This document provides production guidelines for flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) in South Africa. It discusses the classification, origin, production levels, major varieties, cultivation practices, and post-harvest handling of both linseed and fibre flax. Specifically, it outlines the description and morphology of the flax plant, environmental requirements, cultivation methods from propagation to harvesting, and utilization of flax crops.
Production technology of sesamum indicum or sesamumscience book
this presentation give you detail information about the Production technology of sesamum indicum or sesamum. how we control weeds,insects,pests in the crop. how we increase the yield of crop.
Potential fiber crops in Pakistan,Fiber crops, 3 main groups
Textile fibers
Cordage fibers and
Filling fibers
potential fiber crops,Cotton
Jute
Flex
Sisal
Ramie
Abaca
Properties of Cotton Fiber,Specific Gravity:
Effect of Moisture
Effect of Heat,Introduction,Jute is a natural fiber popularly known as the "Golden Fiber”.
Jute fiber comes from the stem of a herbaceous annual plant
Jute is the second in the world’s production of textile fibers after cotton
India,China,Bangladesh are leading producers of Jute
Bangladesh is the largest cultivator of raw jute
Production and Processing of fiber,Cultivation
Harvesting
Retting
Stripping
Washing
Drying
Bailing & Packing
Transport
Outline
Introduction
Cultivated area
Uses
End uses ,It is cultivated mainly in districts of,Faisalabad, TT Singh, Gujarat, MB Din, Sargodha, Narowal, Sahiwal, Layyah, Bahawalpur and Bahawalnagar.
Sindh, it is grown in Jacobabad, Shikarpur, Larkana and Dadu districts.
Its national average yield during 2008-09 was 673 kg/ha.
Uses Edible oil (lindseed/flex oil)
A nutritional supplement
An ingredient in many wood finishing products.
Ornamental plant
Linen making
Fiber taken from stem, 2-3 times stronger than cotton.
This powerpoint presentation gives knowledge about fiber yeilding plants namely, cotton, jute and flax. Also Gives details about their origin and the processing techniques.
kopak as a seed fiber. Kapok fibres are lustrous, yellowish brown and made of a mix of lignin and cellulose. Fineness : 0.4-0.7 denier. The hydrophobic characteristics of the kapok fibre could be attributed to its waxy surface while its large percent of lumen contributed to its excellent oil absorbency and retention capacity. The heat retention of kapok was better than that of other fibres due to the static immobile air held in the large lumen region of kapok. Kapok shows good resistance to alkalis and it is not damaged by alkali.Light weight,
• Hydrophobic, • Comfortable, • Thermal insulator and, • Bio degradable
Soyabean crop production and quality seed productionAshishNain
Globally legumes play a vital role in human nutrition since they are a rich source of protein, calories, certain minerals, and vitamins. Among which soybean is probably the largest source of vegetable seed oil (20%) and protein (40%). Owing to the nutritional and health benefits of soybean. It excited the growers in recent years. US, Argentina, Brazil, and China claims as the biggest producers of this supergroup, the modern technologies, and changes in their agronomic practices is worth to discuss its possibility in the Indian scenario.
Soybean package of practice and quality seed production with seed certification standards
Production technology of sesamum indicum or sesamumscience book
this presentation give you detail information about the Production technology of sesamum indicum or sesamum. how we control weeds,insects,pests in the crop. how we increase the yield of crop.
Potential fiber crops in Pakistan,Fiber crops, 3 main groups
Textile fibers
Cordage fibers and
Filling fibers
potential fiber crops,Cotton
Jute
Flex
Sisal
Ramie
Abaca
Properties of Cotton Fiber,Specific Gravity:
Effect of Moisture
Effect of Heat,Introduction,Jute is a natural fiber popularly known as the "Golden Fiber”.
Jute fiber comes from the stem of a herbaceous annual plant
Jute is the second in the world’s production of textile fibers after cotton
India,China,Bangladesh are leading producers of Jute
Bangladesh is the largest cultivator of raw jute
Production and Processing of fiber,Cultivation
Harvesting
Retting
Stripping
Washing
Drying
Bailing & Packing
Transport
Outline
Introduction
Cultivated area
Uses
End uses ,It is cultivated mainly in districts of,Faisalabad, TT Singh, Gujarat, MB Din, Sargodha, Narowal, Sahiwal, Layyah, Bahawalpur and Bahawalnagar.
Sindh, it is grown in Jacobabad, Shikarpur, Larkana and Dadu districts.
Its national average yield during 2008-09 was 673 kg/ha.
Uses Edible oil (lindseed/flex oil)
A nutritional supplement
An ingredient in many wood finishing products.
Ornamental plant
Linen making
Fiber taken from stem, 2-3 times stronger than cotton.
This powerpoint presentation gives knowledge about fiber yeilding plants namely, cotton, jute and flax. Also Gives details about their origin and the processing techniques.
kopak as a seed fiber. Kapok fibres are lustrous, yellowish brown and made of a mix of lignin and cellulose. Fineness : 0.4-0.7 denier. The hydrophobic characteristics of the kapok fibre could be attributed to its waxy surface while its large percent of lumen contributed to its excellent oil absorbency and retention capacity. The heat retention of kapok was better than that of other fibres due to the static immobile air held in the large lumen region of kapok. Kapok shows good resistance to alkalis and it is not damaged by alkali.Light weight,
• Hydrophobic, • Comfortable, • Thermal insulator and, • Bio degradable
Soyabean crop production and quality seed productionAshishNain
Globally legumes play a vital role in human nutrition since they are a rich source of protein, calories, certain minerals, and vitamins. Among which soybean is probably the largest source of vegetable seed oil (20%) and protein (40%). Owing to the nutritional and health benefits of soybean. It excited the growers in recent years. US, Argentina, Brazil, and China claims as the biggest producers of this supergroup, the modern technologies, and changes in their agronomic practices is worth to discuss its possibility in the Indian scenario.
Soybean package of practice and quality seed production with seed certification standards
Cost of production and budgets for dry beans and field peasdostdiek4
2014 presentation on the economics of dry edible bean and field pea production by Jessica Johnson, Extension Educator - Ag Economics at the UNL Panhandle Research and Extension Center at Scottsbluff, NE
Get the details about decorative curtains manufacturers and suppliers with there complete details. We have a large list of manufacturers and exporters from india.
World: Linseed - Market Report. Analysis And Forecast To 2020IndexBox Marketing
IndexBox Marketing has just published its report: "World: Linseed - Market Report. Analysis And Forecast To 2020". The report provides an in-depth analysis of the global linseed market. It presents the latest data of the market value, consumption, domestic production, exports and imports, price dynamics and food balance. The report shows the sales data, allowing you to identify the key drivers and restraints. You can find here a strategic analysis of key factors influencing the market. Forecasts illustrate how the market will be transformed in the medium term. Profiles of the leading producers are also included.
GRAINPRO PTY LTD, The Linseed Farm, Mirfak Pty Ltd
Flaxseed- Miraculous Anti-ageing Divine Food
What is Flaxseed and how can it benefit me? I was faced with this question when I started hearing about Flaxseed not long ago. It became a ‘buzz word’ in society and seems to be making great role in increased health for many. I wanted to join that wagon of wellness and so I researched until I felt satisfied that it could help me, too. Here are my findings.
Flaxseeds are slightly larger than sesame seeds and have a hard shell that is smooth and shiny. Their color ranges from deep amber to reddish brown depending upon whether the flax is of the golden or brown variety. Botanical name of flaxseeds is Linum usitatissimum, the flax plant, which has been widely used for thousands of years as a source of food, clothing and decorating houses (paints, varnish, linoleum flooring etc.). Usitatissimum means useful seeds. The crushed seed makes a very useful poultice in the treatment of ulceration, abscesses, deep-seated inflammations and even skin cancers. Flaxseeds have become very popular recently, because they are a richest source of the Omega 3 essential fatty acid; known as Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), lignans and fiber. People in the new millennium may see flaxseed as an important new food super star.
Flaxseed also increase oxygen consumption at the cellular level resulting in increased energy and stamina, and feeling of well-being. In fact, there’s nobody who won’t benefit by adding flaxseed to his or her diet. Even Gandhi wrote in his book: “Wherever flaxseed becomes a regular food item among the people, there will be better health.” In the 8th century, French king Charle magne even passed a law requiring his people to use flax seed so that they would be healthier.
Omega-3 Fatty Acid – Anti-entropy Factor
The omega 3 fatty acids include the essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3) and longer chain metabolites Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA 22:6 n-3) & Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA 20:5 n-3). In Omega 3 acids, the first double bond is located on the third carbon from the methyl end of the hydrocarbon chain. For omega 6 fatty acids, .......
seed
A plant part derived from a fertilized ovule , so it is mature fertilized ovule.
Function:
-To insure the continuation and distribution of the plant.
-------------
Structure of the ovule
----------------
Markings on the testa
--------------
Types of ovules
--------------
الجوز المقيئ Nux Vomica
- Macroscopical Characters
- Microscopical Characters
- T.S.
- Powder (M.D.E)
- Active Constituents
- Tests of identity
- Uses
--------------------------------------------
بذر الكتان Linseed
- Macroscopical Characters
- Microscopical Characters
- T.S.
- Powder (M.D.E)
- Active Constituents
- Tests of identity
- Uses
--------------------------------------------
بذر الخروع Castor seed
Dihybrid Crosses, Gene Linkage and RecombinationStephen Taylor
For the IB DP Biology course AHL: Genetics unit. To get the editable pptx file, please make a donation to one of my preferred charities. More information at http://sciencevideos.wordpress.com/about/biology4good/
SupplyCompass joins forces with Woolmark to develop a comprehensive guide to cover everything you need to know about wool. We also highlight the considerations for designing a collection with wool, the environmental, animal and social impacts, The Woolmark Company's certification, and the latest innovations in wool.
RAPESEED in the agriculture ecosystem .pptxReddykumarAv
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Sericulture is the silk producing agro-industry
India is the second largest silk producing country in the world after china.
Sericulture or silk farming is the rearing of silkworm for the production of silk
Silk is known as queen of textile and biosteel because of its strength
A Chinese tale of the discovery of the silkworm’s silk was by an ancient empress Lei Zu , the wife of the emperor.
She was drinking tea under tree, when a silk cocoon fell into her tea cup and the hot tea loosened the long strand of silk
As she it out, and started to wrap the silk thread around her flinger, she felt the warm sensation
When silk ran out, an larva appeared. She realized that it was this larva that produces the silk
Soon, she taught this to people and it became wide spread
Here is the presentation for deccan hemp. The content in this presentation is provided from authentic sources. Follow me for more presentation on production technology of field crops. Thank you!
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
ISI 2024: Application Form (Extended), Exam Date (Out), EligibilitySciAstra
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With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
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show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
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change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
2. February 2012
Department of Agriculture, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES
Directorate: Plant Production
Production guidelines for flax
(Linum usitatissimum L.)
3. 2012 Third print
2011 Second print
2010 First print
Compiled by
M.J. Jacobsz and W.J.C. van der Merwe
ARC-Institute for Industrial Crops
Design, layout and publishing by
Directorate Communication Services
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
Obtainable from
Resource Centre
Directorate Communication Services
Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
Also available on the web at
www.daff.gov.za/publications
Photos by
M. Jacobsz, C. Brough and N. van der Westhuizen
For further information contact:
Directorate Plant Production, Division Industrial Crops
Tel: 012 319 6079/6072
Fax: 012 319 6372
Email: dpp@daff.gov.za
4. – iii –
Contents
Part I: General aspects ....................................................................... 1
1. Classification ............................................................................... 1
2. Origin and distribution .................................................................. 2
3. Production levels and areas ........................................................ 3
4. Major production areas in SA ...................................................... 4
5. Description of the plant ................................................................ 5
6. Cultivars ....................................................................................... 8
7. Weather conditions ...................................................................... 14
8. Soil requirements ......................................................................... 15
Part II: Cultivation practices ................................................................ 16
1. Propagation ................................................................................. 16
2. Soil preparation ........................................................................... 16
3. Planting ........................................................................................ 17
4. Fertilisation .................................................................................. 18
5. Irrigation ....................................................................................... 19
6. Weed control ............................................................................... 20
7. Pest control .................................................................................. 21
8. Disease control ............................................................................ 22
9. Harvesting ................................................................................... 22
Part III: Post-harvest handling ............................................................ 24
1. Post-harvesting practices ............................................................ 24
Part IV: Production schedule .............................................................. 26
1 Linseed ........................................................................................ 27
2. Fibre flax ...................................................................................... 27
Part V: Utilisation ................................................................................ 27
Reference ........................................................................................... 28
5. – 1 –
1 CLASSIFICATION
Fibre flax, linseed and linolaTM
refer to the same plant, Linum usitatis-
simum, which belongs to the Linaceae family.
Flax fibre is obtained by stripping the bark or “bast fibres” from the
stem of the linseed plant.
Linseed refers to brown or yellow-seeded types containing 35 to 45 %
oil and 18 to 26 % protein. Linseed oil is possibly the most widely
available botanical source of Omega-3 fatty acids, which makes it ex-
tremely valuable.
LinolaTM
is a high-quality oilseed crop developed from the linseed plant
by the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Or-
ganisation) in Australia. It has a registered trademark. It differs from
linseed in that it has yellow seed and produces a vegetable oil with a
lower level of linolenic fatty acid and higher proportion of linolenic fatty
acid. The oil produced is a polyunsaturated edible oil suited to a range
of food uses. Linola lacks the high quantity of Omega-3 fatty acids of
conventional linseed. This makes it less nutritional, but more stable at
high temperatures and it is used in the making of margarines, cooking
oils, etc. Linseed varieties that have low linolenic levels and brown
seeds are not regarded as linola but are considered edible.
6. – 2 –
2 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
Linseed originated from India and was first domesticated in the so-
called “Fertile Crescent”. The Fertile Crescent is a historical, crescent-
shaped region in the Middle East incorporating the Levant (area in the
Middle East, south of the Taurus Mountains), Mesopotamia and an-
cient Egypt.
Flax is among the oldest fibre crops in the world. The use of flax for
the production of linen dates back 5 000 years. Pictures on tombs and
temple walls depict the flowers of flax plants. The “fine linen” men-
tioned in the Bible has been satisfactorily proven to have been spun
from flax.
The use of flax fibre in the manufacturing of cloth in northern Europe
dates back to Neolithic times. In North America, flax was introduced
by the Pilgrim Fathers. Currently, most flax produced in the USA and
Canada is seed flax for the production of linseed oil or flaxseed for
human consumption.
7. – 3 –
FIG. 1: Ripe linseed capsules
3 PRODUCTION LEVELS AND AREAS
3.1 South Africa
Flax is a new crop in South Africa. Currently only about 500 ha
of flax is cultivated in the Overberg area in the Western Cape
Province.
3.2 Internationally
Table 2: World fibre flax production
Country Production
(million tons)
China
France
Russian Federation
Belarus
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Spain
Ukraine
Poland
Egypt
0,470
0,090
0,060
0,060
0,028
0,017
0,012
0,012
0,011
0,009
(Source: FAO statistics)
Table 1: World linseed production
(2005–2006)
Country Seed harvested
(million tons)
Canada
China
United States
India
Ethiopia
Russian Federation
United Kingdom
France
Bangladesh
Argentina
1,035
0,475
0,442
0,220
0,077
0,077
0,058
0,054
0,050
0,036
(Source: FAO statistics)
8. – 4 –
4 MAJOR PRODUCTION AREAS IN SOUTH AFRICA
The major flax production areas in South Africa are in the Eastern and
Western Cape and Eastern Free State.
FIG. 2: Harvested fibre flax
9. – 5 –
5 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT
5.1 General
Flax is an erect annual plant that grows up to 120 cm tall, with slender
stems. The leaves are alternate, greyish green, slender lanceolate,
2 to 4 cm long and 3 mm broad. The flowers are bright blue or white,
1,5 to 2,0 cm in diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a round, dry
capsule, 5 to 9 cm in diameter, containing several glossy brown or
yellow seeds shaped like an apple pip. The seeds are 4 to 7 mm long
and become sticky when wet. The colour of the seeds depends on
the variety. Flax is one of the few plant species capable of producing
FIG. 3: Morphology of the flax plant
10. – 6 –
truly blue flowers, although not all flax varieties produce blue flowers.
The flax plant has one short, branched taproot, which may extend to a
depth of 1 m, with lateral roots stretching 30 cm.
The life cycle of the flax plant consists of a 60 to 80 day vegetative
period, 25 to 40 day flowering period and a maturation period of 40 to
60 days. Water stress, high temperatures and disease can shorten
any of these growth periods.
5.2 Linseed
The linseed plant has a bushy nature and is about 80 cm high. Because
a single inflorescence is produced on each branch, it has several
branches in order to produce more seed.
FIG. 4: Branched linseed plant
FIG. 5: Unbranched fibre flax plant
11. – 7 –
FIG. 6: Fibres under a microscope
25 µm
What makes the oil of linseed so exceptional is the Omega-3 fatty
acid content. Linseed oil is possibly the most widely available botani-
cal source of Omega-3. ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) is the important
Omega-3 fatty acid in linseed, which is of considerable benefit to hu-
mans and animals. Linseed varieties vary in their ALA content, from
varieties with an ALA content of 2 %, which makes them unsuitable
for the Omega-3 market, to ALA-rich varieties (60 % ALA) which are
extremely suitable for the Omega-3 human food and animal feed mar-
kets. Varieties with an ALA content of 2 % compete with sunflowers for
processing into margarine and cooking oil.
5.3 Fibre flax
Fibre flax varieties are all almost unbranched and can reach a height
of 1,2 m. Flax fibre consists of bundles of fibres or fibre strands. Each
bundle consists of 10 to 40 individual fibres that are about 30 mm long
and 0,02 mm in diameter. These flax fibres are bound together end to
end by pectin to form bundles and a strand is 60 to 90 cm long. Flax
fibre consists of 43 to 47 % cellulose and 21 to 23 % lignin and is soft
and supple but not as flexible as cotton or wool. Flax fibre is stronger
than cotton fibre, rayon and wool, but weaker than ramie.
12. – 8 –
6 CULTIVARS
The ARC-IIC has evaluated some linseed and fibre flax varieties im-
ported from the United Kingdom and The Netherlands, because no
flax or linseed varieties are available locally. These imported varieties
were evaluated at different localities in the Eastern and Western Cape
Provinces.
6.1 Information on linseed varieties tested under
South African conditions
ABACUS
A leading variety with a unique combination of high seed yield and
early maturity. It produces vigorous lateral branches which link to
form a dense and even capsule canopy
Origin UK
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Medium-high
Medium
Very high
Medium-good
Early
White
Brown
Medium-small
Notes
BILTON
Origin The Netherlands
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Earliness and
maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
1,3 % higher than that of Oscar (very high)
Medium
High
Good
Medium to late-maturing variety
Blue
Brown
Medium-small
Notes Straw length and strength – longer straw variety with stiffest straw
strength
13. – 9 –
GEMINI
Origin UK
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Medium-high
Medium
Probably high
Good
Medium-late
Blue
Brown
Medium-small
Notes Very low ALA – should be < 2 %
Competes with sunflowers for manufacturing margarine
INGOT
A yellow-seeded specialist-food market variety with vigorous canopy
development
Origin UK
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Medium
Medium-medium tall
High
Good
Medium-medium late
Blue
Ochre yellow
Medium-medium small
Notes
LASER
A dependable white-flower variety which has a premium combina-
tion of good oil content and a relatively high ALA content
Origin UK
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Medium-high
Medium
Usually high
Good
Medium-medium early
White (star shaped)
Brown
Small
Notes Oil has fairly high ALA – usually 63-65 %
Good all-round agronomic characteristics. Reselected seed
became available in 2007
14. – 10 –
LINUS
A reliable variety with an excellent combination of good agronomic
characters and high gross output
Origin UK
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Medium
Medium
Medium
Good
Medium-medium early
Blue
Brown
Small
Notes Good all-round agronomic characteristics
MARMALADE A yellow-seeded, high-palatability specialist-food market variety
Origin
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
Canada (Breeder)
Medium-high
Medium
Usually high
Medium-medium good
Medium early
Blue
Yellow
Small
Notes
Niche market demand for human consumption (especially organic
crops) because of good appearance and palatability of seed
SUNRISE A reliable variety with an excellent combination of good agronomic
characteristics, high seed yield and early maturity
Origin
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Medium-high
Medium
Usually high
Medium good-good
Early
Blue
Brown
Small
Notes
Increasingly popular in Europe, especially in the UK, because of a
combination of performance and early maturity
15. – 11 –
TALON
This variety’s low branches form a deep, high-yielding capsule
canopy. It has good frost resistance for early drilling and performs
well under a wide range of conditions
Origin
Oil content
Height
Seed yield
Standing ability
Maturity
Flower colour
Seed colour
Seed size
UK
Medium
Medium
Usually high
Medium good-good
Medium-late
Blue
Brown
Medium-medium small
Notes
Has a stiff stem base and low branches which form a deep, flexible
capsule canopy. Consistently yields well under a wide range of
conditions
Improved reselected seed will be available for 2006
16. – 12 –
6.2 Information on fibre flax varieties tested under
South African conditions
ARIANE
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
High
Medium-high
High
Medium-medium high
Medium
Medium-high
Notes
EVELIN
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
Medium-high
High
High
Medium-high
Medium
High
Notes
ELECTRA
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
High
High
High
Medium-high
Medium-late
High
Notes
HERMES
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
Medium-high
High
High
Medium-high
Medium
Medium-late
Notes
17. – 13 –
MARYLIN
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
Medium-high
High
High
Medium-high
Medium
Medium
Notes Can be planted for fibre and seed
VIOLA
Origin The Netherlands
Height
Fibre yield
Fibre quality
Standing ability
Earliness and maturity
Seed yield
Medium-high
High
High
Medium-high
Medium
Medium
Notes
18. – 14 –
7 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
7.1 Temperature
Fibre flax and linseed cultivars like cool, moderate coastal climates.
Linseed cultivars do well under moderately cold conditions, however,
fibre flax cultivars grow best in cool, moist climates. Their cultivation
is normally confined to low elevations, however, they can be grown
successfully up to 770 m above sea level. Seedlings can withstand a
temperature of -4 °C, but very high temperatures (exceeding 32 °C)
shorten flowering, thereby affecting seed yield.
7.2 Rainfall
Flax and linseed can be grown under irrigated and rainfed conditions.
Under rainfed conditions, flax and linseed need 450 to 750 mm of rain
spread evenly through the growing season.
19. – 15 –
8 SOIL REQUIREMENTS
Flax/linseed can be cultivated successfully in the same types of soil
that are suitable for wheat. The best soils, apart from the alluvial kind,
are deep friable loams that contain a large part of organic matter and
have a pH ranging between 5 and 7. Heavy clays are unsuitable, as
are soils of a gravelly or dry, sandy nature.
20. – 16 –
1 PROPAGATION
Flax and linseed are mainly grown from seed and rarely vegetatively
from stem cuttings.
2 SOIL PREPARATION
2.1 Conventional tillage
Because of its small seed size, linseed requires a fine, firm seedbed.
Plant in moist soil and avoid sowing deeper than 5 cm. Avoid crusting
soils because of low seedling vigour.
2.2 Minimum and zero tillage
Minimum and zero-tillage practices are attractive, because these pro-
vide protection from erosion, increase the soil organic matter and im-
prove moisture retention. In addition, crusting problems and sun scald
are reduced, consequently improving the stand of flax.
21. – 17 –
3 PLANTING
Flax is normally planted in the winter rainfall areas from mid-May to
mid-June after the first winter rains. Planting time is very important and
late planting (later than mid-June) can reduce the yield considerably.
Flax should be sown shallowly, 2,5 to 4,0 cm deep, in rows 15 to 20 cm
apart. In the case of zero-tillage practices a row spacing of up to 30 cm
is acceptable.
Fibre flax varieties are sown at 65 kg/ha, while linseed is sown at
50 kg/ha. This lower plant population allows the plant room to form an
abundance of branches.
After reaching the two-leaf stage and hardening by exposure has tak-
en place, seedlings can withstand temperatures as low as -4 °C for
short periods without damage.
22. – 18 –
4 FERTILISATION
Soil tests and experience should
guide fertilisation practices. Nutri-
ent levels in the soil vary greatly
among regions and with soil
types, cropping history and fer-
tiliser use.
Flax is very sensitive to fertiliser
applied with the seed and even
low rates sometimes cause seed-
ling damage.
4.1 Nitrogen
Flax often responds well to the application of nitrogen (N) fertiliser
when the available soil N is low. For flax, an N rate of 35 to 80 kg/ha
should be used, unless more specific information, such as a valid soil
test, indicates otherwise. Select a rate from within this range, based
on moisture conditions. Use the lower end of the recommended range
when soil moisture is low and the yield is expected to be limited. Use
the higher recommended range when the soil moisture has to be
maintained at optimal levels. An important rule is not to place the N
directly with the seed.
4.2 Phosphorus
Apparently the flax plant prefers high soil P levels obtained from the
fertilisation of preceding crops to high P levels obtained from the applica-
tion of a high rate of P to the flax crop itself. Rates of about 35 kg/ha are
recommended on soils with a low P content. The P must not be placed in
direct contact with the seed.
4.3 Other nutrients
Fe – iron-deficient flax is chlorotic early in the season and usually ap-
pears as irregular patterns on the field. Such symptoms may disap-
pear later in the season.
Zn – zinc-deficient plants are chlorotic and the growing tips tend to die,
whereafter axillary buds develop to form many branches.
23. – 19 –
5 IRRIGATION
Flax is an excellent choice for irrigated crop rotation because it is not
prone to Sclerotina stem rot that affects canola, sunflower, peas and
beans. The major effect of irrigation on flax is to promote a second
or third flush of flowers and to maintain adequate moisture for plant
growth until all the flowers have developed seeds.
In nonrestricting soils (medium-textured soils that are amenable to
plenty of moisture) flax develops a short, branched taproot, encom-
passing a rooting zone of 1 m. Root development is nearly completed
by the flowering stage. In irrigated lands, flax takes approximately
70 % of its water requirements from the top half of the root zone.
Over the growing season, crop water use can be as high as 750 mm.
During the seedling stage, water use will range from 1 to 3 mm per
day, rising to a high of 7 mm per day during the flowering stage. The
critical water requirement period is from flowering to just prior to seed
ripening. Therefore, to maximise yield and oil content, adequate soil
moisture must be maintained during this period.
FIG. 7: The result of insufficient irrigation on flax
24. – 20 –
6 WEED CONTROL
Weeds can be a serious problem in flax if left uncontrolled. Early re-
moval of weeds is necessary to minimise crop losses as a result of
weed competition. Weeds are controlled more easily by herbicides in
the seedling stage than at any other growth stage and early treatment
usually decreases the risk of damage to the flax crop.
No herbicide is registered for weed control in flax in South Africa.
FIG. 8: Weeds in flax field
25. – 21 –
7 PEST CONTROL
Flax may be infested by various insect pests from the time of emerg
ence to maturity. To keep damage low, fields should be examined
regularly and control applied when infestations reach the economic
threshold.
Earth and sand mites can cause damage to newly planted seed and to
seedlings. Sowing pretreated seed can prevent this.
Insect pests that may occur on locally cultivated flax are bollworms,
ants and stainers. Bollworms can cause serious yield losses when
feeding on the young fruit of the linseed plants.
FIG. 9: American bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera)
FIG. 10: American bollworm (Helicoverpa
armigera)
26. – 22 –
8 DISEASE CONTROL
Seed must be treated with a recommended fungicide. Seed treatment
reduces seed decay and seedling blight, increases plant vigour and
can increase the plant stand by up to 100 %.
Rust and Fusarium wilt are the two most frequent diseases associated
with flax. Rust is recognised by the presence of a bright orange, pow-
dery substance (pustules). Rust pustules develop on the underside of
leaves and on stems and bolls.
9 HARVESTING
9.1 Linseed
Linseed is considered to be fully matured when 75 % of the bolls have
turned brown.
FIG. 11: Linseed ready to be harvested
27. – 23 –
Flax may be harvested by straight combining or by cutting with a
swather and threshing later with a combine or by hand. The latter is
recommended as it assures drier seed for threshing.
Trials in the various potential linseed production areas in the Western
Cape and Eastern Cape have shown that some varieties give yields of
more than 2 tons of linseed per hectare.
9.2 Fibre flax
Three stages are recognised in the ripening process of fibre flax:
• Stems totally green – when pulled at this stage the fibres are very
fine but also very weak.
• Stems yellow – the fibres are long and supple at this stage and
most suitable for processing.
• Stems brown – at this stage stems are strong but brittle; the fibres
are too short and unsuitable for processing.
Fibre flax is harvested by a special pulling machine or may be pulled
by hand. The flax is left in the field until dry, when the seed is threshed
in such a way as to prevent breaking of the straw.
Under South African conditions fibre yield is more or less 25 %, which
is equal to about 2 tons of fibre per hectare.
FIG. 12: Fibre flax ready to
be harvested
FIG. 13: Harvested fibre flax
28. – 24 –
1 POST-HARVESTING PRACTICES
1.1 Retting
Before the flax fibres can be spun into linen, they must be separated
from the rest of the stalk. The first step in this process is called “ret-
ting”. Retting is the process of rotting away the inner stalk, leaving the
outer fibre intact. In this process, the pectin that holds the fibre bundles
together and attached to the central core of the stem, is dissolved.
There are several methods of retting flax. It can be retted in a pond,
stream, field or container. When the retting is complete, the bundles of
flax feel soft and slimy and quite a few fibres stand out from the stalks.
Pond retting is the fastest. It involves placing the flax in a pool of water
that will not evaporate. It usually takes place in a shallow pool that
will warm up dramatically in the sun. The process may take from only
a couple of days to a couple of weeks. Pond retting is traditionally
considered inferior to other methods of retting, possibly because the
product can become dirty and easily over-rets, which damages the
fibre. This form of retting also produces a strong odour.
Stream retting is similar to pool retting, however, the flax is submerged
in bundles in a stream or river. This generally takes longer than pond
retting, normally 2 or 3 weeks, but the end product is less likely to be
dirty, will not shrink as much and, because the water is cooler, is less
likely to be over-retted.
Field retting is done by laying the flax out on a large field and allowing
the dew to collect on it. This process normally takes a month or more,
however, it is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax
fibre. It also produces the least pollution.
Retting can also be done in a plastic rubbish bin or any type of water-
tight container of wood, concrete, earthenware or plastic. Metal con-
tainers will not be effective, because an acid is produced during the
29. – 25 –
retting process that will corrode the metal. If the water is kept at 27 °C,
the retting process takes 4 to 5 days under these conditions. Scum will
collect at the top and an odour will be given off.
Nowadays the most accepted eco-friendly manner of retting is soaking
the harvested flax in tubs of warm water for about a week.
1.2 Scutching
After retting, the straw is scraped away from the fibre by pulling the
stems through hackles that comb the straw out of the fibre—a process
called scutching.
FIG. 14: Retted fibre flax
before schutching
(Photo: Van de Bilt Zaden)
FIG. 15: Flax fibre
(Photo: Van de Bilt Zaden)
31. – 27 –
1 Linseed
The natural qualities of flax make it a desirable oil and fibre commod-
ity for manufacturers seeking alternative solutions to chemical and
plastic-based products. From the oil, manufacturers create environ-
ment-friendly products such as linoleum flooring and some paints and
stains. Flax straw in partially or completely processed form is used in
the manufacturing of fine papers and industrial fibre products such as
the interior panelling of some cars.
Seen as a health-promoting ingredient, premium quality flax is rapidly
being taken up by the expanding functional food market. Functional
foods are those food products that have been fortified with a health
ingredient. Flax with its high alpha-linolenic fatty acid content, ample
fibre and cancer-combating lignins is a unique functional food.
2 Fibre flax
2.1 Pulp sweeteners
When paper is recycled, it must be repulped before it can be made into
paper. Each time the paper is recycled, it loses some of its strength.
Paper strength is important in many applications and often 20 % or
more of strong virgin wood fibre must be added to recycled paper pulp
to give the necessary strength. The extrastrong fibre that is added to
the pulp mix is referred to as a “pulp sweetener”. Because flax fibres
are considerably stronger and longer than virgin wood fibres, a smaller
quantity of flax fibre can be used to replace the virgin wood fibre used
to strengthen recycled paper pulp.
2.2 Geotextiles
Insulation: Flax fibres remain quite stiff and coarse when processed to
a limited extent. When processed more aggressively the fibres become
32. – 28 –
quite soft and fine. A combination of coarse and fine flax fibres can be
blended and processed to produce insulation batts with similar insula-
tion properties to the fibreglass batts frequently used to insulate walls
and ceilings.
2.3 Plastic composites
Many everyday plastic products contain fibreglass to give strength, re-
duce weight and/or reduce costs. When plastic resin is combined with
another material, the resultant product is called a plastic composite.
Tractor fenders, car dashboards, decking, fencing materials, sewer
pipes and septic tanks are only a few of the products that are being
made from plastic composites. Researchers have found that flax fibres
can be used instead of fibreglass in many plastic composite applica-
tions. Flax fibres are generally cheaper and lighter in weight, and im-
part more springiness than fibreglass. In addition, the use of flax fibres
is less energy consuming in the manufacturing process. Flax fibres
also decompose or burn more easily than fibreglass.
REFERENCE
Flax Council of Canada. Growing flax. Online—http://www.flaxcouncil.ca