Psychology© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Al.docx

Psychology
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights
reserved.
CHAPTER12
Motivation
reserved.
Motivation
• Defining motivation
– An inferred process within a person or animal
that causes movement either toward a goal or
away from an unpleasant situation.
– Intrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an
activity for its own sake.
– Extrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an
activity for external rewards, such as money

or fame.
reserved.
The Hungry Animal
• Motives to eat
– How much do genes, psychology, and the
environment affect our motivation to eat?
reserved.
The Hungry Animal, cont’
LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight,
and define what a set
point is.
• The genetics of weight
– Heavy people are no more or less emotionally
disturbed than average weight people.
– Heaviness is not always caused by
overeating.

– Set point C-level
• The genetically influenced weight range for an
individual; it is maintained by biological
mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat
reserves, and metabolism.
reserved.
point is.
• Body weight of twins
– Identical twins are more similar in body weight
than fraternal twins.
• Whether raised together or apart
– Genetic factors play a large role in body
weight.

reserved.
point is.
• The role of leptin
– Leptin alters the brain chemistry that
influences how animals eat as adults.
– Regulates weight by strengthening neural
circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite
and weakening neural circuits that strengthen
appetite.
– Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants
while hypothalamus is developing may
produce childhood obesity.
reserved.

point is.
• The complexity of weight
– Appetite suppressants alone often fail to help
individuals lose weight.
– Other factors
• Other genes and body chemicals
• Hormones which regulate hunger
• Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach
reserved.
point is.
• The overweight debate
Weight or fitness?
Many researchers believe that individuals who
are overweight and physically fit are actually

healthier than individuals who are sedentary and
thin.
reserved.
LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight,
and provide an example
of each.
• Environmental influences on weight
– Increased abundance of fast food
– Widespread consumption of high-sugar, high-
calorie soft drinks
– Sharp decline in exercise and other
expenditures of energy
– Increased portion sizes of food and drink
– Abundance of highly varied foods
reserved.

LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight,
and provide an example
of each.
• Cultural attitudes
– In many cultures, where food is a rarer
commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and
affluence in men, sexual desirability in women.
– Although people of all ethnicities and social
classes have been getting heavier, the cultural
ideal for white women has been getting thinner.
– The cultural ideal for men has also changed.
• Muscles used to mean working class, now
muscular bodies symbolize affluence.
reserved.
LO12.3 Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa, and discuss some
factors that contribute to each disorder.

• Eating disorders
– Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by
episodes of excessive eating (bingeing)
followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives
(purging).
– Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder
characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted
body image, radically reduced consumption of
food, and emaciation.
reserved.
The Social Animal
LO12.4 Describe how passionate love, compassionate love,
social bonding, and the action
of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to or understanding
of the biology of love.
• The biology of love
– Neurological origins of passionate love begin in
infancy when infants attach to the mother.

– Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved in
pleasure and reward are activated in mother-baby,
adult lover, and close friend bonds.
• Vasopressin, oxytocin, endorphins
– Functional fMRIs have shown other neurological
similarities.
• Certain parts of the brain activate when people look at
pictures of sweethearts and biological children.
reserved.
The Social Animal, cont’
LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult
romantic relationships.
• The psychology of love
– Predictors of love
• Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from
the set of people who are closest to us
• Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who

are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs,
personality, and interests
reserved.
• The attachment theory of love
– Like infants to their caregivers, adults have
attachment styles to their partners.
• Secure: rarely jealous or worried about
abandonment
• Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments
• Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner
will leave
reserved.

• The ingredients of love
– Intimacy
• Based on deep knowledge of the other person,
which accumulates gradually
– Passion
• Based on emotion, which is generated by novelty
and change
– Commitment
reserved.
• The psychological factors of love
– Perception, by both partners, that the
relationship is fair, rewarding, and balanced.
– Motivation
• Positive: to enjoy affection and intimacy

• Negative: to avoid feeling insecure and lonely
reserved.
LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and
cultural differences in
• Gender, culture, love
– Males and females respond similarly to:
• Love at first sight
• Passionate love
• Companionate love
• Unrequited love
• Secure and insecure attachment
• Being the break-up recipient
reserved.

LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and
cultural differences in
• Gender, culture, love, cont’
– Men and women differ in how they express
love.
• Men–doing; women–saying
– Men and women used to have different goals
in choices of partners.
• Men–more romantic; women–more pragmatic
• As more women have become economically self-
sufficient, differences have decreased.
reserved.
The Erotic Animal
LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both
illuminated and complicated our
views of human sexuality.
• Biology and desire

– Kinsey suggested that males and females had
similar orgasms.
– Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s
capacity for sexual responses surpassed
men’s.
• But didn’t examine differences based on
developmental, experiential, or cultural factors
reserved.
The Erotic Animal, cont’
• Hormones and sexual response
– Testosterone appears to promote sexual
desire in both sexes.
– However, this is not a simple relationship.
• Sexual behavior also increases testosterone.
• Psychological factors are usually more important

than hormones.
• Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated
don’t always lose sexual desires.
reserved.
• Sex and the sex drive
– Physiological responses don’t always correlate
with subjective experiences.
– Psychologists still disagree on whether there are
sex differences in sex drive.
– Social psychologists suggest
• Males’ sexual behavior is more biologically determined.
• Females’ sexual desires and responsiveness are more
affected by circumstances, the specific relationship,

and cultural norms.
reserved.
LO12.8 Describe how biology, culture, hormones, and
expectations might all contribute
to findings regarding differences in the sexuality of women and
men.
• The psychology of desire
– People’s motives for having sex affect many
aspects of their sexual behavior, including
whether they engage in sex in the first place.
– Extrinsic motives also come into play.
reserved.
LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.
• Motives for sex
– Pleasure

– Intimacy
– Insecurity
– Partner approval
– Peer approval
– Attaining a goal
reserved.
• Sexual coercion and rape
– Persistent gender differences occur in
perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual
coercion.
• Of a representative sample of 16,507 adults, 1 in 5
women said they had been raped or experienced
attempted rape at least once.
• Men also reported being victimized; 1 in 7 said
they had been severely beaten by a partner.

reserved.
• Motivations for rape
– Narcissism and hostility toward women
– A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the
victim
– Sadism
reserved.
LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender
contribute to sexual behavior and
expectations about that behavior.
• Culture of desire
– Sexual scripts
• Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual
behavior for a person in a given situation, varying

with the person’s gender, age, sexual orientation,
religion, social status, and peer group.
reserved.
• Biological explanations
– Prenatal exposure and androgens
– May be moderately heritable
reserved.
• Difficulty in identifying causes
– Sexual identity and behavior are different and

occur in different combinations.
• Some individuals are sexually attracted to both
men and women.
• Some individuals are heterosexual in behavior but
have homosexual fantasies.
– Sexual behaviors can differ in different
cultures.
reserved.
The Competent Animal
LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and
goal-achievement
successful, and distinguish between performance goals and
mastery goals.
• Importance of goals
– Goals improve motivation when…
• the goal is specific.
• the goal is challenging but achievable.
• the goal is framed in terms of getting what you want rather

than avoiding what you do not want.
– Approach goals
• Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or experiences,
such as learning to scuba dive.
– Avoidance goals
• Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences,
such as trying not to look foolish in public.
reserved.
The Competent Animal, cont’
goal-achievement
mastery goals.
• Types of goals
– Performance goals
• Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of
others, being judged favorably, and avoiding
criticism.

– Mastery (learning) goals
• Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s
competence and skills.
reserved.
goal-achievement
mastery goals.
• Mastery and motivation
reserved.
LO12.12 Explain the elements of a self-fulfilling prophecy, and
offer suggestions for how
to break that cycle.
– Self-fulfilling prophecy
• An expectation that comes

true because of the
tendency to act in ways
that bring it about.
– Self-efficacy
• A person’s belief that he or
she is capable of producing
desired results, such as
mastering new skills and
reaching goals.
• Expectations and self-efficacy
reserved.
LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to
achieve.
• Working conditions
– Conditions that increase job involvement,
motivation, and satisfaction
• Work provides a sense of meaningfulness

• Employees have control over part of their work
• Tasks are varied
• Employees have supportive relationships with
superiors and co-workers
• Employees receive useful feedback
• Company offers opportunities for growth
reserved.
LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to
achieve.
• Opportunities to achieve
– When a person
lacks a fair
chance to make
it, he or she may
be less than
successful.

reserved.
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness
LO12.14 Discuss how accurate people are at estimating the
type, duration, and extent of
their future emotions, and comment on what research indicates
makes people happy.
• Motives, values,
and the pursuit
of happiness
reserved.
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’
LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people
often face, and give an
example of each.
• Motivational conflicts
– Approach–approach conflicts
• Occur when you are equally attracted to two or
more possible activities or goals

– Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• Require you to choose between the lesser of two
evils because you dislike both alternatives
– Approach-avoidance conflicts
• Occur when a single activity or goal has both a
positive and a negative aspect
reserved.
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’
LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people
often face, and give an
example of each.
• How to attain your goals
– Seek activities that are intrinsically
pleasurable.
– Focus on learning goals, not only on
performance goals.
– Assess your working conditions.

– Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts.
Psychology
reserved.
CHAPTER11
Emotion, Stress,
and Health
reserved.
Nature of Emotion
LO11.1: Explain the three components that contribute to
defining an emotion.
• Emotion
– A state of arousal involving facial and bodily
changes, brain activation, cognitive
appraisals, subjective feelings, and
tendencies toward action, all shaped by
cultural rules

reserved.
Nature of Emotion, cont’
LO11.2: List the emotions that have a universal facial
expression.
• Emotions and the body
– Primary emotions
• Emotions considered to be universal and
biologically based
• Usually thought to include fear, anger, sadness,
joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt; possibly pride
– Secondary emotions
• Emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and
vary across individuals and cultures
reserved.
expression.

• Facial expressions
– Reflect internal feelings AND influence them
(facial feedback)
– Foster communication with others
– Signal intentions to others
– Enhance infant survival
reserved.
expression.
• Cultural and social limits to readability
of facial expressions:
– People are better at indentifying emotions
expressed by others in their own ethnic,
national, or regional group.
– Within a culture, expressions can have:
• Different meanings depending on the situation

• Different interpretations depending on the social
context
reserved.
expression.
• Facial expressions as only part of the
emotional picture:
– People can feel emotions without showing
them.
– People use facial expressions to lie about
their feelings.
reserved.
LO11.3: Discuss the brain structures involved in the experience
of emotions.
• Emotion and

the brain
– Cerebral cortex:
Can override the
amygdala’s initial
appraisal
– Amygdala:
Responsible for
assessing threat
Cerebral cortex
Amygdala
reserved.
LO11.3: Discuss the brain structures involved in the experience
of emotions.
• Emotion and the brain
– Left prefrontal cortex
• “Approach emotions”
– Right prefrontal cortex

• “Escape emotions”
reserved.
LO11.4: Explain what research on mirror neurons reveals about
understanding and
communicating emotions.
• Neurons for imitation and empathy
– Mirror neurons
• Brain cells that fire when a person or animal
observes others carrying out an action
– Involved in:
• Empathy
• Imitation
• Behavioral synchrony
• Mood contagion
reserved.

LO11.5: Describe the primary neurotransmitters involved in
emotional experience.
• The energy of emotion
– When experiencing an intense emotion, two
hormones are released:
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
– This results in increased:
• Alertness
• Arousal
reserved.
LO11.5: Describe the primary neurotransmitters involved in
emotional experience.
• Biology and deception
– Can lies be detected in the brain and body?
• Polygraph machines:

– Most popular method of lie detection
– Low reliability and validity
– High rate of labeling innocent people as guilty
• Guilty knowledge test
– More successful, but similar drawbacks
reserved.
LO11.6: Summarize the basic research findings indicating that
cognitive appraisal plays a
role in emotional experience.
• Emotions and the mind
– Essential to the creation of most
emotions:
• Attributions
• Beliefs
• Meanings people give events

reserved.
Emotion and Culture
LO11.7: Describe the ways emotional experience can differ
across cultures, in terms of
concepts, expression, language, and expectations.
• How culture shapes emotions
– Many psychologists
• All human beings share the ability to experience
primary emotions, but secondary emotions may be
culture-specific.
– Other psychologists:
• Culture affects every aspect of emotional experience,
including which emotions are considered
basic.
– Both groups: Culture determines much of what
people feel emotional about.
reserved.
Emotion and Culture

LO11.7: Describe the ways emotional experience can differ
across cultures, in terms of
concepts, expression, language, and expectations.
• Communicating emotions
– Display rules
• Social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and
where emotions are to be expressed or when they
should be squelched
– Body language
• The nonverbal signals of body movement, posture, and
gaze that people constantly express
– Emotion work
• Acting out an emotion we do not feel or trying to create
the right emotion for the occasion
reserved.
Emotion and Culture, cont’
LO11.8: Explain sex differences that appear to exist in
emotional experience, and

comment on the complex reasons for these differences.
• Gender and emotion
– Women and men are equally likely to feel all
emotions, although gender rules shape
differences in emotional expression.
– North American women are on average more
expressive than men, except for anger at
strangers.
– Both sexes are less expressive to a person of
higher status and will do the emotion work their
job requires.
reserved.
The Nature of Stress
LO11.9: Describe the three phases of the general adaptation
syndrome, and provide an
example that illustrates each phase.
• General adaptation syndrome
– Phase 1: Alarm

– Phase 2: Resistance
– Phase 3: Exhaustion
reserved.
The Nature of Stress, cont’
LO11.10: Summarize the activity of the HPA axis when the
body is under stress.
• Current approaches
– When a person is
under stress or in
danger, the
hypothalamus
sends messages
to the endocrine
glands along two
major pathways.
reserved.

LO11.10: Summarize the activity of the HPA axis when the
body is under stress.
– When stressors of poverty
and unemployment
become chronic, they can
increase people’s
chances of illness.
– Responses to stress vary
across individuals
depending on:
• The stressor
• The person’s genetic
predispositions
• Cumulative effects of stress
reserved.
LO11.11: Describe how psychneuroimmunology links activity at

a cellular level with
outcomes at a behavioral level.
• The Immune System: PNI
– Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
• The study of the relationships among psychology,
the nervous and endocrine systems, and the
immune system
• PNI researchers are particularly interested in the
white blood cells that destroy harmful foreign
bodies (antigens).
reserved.
LO11.12: Describe some of the health benefits of optimism, and
some of the health
consequences of pessimism.
• Optimism and pessimism
– Optimism is better for health than pessimism.
• Optimists take better care of themselves.

• Optimism is directly associated with better immune
function.
reserved.
LO 11.13: Discuss why a sense of control contributes to
positive health outcomes.
• Sense of control
– Locus of control: A general expectation
about whether the results of your actions are
under your own control (internal locus) or
beyond your control (external locus)
– Feelings of control can reduce or even
eliminate the relationship between stressors
and health.
reserved.

LO 11.13: Discuss why a sense of control contributes to
positive health outcomes.
• Culture and control
– Cultures generally differ in the kind of control
they emphasize and value.
• Western cultures:
– Primary control
– “Fighting back” philosophy
• Eastern cultures:
– Secondary control
– “Learn to live with it” philosophy
reserved.
Stress and Emotion
LO11.14: Summarize the evidence that negative emotions (such
as hostility and aggression)
detract from health, and positive emotions (such as hope and
happiness) contribute to health.
– Personality type is
less predictive of

health problems than
is hostility.
– Proneness to anger
is a major risk factor.
• Hostility and depression:
Do they hurt?
reserved.
Stress and Emotion
– Clinical depression is linked to at least a
doubled risk of later heart attack and
cardiovascular disease.
• Lethargy
• Overeating
• Hostility and depression:

Do they hurt?
reserved.
Stress and Emotion, cont’
• Positive emotions: Do they help?
– Positive emotions appear related to:
• Well-being
• Better health
• Longevity
reserved.
LO 11.15: Discuss how confession, forgiveness, and other forms
of “letting grievances
go” contribute to health benefits.

• Emotional inhibition and expression
– Suppressing emotions can become stressful
to the body.
– Two ways of letting go of negative emotions:
• Confession
• Forgiveness
reserved.
LO 11.15: Discuss how confession, forgiveness, and other forms
of “letting grievances
go” contribute to health benefits.
• Heartfelt forgiveness
reserved.
Coping with Stress
LO 11.16: Discuss how emotion-focused coping and problem-
focused coping contribute
to the problem-solving approach to dealing with stress.

• Solving the problem
– Emotion-focused coping
• Concentrating on the emotions the problem
has caused
– Problem-focused coping
• Taking steps to solve the problem
reserved.
Coping with Stress, cont’
LO 11.17: Describe three effective coping strategies that rely on
rethinking the stressful
problem at hand, and give an example of each.
• Rethinking the problem
– Reappraising the situation
– Learning from the experience
– Making social comparisons
reserved.

LO11.18: Discuss the ways in which friends can help or hinder
successful coping efforts.
• Drawing on social support
– When friends help you cope
• Friends can help: People who have networks
of close connections live longer than those
who do not.
• Partner support: Touching can elevate levels
of oxytocin, the hormone that induces
relaxation.
• Giving support to others can be a valuable
source of comfort.
reserved.
• Hugs and help

reserved.
• Coping with Friends
– In close relationships, the support person may
also be the source of stress.
– Married couples who argue in a hostile way
have:
• Increased elevations of stress hormones
• Weakened immune systems
– Friends may be unsupportive or offer the
wrong kind of support.
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Compare and contrast the symptoms and treatment of
different conditions, including stress and
various abnormal behaviors. 6.1 List the emotions that have a
universal facial expression. 6.2 Describe
the three phases of the general adaptation syndrome, and
provide an example that illustrates each

phase. 6.3 Discuss how emotion-focused coping and problem-
focused coping contribute to the problem-
solving approach to dealing with stress. 6.4 Describe how
working conditions affect motives to achieve.
6.5 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often
face, and give an example of each.
Unit Lesson
Chapter 11: Emotion, Stress, and Health
You look weird. Are you upset? Did I say something that
irritated you?
According to Wade, Tavris, and Garry (2014), one can often
detect various emotions by looking at the
facial expressions of others. Across various cultures, an
individual can readily notice when someone is
sad, angry, or happy simply by looking at the person’s face. In
this chapter, you will examine research
related to emotions and how these feelings impact various parts
of the body, both mentally and
physically. For instance, have you ever noticed someone’s lip
curl before? Did you immediately think the
individual was disgusted or feeling some form of contempt?
Ekman and Friesen (1988) conducted
research in ten countries and discovered that 75% of the
respondents identified one’s expression of a
unilateral lip curl to be a form of contempt. They maintained
that in many Western and non-Western
countries, this facial expression was viewed almost
overwhelmingly as contempt. So, the next time you
have a mean thought, just remember that it is written all over
your face.
Do you always look at someone in the eye when he/she is
speaking to you?
Eye contact is an integral component of communication.
Research has discovered that there’s more
than meets the eye when making eye contact. Hess (1975)
conducted research in which he discovered

that one’s pupil size is related to his or her level of arousal. He
noticed that the pupils of most men and
women became larger when viewing pictures of the opposite
sex. On the other hand, when looking at
pictures of the same sex, he noticed that the pupils actually
constricted. Hess also observed these
differences when individuals were seeking to solve problems.
The pupils reached maximum dilation
when the individual arrived at the solution. Thusly, the small
dots in our eyes are impacted by various
emotional and cognitive factors. What are your thoughts? The
next time you see your significant other,
go take a look in the mirror and examine your “dots.”
Are all smiles created equally?
Ekman (1985) argues that individuals display various smiles. He
suggests that humans have different
smiles for various situations: the embarrassment smile, the
miserable smile, and the compliant smile,
just to name a few. Have you ever noticed this? Does your smile
change when you are attempting to put
on a happy face? The next time someone smiles at you, begin to
notice if there is a hidden message
behind those lips.
Have you ever been flashed the “bird” while driving in traffic?
You know, it is the nonverbal gesture in which someone gives
you the “one-finger salute” in a not-so-
pleasant manner. Nonverbal gestures can convey many messages
in our society today. However,
according to Axtell (1991), one must be careful when embracing
certain gestures. For example, the
extended index and pinky fingers in America signify a cry of
victory for University of Texas Longhorn
fans. On the other hand, this same sign equates to a curse in

Africa. So, the next time you go to give
someone a thumbs up at a ballgame, make sure that the recipient
knows you are applauding a job well
done!
Are you stressed out? Do you feel as if the weight of the world
is constantly on your shoulders?
Many individuals today live in a constant state of stress. As you
continue with your studies, begin to
examine the relationship of stress and one’s emotions. Many
lingering stressors can cause physical harm
to our bodies. Do you know someone who suffers from extreme
migraines? Has anyone in your family
been diagnosed with high blood pressure? There is a very high
probability that these individuals have
not learned how to deal well with stress. Children are not
immune to feeling stress either. Due to the
many demands in school, extra-curricular activities, and
community service, many children today are
overscheduled, and this is causing undue stress. What happened
to the days when children had stress-
free lives and simply enjoyed childlike activities? Examine the
children around you. Do they seem
overwhelmed with all of the activities on their plates?
As you conclude your examination of this chapter, begin to
think about your coping mechanisms. Do you
have a friend in which you can confide? How well do you
handle small and big fires that seem to creep
up on a daily basis? It is impossible to escape various stressors
in life. Therefore, it becomes inherently
important to seek available resources to deal with issues as they
arise. Our reactions to stress will
directly impact our overall well-being. Think about it. You
cannot escape the stress, but you can embrace
better ways in which to deal with it!
Chapter 12: Motivation
Are you driven by intrinsic or extrinsic satisfaction? What

motivates you to reach your goals?
Wade, Tavris, and Garry (2014) confront the issue of motivation
in this chapter. As you read the text,
you will quickly learn that human beings have several innate
drives which influence one’s motivation in
various areas: eating, love, sex, and achievement. Does size
really matter?
Although many cultures readily express disgust with overweight
and obese individuals, in some cultures,
the heavier one is, the more he/she is desired. According to
Simmons (1998) a particular tribe in Nigeria
values large, robust women. An overweight young lady is a sign
of health, desirability, and prosperity.
Many teenage girls take a sabbatical to the “fattening room” in
order to increase their chances of
catching the ideal mate. They gorge excessively on food to
quickly increase their body fat and weight.
What do you think about this tradition? Would you overeat to
attract your soul mate? On the flip side of
this controversy, some individuals are going to great lengths to
lose weight. Many have developed
eating disorders in a quest to achieve the ideal, Barbie figure.
As you read this section, weigh your
thoughts on this topic. Does our society place too much
emphasis on one’s weight?
Has anyone ever told you that you look like your spouse or
significant other?
Research conducted by Zajonc, Adelmann, Murphy, and
Niedenthal (1987) reveal that many couples
grow to resemble each other after twenty-five years or more of
marriage. Many factors are offered as
explanation for why couples who seemingly look completely
opposite when they first marry, begin to

look more like brother and sister after a couple decades
together. Diet is one factor that could
contribute to this phenomenon. Many couples adopt the same
eating habits, and thusly their diets could
contribute to physical resemblances. Environmental factors
come into play as well. If a couple lives in a
tropical climate with great exposure to the sun, they will begin
to develop similar skin patterns.
However, the greatest factor argued by these scholars lies in
facial musculature. Most of the couples
studied shared common empathy for each other. The joys and
sorrows felt by one spouse were shared
by the other one as well. The various facial expressions shared
over the years inflict an etching pattern
on one’s muscles and produce skin tone changes. In essence,
facial similarities emerge. So, what could
this research mean for you? Do you want to look like your
spouse in 20 years?
Could advertising impact gender stereotyping?
For instance, if there is a family shown in a commercial on
television, is the father usually taller than the
mother? Have you ever noticed that cooking ads usually involve
women? Furthermore, have you viewed
any commercials in which men worked in roles that were
primarily dominated by women? According to
Jones (1991), gender stereotypes have evolved over the years.
What do you think? Have you noticed
that women are now portraying different roles than they did 10
years ago? Challenge yourself to notice
television and magazine ads this week. Do you think June
Cleaver would successfully fit within a T-
Mobile ad today?
Do you know someone who has a high sex drive? What makes
one individual crave sex while another
can completely loath the mere thought of sexual intimacy?
Many individuals possess various sexual fantasies and desires.

Some fantasies might be considered
extreme yet be perfectly within the law. On the other hand,
some sexual drives are often viewed as
seemingly bizarre and have legal ramifications attached. For
instance, necrophilia involves the urge to
have sex with a corpse. It has been discovered that many serial
killers have had sex with their victims as
a last form of control. As you read this section, think about your
own sexual desires and motives. Would
you be considered “normal” by society’s standards?
As you conclude your study of this section, begin to examine
your motives for achievement. What
motivates you for success? Does a high-paying job equate to job
satisfaction? Wade, Tavris, and Garry
(2014) discuss several factors that influence our motivations for
work. Both intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards drive individuals. It is often astruggle to find a balance
between the two. As you continue,
reflect upon your pursuit of happiness. What makes you happy?
According to Maslow, certain
physiological needs must first be met in order for us to attain
higher levels of satisfaction. What do you
think? Has your definition of happiness changed in recent
years?
References
Axtell, R. E. (1991). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body
language around the world. New York, NY:
Wiley.
Ekman, P. (1985). Telling lies. New York, NY: Norton.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1988). Who knows what about
contempt: A reply to Izard and Haynes.
Motivation and Emotion, 12, 17–22.
Hess, E. H. (1975). The tell-tale eye: How your eyes reveal

hidden thoughts and emotions. New York, NY:
Van Nostrand.
Jones, M. (1991). Gender stereotyping in advertisements.
Teaching of Psychology, 18, 231-233.
Simmons, A. M. (1998). Fat is where it’s at for women in
Nigerian state’s tradition. Austin American-
Statesman, A21.
Wade, C., Tavris, C., & Garry, M. (2014). Psychology (11th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education.
Zajonc, R. B., Adelmann, P. K., Murphy, S. T., & Niedenthal,
P. M. (1987). Convergence in the physical
appearance of spouses. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 335-346.
Reflection Paper
Throughout this unit, you have learned that certain links exist
between emotions, motivation, and
stress. In fact, if one does not handle his or her stress
effectively, numerous health issues could arise.
For this assignment, you are to compose a two-page reflection
paper in which you examine a current or
former stressful event in your life. You must embrace Selye’s
general adaptation syndrome (GAS), and
describe your reactions to the stressful event during each stage.
Be sure that you recount the various
facial expressions that you displayed as you progressed through
each stage as well. What coping
strategies did you embrace to help solve the problem?
Additionally, how was your professional work
impacted by the stressor? Furthermore, did you experience
additional conflicts with other individuals as
you endured this life trial? You must effectively examine each
of the areas listed above. Furthermore,

you should visit the Online Library to identify a source that
provides specific information on how this
stressful issue could impact your health, future goals, and
motivation. You must integrate the textbook
as a source as well.
Reflection Paper must have:
Introduction – This is meant to give a concise overview of the
featured stressful event and is usually one
paragraph in length. In your introduction, you will reveal the
featured stressful event that you will
examine for this paper.
Summary – This contains your description of the required areas
listed above in the opening statement,
including Selye’s GAS, your facial expressions, coping
strategies, professional impact, and relationship
conflicts.
Analysis – In this portion of the paper, you should provide
information from the textbook and an
additional source identified from the CSU Library to analyze
the impact that the stressful event could
have placed upon your health, future goals, and motivation.
Conclusion – This summarizes your final reflections for the
featured topic. For instance, what
implications have you uncovered during your research that you
will apply to future stressful events?
Note: Do not forget to double space your response and use
Times New Roman 12 pt. font. This written
assignment should have a cover page, two full pages of content
in which you organize the four sections
of the reflection based on the guidelines as listed above, and a
references page. You are required to
utilize the textbook and one additional source for this
assignment. Both sources should be included on
your references page. You should also have accompanying in-
text citations for each source that you
have used throughout your response.

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