A complete theory and research paper on Product , Product Mix and its usage. A complete theory base for undergraduate students to study the subject of BUYING AND MERCHANDISING.

1. Unit-3

2. Product
• anything – goods, services and ideas – that can be
offered in a market to satisfy customer needs and
wants. A product has a bundle of tangible and
intangible characteristics.
• “Anything that can be offered to a market for
attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might
satisfy a want or need. It includes physical objects,
services, persons, places, organizations and ideas”.
Philip kotler

3. • A Pair of Nike shoes, a mobile phone device, a
Samsung LED, your bank account, and a doctor’s
advice are all the products. The above definition of a
product by Philip Kolter not only consists of tangible
product attributes, for example, a car, an office, a book,
or a mobile device but according to a broader view of a
product, its consists of ideas, services, physical object,
place, and even organizations and persons.
• The above definition also covers the service in
marketing. Those activities, benefits and satisfactions
essentially intangible – one party offer to another for
sale. Service activities include banking services, renting
rooms in a hotel, doctor consolation, haircutting, repair
and maintenance services.

4. • William J. Stanton: “A product is a set of tangible
and intangible attributes, including packaging, colour,
price, manufacturers and retailers prestige and
services, which the buyer may accept as offering
satisfaction of wants and needs.”
• Rustam S. Davar: “A product may be regarded from
the marketing view point as a bundle of benefits
which are being offered to consumers.

5. Characteristics
• 1. Tangibility: This refers to products that can be physically
touched, seen, and felt. Tangible products are physical goods
that customers can purchase and physically possess. Examples
include smartphones, clothing, cars, and furniture.
• 2. Intangibility: Intangible products are services that cannot
be touched or physically possessed. Instead, they are
experienced or performed for the customer. Examples include
banking services, consulting services, insurance, and
healthcare.
• 3. Associate attributes: These are the special features and
qualities that make a product different from others. They can
include things like design, quality, brand reputation, and
unique selling points. For example, a phone might be marketed
as having a sleek design, a great camera, and being easy to use.

6. • 4. Exchange value: This means the value or benefit that you
expect to get from a product in exchange for the money you
pay for it. For example, a luxury watch might have a higher
exchange value because it is seen as prestigious and well-
made, compared to a cheaper watch that does similar things.
• 5. Consumer satisfaction: This is how happy or satisfied
customers feel after using or buying a product. It depends on
whether the product meets or exceeds their expectations. For
example, if a restaurant consistently serves tasty, good-quality
food, it is likely to result in high consumer satisfaction.
• 6. Element of Marketing Mix: A product is one of the key
elements of the marketing mix, alongside price, promotion,
and place (distribution). It represents what a company offers to
satisfy customer needs or wants. For example, a smartphone
company may offer a range of products with different features
and prices to cater to various customer segments.

7. • 7. Different Perceptions: Different people may perceive a
product differently based on their individual needs,
preferences, and experiences. This highlights the importance
of understanding the target market and tailoring marketing
efforts accordingly. For example, a luxury watch might be seen
as a status symbol by some, while others may view it as a
piece of fine craftsmanship.
• 8. Value of a Product: The value of a product is not solely
based on its physical attributes but also on the services it
offers. This means that customers derive benefits, solutions, or
experiences from using the product.

8. Product Mix
• Product mix, also known as product
assortment or product portfolio,
refers to the complete set of
products and/or services offered by
a firm..
• A product mix is the total number of
individual products and the product
lines that the company
manufactures. The product mix is
something that keeps varying from
company to company.
• Some companies have a limited
number of products, while others
have several lines of products,
which include a number of different
products in each product line. A
company can have a number of
product lines containing several
products.

9. Elements of product mix

10. 1. Width – Number of Product lines
• Width or breath of the product mix means the total number of
product lines that a company offers to sell. For instance, if a
company offers milk and yogurts, it indicates that it has two
lines. Similarly, a cosmetic company manufactures four
different types of products – jewelry, cosmetics, fashion, and
household items. Its product mix width is 4.
2. Length – Total Products
• The length of the product mix means total number of products
within the company product lines. For example,
• That is if a company has 5 product lines and 10 products each
under those product lines, the length of the mix will be 50 [5 x
10].

11. 3. Depth – Product Variation
• Depth of a product mix means the total number of variations
for each product a company offers within. There may be
different variations in the product e.g., size, flavor, taste, and
many other characteristics
• For example, within a toothbrush line and within that product
line, a company might offer different head sizes, bristle
consistency, colors, and special features.
4. Product consistency
• It refers to how similar or related the different products offered
by a company are. If a company has high product consistency,
it means that their products are closely related to each other in
terms of who they are meant for, how they are sold, and how
they are made. On the other hand, if a company has low
product consistency, it means that their products are not very
similar or related to each other.

12. • For example, a dairy company has two product lines milk and
yogurt. Both lines have the same users and distribution
channels. Due to low product variation and high product mix
consistency.

13. Product Diversification
• Product diversification is the practice of
expanding the original market for a product.
This strategy is used to increase the sales
associated with an existing product line, which
is especially useful for a business that has been
experiencing stagnant or declining sales.

14. Product Diversification
Techniques
• Repackaging
• The manner in which a product is presented can be altered to
make it available to a different audience. For example, a
household cleaning product could be repackaged and sold as a
cleaning agent for automobiles.
• Renaming
• An existing product could be renamed, perhaps along with
somewhat different packaging, and sold in a different country.
The intent is to remain true to the original purpose of the
product, but to adjust it to match the local culture.

15. • Resizing
• A product could be repackaged into a different size or standard
selling quantity. For example, a product normally sold as a
single unit could be packaged into a quantity of ten and then
sold through a warehouse store.
• Repricing
• The price of a product can be adjusted, along with other
improvements, to reposition it for sale through a new
distribution channel. For example, a watch movement could be
inserted into a platinum casing and sold through jewelry
stores, rather than its original positioning as a sport watch.
• Brand Extensions
• It may be possible to extend an existing brand at the low or
high end, or fill in a hole somewhere in the middle of the
product line. For example, a car company decides to build a
sports car that is positioned at the top end of its product line.

16. • Product Extensions
• It may be possible to sell several versions of the same product,
perhaps by adding additional features or by offering the
product in different colors. For example, a smart phone may be
offered in several colors.

17. Classification of Product

18. 1. Consumer Products
• The products which directly satisfy the wants and
needs of a consumer are known as Consumer
Products. For instance, soap, clothes, bread, jam,
butter, etc. Consumer products are used by consumers
for their personal needs. These products can be
further classified into two categories: On the Basis of
Durability and On the Basis of Shopping Efforts.

19. A. On the Basis of Durability
• Based on Durability there are three types of consumer products;
namely, Non-Durable Products, Durable Products, and Services
i) Durable Products
• The goods that can be used for a long period of time are known as
Durable Products. For example, sewing machines, washing
machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, etc. The durable goods
include higher profit margins for the producer and needs greater
personal selling efforts and various after-sales service by the
organisation.
ii) Non-durable Products
• The goods that can be consumed for a short period of time (one or
few uses only) are known as Non-durable Products. For example,
soap, shampoo, toothpaste, biscuits, etc. These products need heavy
advertising and have less profit margin.

20. • iii) Services
• The activities, satisfaction, or benefits offered by an
organisation for sale are known as Services. For example,
services offered by a CA, teacher, doctor, etc. Services are
intangible in nature, which means that we cannot see, touch, or
feel them

21. B. On the Basis of Shopping Efforts
• Based on Shopping Efforts there are three types of products; namely,
Convenience Products, Shopping Products, and Speciality Products.
i) Convenience Products
• The products which are purchased immediately, frequently, and with the
least effort and time are known as Convenience Products. Convenience
goods require minimum shopping effort. For example, newspapers, salt,
matchbox, medicines, etc.
Some of the features of Convenience Products are as follows:
• Convenience goods are purchased in small numbers.
• Generally, they are of low price.
• These products are usually purchased at convenient locations with the least
time and effort.
• The price of convenient products is standardised, as they are branded
products.
• As these are essential products, they have regular and continuous demand.

22. ii) Shopping Products
• The products in which consumers devote considerable effort and time in
shopping are known as Shopping Products. For these products, the buyer
first compares the price, style, quality, etc., of different brands at different
stores before making the final decision of purchase. For example, shoes,
clothes, mobile phones, jewellery, etc.
Some of the features of Shopping Products are as follows:
• Shopping products are usually durable.
• The unit price as well the profit margin of the shopping products are high.
• Consumers usually plan in advance to purchase these products.
• Before making the final decision of the purchase, the consumers first
compare products of different companies and at different stores.
• The retailers help the manufacturer in the sale of shopping products, as they
play a crucial role in persuading the consumers in buying the product.

23. • iii) Speciality Products
• The products with some special features for which the consumers make
special efforts, while purchasing them are known as Speciality Products.
Demand for speciality products is relatively inelastic. It means that even
though the price of speciality products rises, their demand does not reduce.
For example, antique paintings, exotic perfumes, expensive watches,
branded sneakers, etc.
Some of the features of Speciality Products are as follows:
• Speciality products are usually expensive and are available at a few
selected places.
• Because of their high cost, only a few people purchase these products
which make their demand limited.
• An organisation need to perform aggressive promotion activities for these
products.

24. 2. Industrial Products
• The products used by the organisations as inputs for
the production of other products are known as
Industrial Products. For example, lubricants, tools,
equipment, machines, etc.
• Industrial Products can be classified into three
categories; namely, Materials and Parts, Capital
Items, and Supplies and Business Services.

25. 1. Raw Materials
• Raw materials are industrial products that are in raw form and to
make them usable by consumers they need to be processed. Raw
materials are the first part of the production process.
• Sugarcane, jute, textiles, etc. are examples of raw materials which
need to process in order to be finished goods. Take an example, to
make a final product sugar, sugarcane is needed to be processed.
2. Capital goods
• Capital goods are industrial products that are directly used in
production. These are the goods fundamental for business
organizations to smoothly run the production process. These include
the products like buildings, equipment, machines, land, etc.
• For example, you must have a machine to process the sugarcane in
order to produce the sugar. Without these capital products industries
will not be able to process raw materials and produce final products.

26. 3. Component Materials
• Component materials are the upgraded version of raw materials.
These are the industrial products that are to some extent already
processed and assembled to make final products.
• In addition, component materials are finished products for an
organization as well as raw materials for other organizations. For
example, a tire is a finished product for a business but it needs to be
assembled in order to complete a bike, cycle, car, or other
automobiles.

27. 4. Materials: Materials are the basic things used to make other things.
They can be raw or not completely finished. For example, metal,
plastic, wood, glass, fabric, and chemicals are all materials. When
making a car, the materials used might include metal for the body,
plastic for the interior, and glass for the windows.
Parts: Parts are the smaller pieces that are put together to make
something bigger. They are like building blocks. For example, when
making a computer, parts like the motherboard, processor, memory,
hard drive, and keyboard are all needed. Each part has a specific
function, and when they are put together, they form a complete
computer.

28. 5. Business services: Business services can indeed be
considered as an industrial product. Industrial products are not
limited to physical goods; they can also include intangible
offerings like services. Business services are specifically
designed to support the operational needs of other businesses and
industries.
For ex: 1. Consulting services 2. Installation and maintenance
services: 3. Repair service

29. Product Life Cycle
• The product life cycle is the process a product goes through
from when it is first introduced into the market until it declines
or is removed from the market. The life cycle has four
stages—introduction, growth, maturity, and decline.
• While some products may remain in maturity state for some
time, all products eventually phase out of the market due to
several factors including saturation, increased competition,
decreased demand, and dropping sales.
• Companies use PLC analysis (the process of examining their
product's life cycle) to create strategies to sustain their
product's longevity or change it to meet market demand or
adapt with/to developing technologies.

31. STAGE 1: INTRODUCTION
• The introduction stage is the initial phase of a product's
life cycle.
• During this stage, the product is launched into the
market for the first time.
• Companies invest heavily in marketing and promotion
to create awareness and generate interest among
consumers.
• This stage is characterized by high costs, as the
company needs to build brand recognition and establish
a customer base.
• There is typically little competition during this stage, as
the product is new and unique.

32. STAGE 2: Growth
• In the growth stage, the product gains traction and starts to
experience rapid sales growth.
• Consumer demand increases, and the product becomes more
popular in the market.
• Competitors take notice and may enter the market, leading
to increased competition.
• Companies continue to invest in marketing and advertising
to expand their customer base and increase market share.
• This stage is marked by increasing sales volume and
expanding market size.
• The product may undergo improvements and enhancements
to meet customer needs and preferences.

33. Stage 3: Maturity
• The maturity stage is reached when the product has
achieved its maximum market acceptance.
• Sales growth slows down, and the market becomes
saturated.
• Competitors are well-established, and pricing becomes
more competitive, leading to shrinking profit margins.
• Companies focus on defending their market share and may
introduce variations or new products to target different
market segments.
• This stage can last a long time, depending on the product
and industry.
• Some brands may stay in the maturity stage for an extended
period.

34. Stage 4: Decline
• Eventually, every product enters the decline stage as sales
start to decline.
• This decline may occur due to changing consumer
preferences, technological advancements, or the
introduction of newer and better alternatives.
• The product loses market share, and companies may reduce
marketing efforts. Prices may be lowered to stimulate sales,
but overall profitability decreases.
• If the decline continues, the product may be phased out of
the market completely.
• However, some products may find ways to revitalize
themselves or find new market opportunities to extend their
life cycle.

35. Example
1. Typewriters
• The typewriter was hugely popular following its introduction
in the late 19th century due to the way it made writing easier
and more efficient. Quickly moving through market growth to
maturity, the typewriter began to go into decline with the
advent of the electronic word processor and then computers,
laptops and smartphones. While there are still typewriters
available, the product is now at the end of its decline phase
with few sales and little demand. Meanwhile, desktop
computers, laptops, smartphones and tablets are all
experiencing the growth or maturity phases of the product
lifecycle.

36. Marketing Strategies at different
stages of PLC
Marketing Strategies for Introduction Stage:
Introduction stage is marked with slow growth in sales and a very
little or no profit.
Marketing strategies used in the introduction stages include:
• rapid skimming - launching the product at a high price and
high promotional level
• slow skimming - launching the product at a high price and low
promotional level
• rapid penetration - launching the product at a low price with
significant promotion
• slow penetration - launching the product at a low price and
minimal promotion

37. Marketing Strategies for Growth Stage:
Here, the aim is not to increases awareness, but to get trial of the
product. Company tries to enter the new segments. Competitors
have entered the market.
Several possible strategies for the stage are as under:
• 1. Product qualities and features improvement
• 2. Adding new models and improving styling
• 3. Entering new market segments
• 4. Designing, improving and widening distribution network
• 5. Shifting advertising and other promotional efforts from
increasing product awareness to product conviction
• 6. Reducing price at the right time to attract price-sensitive
consumers
• 7. Preventing competitors to enter the market by low price and
high promotional efforts

38. • Marketing Strategies for Maturity Stage:
• In this stage, competitors have entered the market. There is
severe fight among them for more market share. The company
adopts offensive/aggressive marketing strategies to defeat the
competitors.
• Following possible strategies are followed:
1. To Do Nothing:
2. Market Modification

39. • Marketing Strategies for Decline Stage:
• The first important task is to detect the poor products. After
detecting the poor products, a company should decide whether
poor products should be dropped. Some companies formulate
a special committee for the task known as Product Review
Committee
• 1. Drop the Product:
• 2. Continue Products with Improvements:
• Company may follow any of the following strategies:
• 3. Continue with the Original Products:

40. New Product Development
• New Product Development refers to
the complete process of bringing a new
product to market. This can apply to
developing an entirely new product, improving
an existing one to keep it attractive and
competitive, or introducing an old product to a
new market.

41. Process
• 1. Idea generation
• Idea generation involves brainstorming for new product ideas
or ways to improve an existing product. During product
discovery, companies examine market trends, conduct product
research, and dig deep into users' wants and needs to identify a
problem and propose innovative solutions.
• There are two primary sources of generating new ideas.
Internal ideas come from different areas within the company—
such as marketing, customer support, the sales team, or the
technical department. External ideas come from outside
sources, such as studying your competitors and, most
importantly, feedback from your target audience.

42. Some methods you can use are:
• Conducting market analysis
• Working with product marketing and sales to check if your
product's value is being positioned correctly
• Collecting user feedback with interviews, focus groups,
surveys,
• Running user tests to see how people are using your product
and identify gaps and room for improvement

43. 2. Idea screening
• This second step of new product development revolves around
screening all your generated ideas and picking only the ones
with the highest chance of success. Deciding which ideas to
pursue and discard depends on many factors, including the
expected benefits to your consumers, product improvements
most needed, technical feasibility, or marketing potential.
• The idea screening stage is best carried out within the
company. Experts from different teams can help you check
aspects such as the technical requirements, resources needed,
and marketability of your ide

44. • 3. Concept development and testing
• All ideas passing the screening stage are developed into
concepts. A product concept is a detailed description or
blueprint of your idea. It should indicate the target market for
your product, the features and benefits of your solution that
may appeal to your customers, and the proposed price for the
product. A concept should also contain the estimated cost of
designing, developing, and launching the product.

45. • 4. Marketing strategy and business analysis
• Now that you’ve selected the concept, it’s time to put together
an initial marketing strategy to introduce the product to the
market and analyze the value of your solution from a business
perspective.
• The marketing strategy serves to guide the positioning,
pricing, and promotion of your new product. Once the
marketing strategy is planned, product management can
evaluate the business attractiveness of the product idea.
• The business analysis comprises a review of the sales
forecasts, expected costs, and profit projections. If they satisfy
the company’s objectives, the product can move to the product
development stage.

46. • 5. Product development
• During the product development stage, the focus is on turning
the idea for a product into a final, ready-to-sell product. This
involves creating a prototype, which is a sample version of the
product, and testing it with potential users to see how they
interact with it. This helps identify any problems or areas for
improvement before moving forward with the development of
the actual product.

47. • 6. Test marketing
• est marketing involves releasing the finished product to a sample
market to evaluate its performance under the predetermined
marketing strategy.
• There are two testing methods you can employ:
• Alpha testing is a type of software testing where the product is
checked for any errors or problems before it is made available to the
public. It helps to identify and fix any bugs or issues in the product.
• Beta testing is when real users are given the chance to use the
product and provide their feedback on it. This feedback helps the
developers to make improvements and fix any remaining issues
before the final release of the product.
• The goal of the test marketing stage is to validate the entire concept
behind the new product and get ready to launch the product.

48. • 7. Product launch
• At this point, you’re ready to introduce your new product to the
market. Ensure your product, marketing, sales, and customer
support teams are in place to guarantee a successful launch and
monitor its performance.
• Here are some essential elements to consider.
• Customers: Understand who will be making the final purchasing
decisions and why they will be purchasing your product. Create
buyer personas and identify their roles, objectives, and pain points.
• Value proposition: Identify what makes you different from the
competition and why people should choose to buy your product
• Messaging: Determine how you will communicate your product’s
value to potential customers
• Channels: Pick the right marketing channels to promote your
products, such as email marketing, social media, SEO, and more

49. Why New product fail?
• 1. Product Doesn't Solve the Right Problems: If a product does
not effectively address the needs or pain points of the target
market, it is likely to fail. It is important to thoroughly
understand the customer's problems and ensure that the
product provides a suitable solution.
• 2. Picked the Wrong Market: Choosing the wrong target
market can lead to failure. It is crucial to identify the right
market segment that has a genuine need for the product and is
willing to pay for it.
• 3. Product is Too Expensive or Provides Poor Value to
Customer: If the product is priced too high or does not offer
sufficient value compared to alternative solutions available in
the market, customers may not be willing to buy it.

50. • 4. Business Case is Flawed: A flawed business case, such as
inaccurate market research or unrealistic financial projections,
can lead to failure. It is important to conduct thorough market
analysis and ensure the business case is well-founded.
• 5. Product is Not Good Enough/Poor Execution: If the product
does not meet quality standards or fails to deliver on its
promised features and benefits, it is likely to disappoint
customers and result in failure. Proper product development
and execution are crucial for success.
• 6. Delayed Market Entry: Entering the market too late can lead
to failure, as competitors may have already captured a
significant share. Timeliness is important to establish a strong
presence and gain a competitive advantage.

51. • 7. Poor Marketing Plan: Even if the product is great, a poor
marketing plan can hinder its success. Inadequate promotion,
ineffective messaging, or targeting the wrong channels can
result in low customer awareness and adoption.

52. Branding
• Branding:- A brand is the identification of a product it can be
in the form of a name symbol or design etc.
• brand helps in product differentiation, differential pricing helps
in advertising and its easy to Introduce a new product.
• The Branding is not only done to identify the seller or
producer but also to make your product superior than
competitor's product.
• Customer also feels superior by using branded product. It also
shows status symbol.

53. Various terms related to brand are
1. Brand name the part of brand
which can be spoken e.g. Dettol,
surf, Nike, etc.
2. Brand mark: the part of brand
which can't be spoken, But can be
recognized
3. Trade mark: A part of brand
which is given legal protection

54. Before selecting a brand name
following precautions are made
Features/ Qualities of a good brand name:
1. Brand name should be short and simple e.g. Rin, Lux, Dettol,
etc.
2. Brand name should be easy to pronounce:- Consumer feel
shy to pronounce the difficult brand name.
3. Brand name should be suggestive in nature e.g. Ujala suggest
brighten and Hajmola suggest good digestion.
4. The brand name should be unique and distinctive e.g. Arial,
5. Brand name should be selected after considering its mean
languages.

55. Types
• 1. Product Branding: This type of branding focuses on creating
a strong brand identity for a specific product. Examples
include Coca-Cola, Nike, and Apple, where the branding
efforts are centered around their individual products.
• 2. Corporate Branding: Corporate branding involves creating a
brand identity for the overall company. Examples include
Google, Amazon, and Microsoft, where the branding efforts
are focused on the company as a whole rather than specific
products.

56. • 3. Personal Branding: Personal branding is about creating a
brand identity for an individual. Virat Kohli: Indian cricketer
Virat Kohli has established a strong personal brand as a sports
icon, with endorsements and a massive following on social
media.
• 4. Service Branding: Service branding focuses on creating a
strong brand identity for a service-based business. OYO: OYO
is an Indian hospitality company that has created a strong
brand identity in the budget hotel segment, offering affordable
and standardized accommodations.

57. • 5. Co-Branding: Co-branding involves two or more brands
coming together to create a joint product or service. Examples
include Nike and Apple's collaboration for the Nike+ Apple
Watch, and Coca-Cola and McDonald's partnership for co-
branded beverages.
• 6. Online Branding: Online branding refers to establishing a
brand presence and identity on digital platform. Swiggy:
Swiggy is a popular food delivery platform in India that has
built a strong online brand presence through its user-friendly
app, quick delivery, and wide restaurant network.

58. Packaging
• It refers to the act of designing and producing the container or
wrapper of a product e.g. coke comes in bottle, salt comes in
packet, oil in tins, etc.
• The outer appearance of the product (the package) is the first
thing a potential customer will see, and so it can be a great
marketing tool for the product.

59. Level of packaging

60. • 1. Primary packaging: This is the packaging that directly
surrounds and contains the product. It is the first layer of
packaging that the consumer sees and interacts with. The
primary packaging is in direct contact with the product and is
designed to protect it, preserve its quality, and provide
information about the product. For example, the primary
packaging for a bottle of shampoo would be the bottle itself,
with the label, cap, and any other components that are essential
for the product's use.

61. • 2. Secondary packaging: This level of packaging is used to
group and protect multiple primary packages. It's like a bigger
box or container that holds several individual products
together. Secondary packaging is often used for shipping and
displaying products on store shelves. It helps to organize and
protect the primary packages during transportation and
storage. For example, if you buy a pack of six bottles of soda,
the box that holds all the bottles together is the secondary
packaging.

62. • 3. Transportation packaging: This level of packaging is used
for shipping and transporting products. It includes materials
like pallets, stretch wrap, and shipping containers.
Transportation packaging is designed to protect the primary
and secondary packaging during transit and ensure the
products arrive safely at their destination.

63. FUNCTIONS
• 1. Protection: Packaging keeps products safe from damage,
contamination, and tampering by providing a physical barrier
against external factors like moisture, light, and impact.
• 2. Preservation: Packaging preserves the quality, freshness, and shelf
life of products by creating a barrier against oxygen, moisture, and
light that can cause deterioration.
• 3. Information and Communication: Packaging provides important
details to consumers, such as ingredients, usage instructions, and
expiration dates, helping them make informed choices and ensuring
their safety. It also communicates branding elements to create a
visual identity and differentiate the product.

64. • 5. Marketing and Branding: Packaging plays a vital role in
marketing by creating a visual identity and communicating the
brand's values and messaging. Eye-catching design elements
and displays on packaging influence consumer purchasing
decisions.
• 6. Sustainability and Environmental Impact: Sustainable
packaging practices aim to minimize environmental impact by
using eco-friendly materials, reducing waste, and promoting
recycling and reuse. This is important as consumers and
regulators focus on reducing the environmental footprint of
packaging.

65. Labelling
• Labelling is the process of identifying a product by adding a
label to the product or its container that provides information
about it. It specifies the information about the product like its
brand name, components, brand logo, instructions to be
followed while using the product, promotional messages, if
any. A label can be a portion of the packaging or a small sheet
may be fixed with the product itself.
• According to Mason and Rath :
• "The label is an information tag, wrapper or seal attached to a
product's package.