence and models of treatment. The PLISSIT model and Johari window are presented as frameworks for therapists. Guidelines are provided for assessing clients in a kink-aware and non-judgmental manner. Countertransference, disclosure processes, and community resources are also reviewed.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week in the form of live webinars (https://allceus.com/webinar ) and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week in the form of live webinars (https://allceus.com/webinar ) and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
This document discusses 20 ways to nurture children's mental health. It covers physical, environmental, interpersonal, emotional, and cognitive strategies. Specifically, it recommends ensuring children get enough sleep, exercise, nutrition, and relaxation. It also stresses the importance of structure, safety, communication skills, problem solving, and identifying cognitive distortions. The overall goal is to help children feel safe, competent, and confident.
This document outlines 13 brief interventions that can be used in counseling sessions to help clients. It begins by discussing the benefits of brief interventions such as reducing no-shows, increasing treatment engagement and compliance. It then describes goals and target symptoms for brief interventions before detailing each of the 13 interventions. The interventions include techniques like backward chaining, cognitive restructuring, mindfulness, guided imagery and distress tolerance. In under 3 sentences, the document provides an overview of research-based brief therapy techniques counselors can use to efficiently help clients meet treatment goals.
This document discusses elements of motivational interventions and principles of motivational interviewing. It defines motivation as a dynamic state influenced by emotional, cognitive, social and environmental factors. The document outlines six characteristics of motivation and identifies the three critical elements of motivation as willingness, ability and readiness. It reviews five principles of motivational interviewing and five elements of motivational approaches, including the FRAMES model. Various activities and techniques for enhancing client motivation are provided, such as decisional balance exercises, developing discrepancies between goals and behavior, and maintaining personal contact.
The document examines the biopsychosocial impact of addiction and mental health disorders. It discusses how these issues affect individuals biologically through imbalances in neurotransmitters leading to issues like disrupted sleep and fatigue, psychologically through feelings of hopelessness and guilt, and socially through isolation and loss of relationships. A holistic approach is needed to address the biological, psychological, and social aspects, as it is difficult to address one area when others are impacted.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Sally, a 49-year-old woman, has experienced increasing anxiety, sleep difficulties, and panic attacks over the past 6 months. She was prescribed Xanax by her doctor but stopped taking it due to rebound anxiety. Her sleep, nutrition, pain levels, libido, and cognitive patterns were assessed using the PACER method. She reports stress, worry, and difficulty concentrating associated with family, health, and financial concerns. Recommendations included improving sleep hygiene, managing stress and anxiety, and following up with her primary care doctor.
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Counselor Toolbox Podcast with Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes produces 2 episodes each week and offers CEUs based on the podcast at AllCEUs.com/counselortoolbox
Infographic is based on Counselor Toolbox Podcast which can be subscribed to on any podcast player like Apple Podcasts, Castbox or Google Play. Counseling and Social Work CEUs are available on this topic at AllCEUs.com
Infographic is based on Counselor Toolbox Podcast which can be subscribed to on any podcast player like Apple Podcasts, Castbox or Google Play. Counseling and Social Work CEUs are available on this topic at AllCEUs.com
More from Dr. DawnElise Snipes ★AllCEUs★ Unlimited Counselor Training (20)
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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1. r Human Brain Mapping 31:926–933 (2010) r
The Role of Puberty in the Developing
Adolescent Brain
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore,1
* Stephanie Burnett,1,2
and Ronald E. Dahl3
1
Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, United Kingdom
2
Institute of Neurology, University College London, United Kingdom
3
Departments of Psychiatry, Pediatrics, and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, United States
r r
Abstract: Adolescence refers to the period of physical and psychological development between child-
hood and adulthood. The beginning of adolescence is loosely anchored to the onset of puberty, which
brings dramatic alterations in hormone levels and a number of consequent physical changes. Puberty
onset is also associated with profound changes in drives, motivations, psychology, and social life; these
changes continue throughout adolescence. There is an increasing number of neuroimaging studies
looking at the development of the brain, both structurally and functionally, during adolescence.
Almost all of these studies have defined development by chronological age, which shows a strong—
but not unitary—correlation with pubertal stage. Very few neuroimaging studies have associated brain
development with pubertal stage, and yet there is tentative evidence to suggest that puberty might
play an important role in some aspects of brain and cognitive development. In this paper we describe
this research, and we suggest that, in the future, developmental neuroimaging studies of adolescence
should consider the role of puberty. Hum Brain Mapp 31:926–933, 2010. VC 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Key words: puberty; adolescence; development; hormones; prefrontal cortex
r r
INTRODUCTION
Adolescence is the period of physical, cognitive, and
social maturation between childhood and adulthood
[Lerner and Steinberg, 2004; Sisk and Foster, 2004]. The
beginning of adolescence occurs around the onset of
puberty and is therefore marked by dramatic changes in
hormone levels and in physical appearance (including
rapid physical growth, changes in facial structure, and the
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics). Over the
same interval, adolescents experience numerous changes
in social, academic, and other environmental influences,
and typically enter a stage of profound psychological tran-
sition. The end of adolescence is said to occur when an
individual has attained a stable adult role, by which time
the majority of pubertal transitions will have reached com-
pletion, at least in industrialized nations [Choudhury,
2010; Lerner and Steinberg, 2004]. Throughout adoles-
cence, there are changes in the structure and function of
the brain. Sexual dimorphisms in many of these changes
suggest possible relationships to puberty.
Relatively little is known about the relationship between
puberty and neural development in humans. However, a
wealth of evidence from nonhuman animal studies indi-
cates that the hormonal events of puberty exert profound
effects on brain maturation and behavior [Cahill, 2006;
Sisk and Foster, 2004; Spear, 2000]. These changes mould
the perceptions, motivations, and behavioral repertoire of
an individual, enabling reproductive behavior and inde-
pendence [Sato et al., 2008]. In recent years, a small but
Contract grant sponsor: NIDA (for R.E.D); Contract grant number:
NIH R01 DA018910.
*Correspondence to: Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, Institute of Cognitive
Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, Lon-
don WC1N 3AR, United Kingdom.
E-mail: s.blakemore@ucl.ac.uk
Received for publication 23 December 2009; Revised 16 February
2010; Accepted 17 February 2010
DOI: 10.1002/hbm.21052
Published online 3 May 2010 in Wiley InterScience (www.
interscience.wiley.com).
VC 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
2. growing number of human behavioral and neuroimaging
studies, including in populations with endocrine disrup-
tions, have provided tentative evidence that pubertal hor-
mones might influence the structure and function of the
developing human brain.
PUBERTY: THE BEGINNING OF
ADOLESCENCE
Early adolescence is characterized by changes to the
body as a result of puberty, which comprises three endo-
crine events: adrenarche, gonadarche, and activation of the
growth axis [Dorn, 2006; Spear, 2000]. Gonadarche, which
is often taken to constitute puberty per se, is a biological
process beginning with activation of the hypothalamic-pi-
tuitary-gonadal axis and ending with the attainment of
reproductive competence. This process usually begins
between ages 8 and 14 years in females (mean age 11),
and between ages 9 and 15 in males (mean age 12), in
response to pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus, which stimu-
lates pituitary production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH activate
maturational changes in the gonads (ovaries or testes),
which respond by attaining reproductive capacity (produc-
ing gametes). The maturing ovaries and testes also secrete
the gonadal steroids estrogen and testosterone, respec-
tively. These increases in gonadal steroids in turn trigger
additional changes in the reproductive organs, and the
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics [Susman
and Rogol, 2004].
Adrenache, or activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal axis, often begins earlier than gonadarche, typi-
cally between ages six and nine in females, and a year
later in males [Dorn, 2006; Grumbach and Styne, 2003].
Adrenal androgens (weaker forms of gonadal testosterone)
begin to rise at the start of adrenarche and continue to
increase until they reach a peak in the early 20s [Worth-
man and Stallings, 1997]. These increases in adrenal andro-
gens contribute to the development of secondary sexual
characteristics such as axillary and pubic hair and changes
in sweat glands/body odor. It is possible that adrenarche
also gives rise to maturational effects that begin prior to
the period usually considered as adolescence; however,
these effects are not well understood [Dorn, 2006].
The third hormonal event that occurs during puberty is
activation of the growth axis, resulting in a linear growth
spurt at around age 12 in girls and age 14 in boys, as well
as changes in body size and composition [Marshall and
Tanner, 1969, 1970].
HORMONAL EFFECTS ON BRAIN AND
BEHAVIOR
The gonadal steroid hormones estrogen and testoster-
one, as well as their weaker adrenal counterparts, influ-
ence the physical appearance of the body. They also
affect the brain and behavior. These effects are hypothe-
sized to occur via two relatively distinct processes: orga-
nization and activation [Schulz et al., 2009; Sisk and
Foster, 2004]. Organizational effects occur pre- and peri-
natally, with waves of testosterone masculinizing and
defeminizing neural circuits in males, and the absence of
testosterone resulting in a female neural phenotype. Acti-
vational effects occur at puberty, as gonadal steroid hor-
mones act on dormant neural circuits to elicit adult
reproductive behaviors in context; a recent modernization
of this dichotomy suggests that the hormonal events of
puberty also organize neural circuits for adult social and
reproductive behaviors [Schulz et al., 2009; Sisk and Fos-
ter, 2004]. Indeed, based on findings from nonhuman ani-
mal studies, it is suggested that the hormonal events of
puberty trigger a second period of structural reorganiza-
tion and plasticity in the brain [Sisk and Foster, 2004]. In
humans, however, there is very little understanding of
the specific relationships between puberty and adolescent
brain development.
Animal studies indicate that sex steroid hormones
exert three main effects on behavior at puberty, via spe-
cific brain structures. The first effect is the facilitation of
directly reproductive behaviors, which occurs mainly via
the hypothalamus. The second effect is via the reorgan-
ization of sensory and association regions of the brain,
including visual cortex [Nunez et al., 2002], amygdala,
and hippocampus [Hebbard et al., 2003; Romeo and
Sisk, 2001; see also Shen et al., 2010]. This results in
altered sensory associations, e.g. to the smell or sight of
potential sexual partners or competitors [Sisk and Foster,
2004], which may facilitate some attentional and motiva-
tional changes at puberty. The third effect of puberty
hormones occurs via reward-related brain structures
such as the nucleus accumbens, and dopaminergic path-
ways to the prefrontal cortex. These effects are necessary
for establishing strong motivation to seek out reproduc-
tive opportunities. For example, in the rodent nucleus
accumbens, pubertal increases in testosterone remodel
neural circuits influencing motivation toward reward-
seeking behaviors, including sexual behavior [Sato et al.,
2008]. It is possible that adrenarchel hormones (DHEA
and DHEAS) begin to exert similar effects on brain and
behavior prior to the onset of gonadarche, but these
effects are poorly understood. There is clearly a need
for more research focusing on the earliest stages of pu-
berty/adrenarche to advance understanding of these
aspects of puberty and adolescent brain development
and behavior [see Dorn, 2006; for discussion].
MEASURING PUBERTY IN STUDIES OF
ADOLESCENT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Relatively little is known about puberty-specific changes
in human brain development. Advancing understanding
r Role of Puberty in the Developing Adolescent Brain r
r 927 r
3. in these areas will require careful attention at two levels:
conceptually and methodologically. Conceptually, this will
require the development and refinement of models of ado-
lescent brain development that address specific aspects of
pubertal maturation (e.g. specific hormones) that are
causally linked to specific aspects of brain and behavioral
changes. Methodologically, it will require studies that are
designed with the selection of samples and measures of
puberty that permit testing of these specific hypotheses.
Because age and pubertal maturation are often correlated
(and age is easily measured with great precision and va-
lidity, while puberty is often estimated with rough cate-
gorical measures that are not easily validated), there is a
need for studies with designs that explicitly disentangle
puberty and age effects (e.g. recruiting samples that are
the same age and grade level but differ on pubertal matu-
ration, and then restudying longitudinally).
These goals raise a number of issues regarding how to
measure specific aspects of pubertal maturation in human
studies. For a start, puberty is neither a brief event nor a
unitary phenomenon, but instead, comprises several dis-
tinct but temporally-overlapping processes that extend
over several years [Dorn, 2006]. As described earlier, these
processes include activation of adrenal, gonadal, and
growth hormone systems, and in addition a variety of
direct and indirect effects, from growth spurts to changing
self-image. The most appropriate measure of puberty will
therefore depend in part on the specific research question
in each study.
A commonly used measure of puberty is Tanner Stage.
Tanner staging categorizes individuals along an ordinal
puberty scale from 1 to 5, on the basis of pubic hair and
breast development in females, and pubic hair and genital
development in males [Tanner, 1971; Tanner and White-
house, 1976]. Tanner staging by physical exam should be
carried out by a trained clinician. There are several limita-
tions to Tanner staging. The scale was developed with ref-
erence to a single ethnic group (there may be cross-ethnic
differences) and in a relatively small sample of 200 chil-
dren. Overweight girls will tend to be inaccurately staged,
due to the reliance of the staging on breast development,
which can be erroneously over-estimated in a purely vis-
ual examination. Despite these limitations, Tanner staging
has historically been considered the gold standard for pu-
berty measurement [Dorn, 2006].
In light of the above-mentioned concerns, it might be
expected that Tanner staging by physical examination
could be usefully supplemented by hormonal assays, since
these measure adrenal and gonadal (or adrenal/
gonadal-releasing) hormones upstream from their external
physical effects. Hormone assays may be increasingly use-
ful for measuring pubertal stage in the future; however, at
the present time it is unclear how hormone measurements
should be combined with (or used in conjunction with)
other measures such as Tanner stages [see Shirtcliffe et al.,
2009]. There are also other practical issues regarding hor-
monal measures, including cost, subject burden, and the
fact that levels of different puberty hormones fluctuate in
monthly and circadian cycles. Little research has been
done comparing hormone levels in different biological
samples (saliva, blood, urine) with clinician-assessed Tan-
ner stages [see Dorn, 2006; Shirtcliffe et al., 2009], so it is
unclear how much weight should be given to hormone
levels. At a conceptual level, for example, some neurobe-
havioral changes at puberty may be the direct result of
increasing hormone levels on specific neural systems dur-
ing adolescent brain development (and thus best quanti-
fied by hormone measures) while other neurobehavioral
changes may reflect more complex influences (e.g. changes
in social experience that are more directly tied to the phys-
ical changes and social roles, and better linked to Tanner
stages than any specific hormone change).
Tanner staging by physical examination by a qualified
clinician can raise practical issues regarding appropriate-
ness and convenience. Often this is best accomplished in
the context of doing a brief ‘‘health’’ exam. That is, Tan-
ner staging can be part of a normal physical health exam
and therefore should not be associated with any stigma
or ethical concerns (beyond a normal physical health
check). However, the cost (clinician time, special room
and equipment for a physical exam, and explaining the
procedures to the adolescent and family) can make this
impractical for many research studies. Therefore, it is val-
uable to consider alternative ways to quantify pubertal
maturation, such as assessments by self-report question-
naire. A relatively large number of studies have assessed
self-rated (or parent-rated) Tanner stage using the
Petersen Development Scale [PDS; Petersen et al., 1988].
This is a questionnaire that includes items assessing hair
growth, skin changes, and growth spurt, with sex-specific
items i.e. menarche and breast development in females,
and genital growth and facial hair in males. As such, the
PDS measures a composite puberty score that includes
the effects of adrenal and growth hormones, as well as
gonadal hormones. Correlations with clinician-assessed
Tanner stage are not especially high: one study found
correlations between 0.61 and 0.67 in 11- to 13-year-old
girls for the self-report PDS [Brooks-Gunn et al., 1987;
correlations are even lower for parent-report PDS; see
Shirtcliffe et al. 2009]. The extent to which these relatively
low correlations are due to inaccurate self-rating, or to
distinct constructs, such as the distinct effects of adrenal/
growth versus gonadal hormones, needs to be evaluated.
The PDS can be used with caution to estimate Tanner
stage when a physical examination is not possible. How-
ever, if the research question does not concern hormone
levels and Tanner stage, but instead relates to self-image
and self-consciousness, or to puberty stage relative to
peers, it can be argued that the PDS is the most relevant
measure [see Dorn, 2006 for discussion]. In summary,
researchers should give ample consideration to which
aspect of puberty is most relevant to their research ques-
tion and select their measures of puberty (and overall
design of the study) accordingly.
r Blakemore et al. r
r 928 r
4. PUBERTY AND STRUCTURAL BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT AS MEASURED BY MRI
The advent of noninvasive brain imaging techniques, in
particular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), has enabled
investigation of the development of the living human
brain. Developmental changes that have been delineated
using MRI include alterations in the amount of gray and
white matter, and changes in white matter microstructure.
Adolescent Gray Matter Development
The amount of cortical gray matter (its density, volume,
and thickness) changes during childhood and adolescence
in a region-specific and predominantly nonlinear manner
[Giedd et al., 1999; Shaw et al., 2008; Sowell et al., 1999;
Tamnes et al., 2009; see e.g. Blakemore, 2008 for review].
Across much of the cortical surface, gray matter develop-
ment conforms to an inverted-U shaped developmental
trajectory, initially increasing in volume during childhood,
reaching a peak in adolescence, and declining steadily into
adulthood. Gray matter is composed of the cell bodies,
dendrites and nonmyelinated axons of neurons, as well as
glial cells and capillaries. Therefore, and based on evi-
dence from histological samples [e.g. Huttenlocher, 1979],
it has been suggested that the inverted-U shaped develop-
mental trajectory of gray matter volume seen in human
MR scans is due to dendritic outgrowth and synaptogene-
sis, followed by synaptic pruning [e.g. Giedd et al., 1999].
An early paper by Giedd et al. [1999] showed this
inverted-U shaped pattern of gray matter development
across the frontal, temporal, and parietal cortical lobes,
although not all subsequent studies have provided clear
replication of this pattern (e.g. Shaw et al., 2008; Tamnes
et al., 2009). In Giedd et al., the frontal and parietal lobes
attained peak gray matter volume at age 11 in girls and 12
in boys, before undergoing an extended sequence of thin-
ning into adulthood. The ages at which these peaks in
gray matter volume were observed correspond to the sex-
ually dimorphic ages of gonadarche onset, which suggests
possible interactions between puberty hormones and grey
matter development. Other MRI studies have shown the
gradual emergence of sexual dimorphisms across puberty,
with increases in amygdala volume during puberty in
males only, and increases in hippocampus volume in
females only [Lenroot et al., 2007; Neufang et al., 2009].
Thus, it is possible that neuroanatomical development in
certain brain regions is more tightly linked to puberty
than it is in other brain regions. However, no direct meas-
ures of puberty were acquired in these studies.
The Role of Puberty in Gray Matter
Development
In recent years, a number of adolescent MRI studies
have investigated in more detail the relationships among
structural brain development, gender, and puberty. An
adolescent structural MRI study by Peper et al. [2009b]
showed evidence for a positive association between testos-
terone levels and global gray matter density in males (and
not in females), while females showed a negative associa-
tion between estradiol levels and both global and regional
gray matter density. Whether these gender differences can
be replicated, and whether they are indeed region-specific,
remains to be seen. Elsewhere, evidence has been shown
for region- and gender-specific effects of pubertal meas-
ures on structural brain measures. For example, Neufang
et al. [2009] investigated relationships between gray matter
volume, gender and pubertal measures in participants
aged 8–15. The pubertal measures were physician-assessed
Tanner stage and plasma concentrations of gonadotropic
(LH, FSH) and gonadal (testosterone, oestrogen) hor-
mones. Irrespective of gender, there was a positive rela-
tionship between pubertal measures (Tanner stage and
testosterone) and gray matter volume in the amygdala,
and a negative relationship between these measures and
hippocampal volume. In addition, there were gender-spe-
cific effects: females showed a positive relationship
between estrogen levels and limbic gray matter, and males
showed a negative relationship between testosterone and
parietal cortex gray matter. All of these findings are pre-
liminary and require replication, but they represent an
important first step in this new area of research.
Adolescent White Matter Development
Many MRI studies show a steady linear increase in
global white matter volume between childhood and ado-
lescence, with this increase slowing and stabilizing into
adulthood [Giedd et al., 1999; Tamnes et al., 2009]. This
increase differs between the sexes across adolescence, with
males showing considerably steeper age-related increases
in white matter volume than do females [e.g. Perrin et al.,
2008, 2009]. The increase in white matter volume has been
attributed to progressive age-related axonal myelination
observed in histological samples [Benes et al., 1994; Yakov-
lev and Lecours, 1967], or alternatively, to increasing
axonal calibre [Paus et al., 2008].
In addition to changes in white matter volume, studies
have shown concurrent changes in white matter microstruc-
ture. Fractional anisotropy (FA) is an MRI measure describ-
ing the extent to which the diffusion of water molecules in
the brain is anisotropic (not equal in all directions). High
FA values shown in diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-MRI
studies are thought to reflect increasing organization of
white matter tracts, due to processes including myelination.
Studies consistently show an increase in FA during adoles-
cence, for example, in the frontal lobes [Barnea-Goraly
et al., 2005]. To date, studies have not shown evidence for
sexually dimorphic developmental trajectories of FA.
Another MRI measure that has been used developmen-
tally is the myelin-transfer ratio [MTR: Perrin et al., 2008,
r Role of Puberty in the Developing Adolescent Brain r
r 929 r
5. 2009]. MTR provides information on the macromolecular
content (e.g. myelin content) of white matter tissue. Unlike
for FA, there is evidence for sexually-dimorphic develop-
mental trajectories of MTR. Specifically, MTR has been
shown to decrease with age across adolescence in males
only [Perrin et al., 2008, 2009]. It has been suggested that
this decrease in MTR reflects increasing axonal caliber,
since the larger the caliber, the fewer axons will fit into
the same unit of imaged volume and this will result in a
relative decrease in the amount of myelin [Paus et al.,
2008]. Questions remain regarding these intriguing find-
ings using MTR: for example, whether these sex differen-
ces emerge prior to, or exclusively during, adolescence.
The Role of Puberty in White Matter
Development
Developmental white matter trajectories differ as a func-
tion of pubertal measures. One study reported a positive
relationship between LH concentration and white matter
density at age nine; this relationship did not differ
between the sexes [Peper et al., 2009a]. However, it has
been shown that during adolescence, developmental trajec-
tories of white matter volume, as well as the MTR, differ
between the sexes. Recent studies by Perrin et al. [2008,
2009] have investigated whether this difference may be
due to puberty hormones downstream from LH. Perrin
et al. [2008] investigated the relationship between expres-
sion levels of a gene encoding the androgen (testosterone)
receptor, and white matter development, in males. The
results showed that variance in trajectories of white matter
development in males was indeed related to gene expres-
sion levels, suggesting that effects of testosterone may be
responsible for the sexually dimorphic relationship
between age and white matter volume. In Perrin et al.
[2009], evidence was presented for sexual dimorphism in
the mechanism underlying adolescent increases in white
matter volume.
In summary, a number of studies have shown evidence
that gonadotropic and gonadal puberty hormones influ-
ence structural brain development. Further work is needed
to investigate mechanisms underlying region-specificity
and sexual dimorphism in the relationship between
puberty hormones and brain development. Finally, studies
thus far have not investigated possible interactions
between the timing of pubertal events and structural brain
development; this is an area for future investigation.
THE ROLE OF PUBERTY IN COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Only a small number of empirical behavioral studies
have focused on the effect of puberty on a particular cog-
nitive process. Some of the earliest studies focused on face
processing. A study by Carey et al. [1980] showed that,
while performance in a facial identity recognition task
improved steadily during the first decade of life, this was
followed by a decline in performance at approximately
age 12. This decline may be due to puberty, rather than to
age per se, as a later study showed that females at mid-
puberty performed worse those at pre- or postpuberty,
when these groups were matched for age. More recently,
evidence for a pubertal ‘‘dip’’ in facial emotion processing
was shown [McGivern et al., 2002]. In this study, male and
female participants aged 10–17 performed a match-to-sam-
ple task in which faces showing emotional expressions
were matched with emotion words. An increase in reac-
tion time of around 10–20% was shown at an age corre-
sponding roughly to puberty onset (age 10–11 years in
females, 11–12 in males), which then declined during ado-
lescence to reach prepuberty levels at age 16–17. However,
this study did not assess puberty stage. These results
should now be replicated, for example with more accurate
hormonal measures of puberty, and using longitudinally
assessed cohorts. Further studies should also investigate
whether these results are specific to face processing, or are
a more domain-general effect of adolescent cognitive
development.
The Effect of Sex Hormones on
Cognitive Function
There is evidence that hormones can have different
influences on behavior during puberty than in adulthood.
For example, the challenge model of testosterone-aggres-
sion associations suggests that while testosterone levels
increase during puberty, aggressive behavior does not
show any simple relationship with testosterone during
adolescence [Archer, 2006]. Rather, there is emerging evi-
dence from both human and nonhuman primate studies
that testosterone increases motivation to attain higher sta-
tus, but the specific effects on behavior are dependent on
the social and developmental context. It is important to
emphasize the complexity of these issues-that is, we are at
a very early point in integrating animal research (where
experiments can be designed to elucidate specific hormo-
nal effects on specific neural systems) and human studies,
to address the important but complex issues regarding
cognitive, emotional, and motivational changes directly
linked to puberty [see Dahl and Gunnar, 2009, for further
discussion of some of the clinical and public health
implications].
However, there are a few areas of convergence emerging
from research in this area that highlight promising areas
of progress. For example, there is increasing evidence that
adolescent changes in sensation-seeking may include some
puberty-specific changes, and may provide new insights
into adolescent risk taking. Sensation-seeking is one of the
developmental contributors to risk behaviors and is
more likely to emerge during adolescence than any other
time period [e.g. Arnett and Balle-Jensen, 1993]. Sensation-
seeking tendencies appear to be more strongly linked to
r Blakemore et al. r
r 930 r
6. puberty than to age [Spear, 2000]. One of the first studies
to demonstrate the specific link between sensation-seeking
and puberty focused on adolescents within the narrow age
range of 11–14 years. Boys and girls with more advanced
pubertal development had higher ratings of sensation
seeking and greater drug use [Martin et al., 2002]. More
recently, Steinberg and Monahan [2007] have found evi-
dence that parsing sensation-seeking from the broader
construct of impulsivity (which is sometimes experimen-
tally confounded with sensation-seeking) shows an
inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory, peaking at
the time of pubertal maturation, and significantly linked to
measures of puberty in boys. Dahl and Gunnar [2009, for
further discussion] have reported a broader range of affec-
tive changes linked to puberty, for example emotions in
response to social situations.
In summary, few studies as yet have investigated the
link between puberty and cognitive development, and this
area will be an interesting focus for future research.
THE ROLE OF PUBERTY IN FUNCTIONAL
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AS MEASURED
BY FMRI
A very small number of functional neuroimaging stud-
ies conducted thus far have included measures of puberty.
However, a number of adult and adolescent functional
MRI (fMRI) studies show gender differences in neural ac-
tivity in a range of cognitive paradigms (a full review
of these findings it is beyond the scope of this article).
Some gender differences may be due to prenatal sex hor-
mone effects, to puberty-independent effects of genes
encoded on the sex chromosomes, or to gender-specific
environmental effects across the lifetime. However, certain
of these effects may be attributable to puberty. These
effects could be mediated by effects on neural-to-
hemodynamic coupling, via organizational or activational
effects on neural responsiveness, influences on cognitive
processing, or via indirect influences of pubertal transi-
tions on cognitive processing via stereotypes and identity.
Further studies are needed to elucidate these possible
relationships.
Several fMRI studies have been conducted in popula-
tions with endocrine disruptions. Although the results are
difficult to interpret with regards typical puberty and ado-
lescence (these populations are hormonally abnormal prior
to puberty onset), they provide converging evidence that
determinants or correlates of puberty influence functional
brain activity. For example, an fMRI study by Mueller
et al. [2009] compared brain activity during a facial emo-
tion-processing task between adolescent males with fami-
lial hyperandrogenism (causing excess testosterone from
an early age). Relative to controls, the group with excess
testosterone showed elevated hippocampal activity during
fear processing, as well as faster behavioral responses to
faces showing fearful expressions. In an fMRI study by
Ernst et al. [2007], seven male and seven female adoles-
cents with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (resulting in
excess testosterone in utero) were compared with age-
and gender-matched controls in a similar facial emotion-
processing task. In contrast to the study by Mueller et al.,
no group differences were reported in the hippocampus.
However, in the female clinical group, there was
enhanced amygdala activity during fear and anger proc-
essing, relative to female controls. The enhanced amyg-
dala activity in the female clinical group was similar to
that in male controls, which suggests a mediating effect
of testosterone.
CONCLUSION
Puberty represents a period of profound transition in
terms of drives, emotions, motivations, psychology and
social life. Recent preliminary evidence from developmen-
tal MRI studies has suggested that stage of puberty might
play an important role in adolescent brain development,
perhaps more so than chronological age. Further behav-
ioral and neuroimaging studies are needed in which accu-
rate and reliable measures of puberty are taken, to shed
light on how puberty hormones influence the development
of brain structure and function. Clearly, there is great
value in achieving a better understanding of the relation-
ships between the brain, cognition, behavior, and puberty.
However, these goals will require conceptual and meth-
odological advances focusing on how best to integrate dif-
ferent pubertal measures within developmental studies of
adolescent brain and behavioral maturation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
S.J.B. is a Royal Society University Research Fellow. S.B.
was funded by the Wellcome Trust 4-year PhD pro-
gramme in neuroscience at UCL.
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