1. The document discusses challenges in adopting technology in less developed countries like Cambodia based on a case study of teacher training programs. 2. It finds that while teachers saw advantages to using new ICT skills, barriers like lack of infrastructure, practice opportunities, and language issues hindered adoption. 3. By analyzing responses through the framework of Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory, it identified complexity of technology, lack of compatibility with existing skills and resources, and absence of clear relative advantages as the major barriers faced.

1. Resume
Challenges of
Adopting the Use
of Technology in
Less Developed
Countries

2. By :
1. Najmi 2201420173
2. Debora 2201420175
3. Kharisma 2210121231
4. M.Akbar Alchotibi 2201420147

3. From 1975–79, under the Khmer Rouge, the educational system in Cambodia was
decimated. With the dearth of educational professionals, many efforts have been made to
bridge the skill and knowledge gaps. These efforts have included an array of crash programs
and in-service programs. The current minimum educational requirement to be a teacher in
Cambodia is a twelfth-grade education. Retraining programs for both teachers and teacher
trainers have been commonplace since the 1990s. The dominant focus has shifted away
from basic teaching ped- agogy toward increasing teachers' knowledge of ICTs.
Cambodia ranked 117 on the Networked Readiness Index (2010, xvii). Internet use in
Cambodia grew 1,200 percent from 2000 to 2008. As of 2008, 29.1 out of 100 Cambodians
had mobile phones, whereas only.5 of 100 had access to the Internet. Cambodia is an
important case study because it is literally starting over and can learn from the lessons of
the past. It can potentially leapfrog countries with regard to development because they can
integrate and make use of the most progressive, cost-ef-efective technologies.
Background Intoduction

4. Theoretical framework
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived
as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Rogers's
model seeks to explain the processes by which innovations
are adopted by members of a society. Table 1 shows the five
characteristics that impact a person's choice to adopt an
innovation. Teachers train- ers' attempts to adopt ICT skills
were analyzed through Rogers's five innovation
characteristics. Rogers (2003) claimed that an innovation is
perceived to be advan- tageous if it is compatible with existing
norms, beliefs, and past experiences.

5. Review of the literature
`
The literature on ICT adoption rarely gives voice to the end user. Readers are
provided with lists of lessons learned disconnected from existing innovation
adoption theories. What follows is an analysis of the literature organized
thematically around Rogers's (2003) model of the diffusion of innovations. Tiene
(2004) found that efforts to increase the adoption of ICTs in less developed
countries often fail to improve educational efforts. Tiene found that common
challenges and barriers to technology adop- diations in developing countries include
a lack of ongoing support and a failure to include teachers in ICT planning.

6. Asia-Pacific nations are experiencing challenges bridging technological change and cultural
norms. Failure to adjust to the paradigm shift has caused strong resistance from school
practitioners. Since rapid ICT ad- vancements are the norm, curriculum developers in most Asia-
Pacific coun- tries have difficulty keeping up. Pelgrum (2001) analyzed a worldwide survey of
educational practitioners. Of the top-10 obstacles to successfully implementing ICT in Education
initiatives, two dealt with complexity. Tiene (2004) noted that a main challenge of ICT adoption in
less developed countries is the inability for the end user to troubleshoot hardware and software.
Staff development gives potential users a chance to try the ICT innovation in a guided
environment. Kozma et al. stated that World Bank program provided schools and ministries of
education with "sus- tainable solutions" for mobilizing technologies, skills, and ed- ucational
resources. Pelgrum (2001) lists the top-10 obstacles to implementing ICT in- novations in less
developed countries. End users could not practice using the ICT innovation and achieve observable
results. Rodrigo (2005) conducted a cross-sectional survey of all schools in metro Manila.
Review of the literature

7. In less developed countries, end users often lack access to ICTs and the ability to observe
others using them. Pelgrum's list of top-10 obstacles to implementing ICT innovations
indicates that not seeing others use the ICT innovation may be an obstacle to continued use.
Some development projects are shifting toward a focus on implementing more sustainable,
technologically appropriate solutions. Rather than physically wire schools in rural areas to the
Internet, some countries such as Taiwan are experimenting with WiMAX. The literature fails to
detail how these more appropriate technologies are or are not being adopted by the end user.
Review of the literature

8. Review of the literature
The use of ICT in Education requires a conceptual and pedagogical shift for the end user. Projects in
less developed countries tend to ignore the need to align educational output with ICT inputs. Sustaining
ICTs in education is a complex and difficult task. The five innovation characteristics (e.g., relative
advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialability) offer a systematic approach to analyze
and understand a particular ICT innovation in a specific national context. The choice of theoretical
framework was informed by the major themes reported in the ICT in Education literature. In this article, I
provide an in-depth case study of ICT in an education project in Cambodia analyzed around an innovation
adoption framework. The framework details successes and barriers to adopting use of the ICT innovation
as well as provides unique insights into the in- novation process.
Project Background
Through the Establishing the Effective Use of ICTs in Education for All in Cambodia project, all
teacher trainers in Cambodia were taught basic ICT skills, including how to use the Internet; how to use
hardware such as computers, printers, scanners, digital cameras, and digital recorders; as well as how to
install and use software such as Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Internetbased e-mail. The ICT training was
conducted using a cascading model where 28 master trainers were initially given 96 hours of training.
After successfully undergoing training, the master trainers went into the field to train all teacher trainers
using the same 96-hour training model. The training provided by the master trainers was primarily focused
on the functionality of software and hardware. The training included lessons on how ICTs could be used in
the field of education.

9. Method
Data were collected from three sources. First, open-ended survey questions were
disseminated to every teacher trainer in the country (N = 526). Second, by selecting
volunteers, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 17 teacher trainers across the
country. Received were 379 surveys, achieving a response rate of 72 percent.1 No
incentives were provided to return surveys. they were not successful using the ICT skills.
The survey also included demographic, behavioral, and attitudinal questions. The face-
to-face interviews were conducted after initial analysis of the paper surveys was
completed. The interviews were used to gain clarity as well as to follow up on findings of
the survey data. The interview protocol was conceptually based on Rogers’s (2003)
model of the diffusion of innovations. Rogers’s (2003) model of the diffusion of
innovations posits that innovation adoption can involve different types of adopters. As
described above, the decision categories for the current study were the following: early
adopters, late adopters, teacher trainers who reinvented the innovation, teacher
trainers who experienced discontinuance, and teacher trainers who rejected the
innovation

10. • Data were analyzed using NVIVO, a qualitative coding software package (version
2, QSR International). A content analysis was conducted using the constant
comparative method as described by Merriam (1998). This method allowed the
researcher to look for evidence that either disconfirmed or confirmed emerging
evidence of the innovation characteristics. All translations were confirmed by a
hired translator. The original translator translated the qualitative Khmer
responses into English.
• As detailed in table 3, the analysis revealed that teacher trainers across all
decision categories discussed similar points, albeit to different degrees.
Complexity was consistently discussed often by teacher trainers in each decision
category.
• Respondents were asked to describe a critical incident when using the ICT skills
was successful.
• Relative advantage and compatibility were innovation characteristics often
discussed as having synergistic qualities. Adopters noted how using the ICT skills
fit well into their work styles and how use of the ICT skills to accomplish tasks was
an improvement over previous methods.
Result

11. • The connection between relative advantage and compatibility was noted by an
early adopter who said “after learning the ICT skills, I can work easily and become a
person who can earn money from using this skill” (Master, 3).
• Some teacher trainers found professional advantages to using the ICT skills. One
late adopter noted he was able to “send information via e-mail to peers and
receive feedback via e-mail from an expert in Japan” (Phnom Penh RTTC, 4).
• Ironically, teacher trainers who rejected the adoption of the ICT skills mentioned
the same types of successes concerning the innovation characteristics of relative
advantage and compatibility. One rejecter noted “I can work faster, make
presentations at ease, and collect more documents” (Sihanoukville PTTC, 1)
• Increasing one’s professional stature with students was noted by a late adopter
who said that “activities are presented nicely to students and they are impressed
with the presentation” (Kampong Speu PTTC, 11).
• Advantages reported included being able to produce time-saving reports, work
faster, develop learning materials, conduct research, communicate with others via
e-mail, increase the quality of their work, earn more money, and earn advanced
educational degrees.
Result

12. • The innovation characteristic of complexity was discussed by a late adopter who
noted that using ICT skills “create favorable conditions to my work. I work faster
and can save my documents properly and can easily find my files when I need
them” (Battambang PTTC, 10).
• A teacher trainer who discontinued use of the ICT skills noted that although he no
longer used the ICT skills, he was nonetheless “able to use the application
software” (Kampong Chhnang PTTC, 6).
• A few teacher trainers mentioned it was easy to actually use the ICT skills and to
successfully navigate applicable software programs. Some teacher trainers
mentioned how they were able to use Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Photoshop, the
Internet, and e-mail.
Result

13. • When asked to describe successes of using the ICT skills, teacher trainers often
mentioned observing outputs. A late adopter noted he experienced “ease in
preparing lesson plans, producing teaching resources, producing question and
answer kits, and creating grade books” (Kampong Speu PTTC, 11). Along with
observing results, increasingpedagogical choice and skills were also noted by a
teacher trainer who reinvented how the ICT skills were used: “I am able to prepare
materials on agricultural extension for teaching and learning; prepare a manual for
monthly schemes of work related to the subject area of agriculture; prepare lesson
plans for compilation of a book on agricultural extension; and prepare lesson plans
and a booklet on plant growing and fish rearing with the support of many pictures
of people in action” (Svay Rieng PTTC, 17).
• Seeing results from using the ICT skills was often discussed in tandem with the skills
being easy to use, being compatible with work styles, and being advantageous over
previous methods. One late adopter said it is “easy preparing lesson plans,
producing teaching resources, producing quizzes, and managing data” (Kampong
Speu PTTC, 11).
Result

14. • Teacher trainers across adoption categories mentioned observing results from
using the ICT skills. These results included producing lesson plans, tables, student
reports, and teaching materials.
• Being able to practice using the ICT skills was mentioned most often by those
trainers who discontinued use of the ICT skills and those who rejected adopting the
ICT skills. Teacher trainers who rejected or discontinued use of the ICT skills
reported that there was a lack of opportunity to practice.
• It was mentioned that practice using the ICT skills required extra effort. A teacher
trainer who reinvented how she used the ICT skills noted that “after the course, I
have improved my knowledge and skills. I keep improvingmy skills through tireless
efforts in what I do not understand” (Kratie PTTC, 5).
• Limited time and scarce resources to practice and experiment with the ICT skills
was discussed by teacher trainers in all decision categories.
• Respondents were asked to describe a critical incident when using the ICT skills
that was not successful.
Result

15. • Data were collected from three sources. First, open-ended survey questions were
disseminated to every teacher trainer in the country (N p 526). Second, by selecting
volunteers, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 17 teacher trainers across
the country. Finally, Cambodian MoEYS as well as UNESCO project documents were
collected and analyzed.
• Received were 379 surveys, achieving a response rate of 72 percent.1 No incentives
were provided to return surveys. The surveys were disseminated at the close of the
project. The open-ended survey asked teacher trainers to describe two critical
incidences:
an incident when they used the ICT skills successfully and an incident when they were
not successful using the ICT skills. The survey also included demographic, behavioral,
and attitudinal questions.
Result

16. The face-to-face interviews were conducted after initial analysis of the paper surveys
was completed. Thelfindings of the survey data. The interview protocol was
conceptually based on Rogers’s (2003) model of the diffusion of innovations. Guided
questions thus revolved around creating an understanding of the five innovation
characteristics.
Rogers’s (2003) model of the diffusion of innovations posits that innovation
adoption can involve different types of adopters. As described above, the decision
categories for the current study were the following: early adopters, late adopters,
teacher trainers who reinvented the innovation, teacher trainers who experienced
discontinuance, and teacher trainers who rejected the innovation. Determining the
decision category was based on a set of five behavioral questions included in the
survey.2 Table 2 details the categorization of all teacher trainers in the study.
Result

17. Barriers to Adoption
Respondents were asked to describe a critical incident when using the ICT
skills that was not successful. Below, I analyze end users’ responses about
barriers to adoption through Rogers’s (2003) five innovation characteristics
by adoption category.

18. Barriers Associated with
Relative Advantage
Three early adopting teacher trainers mentioned that using the ICT skills presented few
advantages, relative to previous methods. Concerns raised included losing data, confusion
over technical issues, and the necessity to devote extra time and effort when using the ICT
skills. Comments from late adopters, reinventors, and rejecters revolved around issues of
repair, lack of time, and no incentive to use the skills to perform their job. A teacher trainer
who rejected adoption of the ICT skills said, “I am not able to identify content relevant and
suitable to my teaching” (Kampong Cham RTTC, 4).
The lack of English and technical language skills often made use of the ICT skills less
advantageous. On some occasions I click by mistake on the key ‘yes’ or ‘no’ thus causing the
complete loss of my working file especially when I work on Excel” (Prey Veng RTTC, 6).
Through interviews, it became evident that language also hindered teacher trainers from
using software help menus that were not in Khmer. This issue was also extended to online
resources that were not published in Khmer. Language limitations negatively impacted the
end users’ ability to find advantages to using the ICT skills.

19. Barriers Associated with
Relative Advantage
The ICT training involved components on the use of the Internet and e-mail. A late adopter
however stated “I don’t use the internet and I did not create an e-mail address. I am in a
difficult position to use the internet. I need to spend my own money if I use the internet
because Battambang TTC does not have connectivity” (Battambang PTTC, 5). Although this
teacher trainer admitted finding advantages to using this type of technology, the lack of
Internet access meant that using the skills became a financial burden. This reality made
adoption not advantageous to some teacher trainers.

20. Barriers to Compatibility
The omnipresent need to repair computers was compounded given the reality
that the computers were secondhand, donated units. A late adopter noted “most
of the computers donated to the TTC are old and are frequently broken. I have no
skills to repair them and no capacity [to] troubleshoot” (Steung Treng PTTC, 7).
Thus, repairing broken computers was not compatible with some teacher trainers’
existing skill set.
The language of technology, referring to both English and technical language,
was often not compatible with end users’ past experiences, ability levels, or
existing resources. A late adopter noted “the critical problem is the language. I
don’t know the technology because technical terms do not exist in a number of
dictionaries” (Kratie PTTC, 3). Another late adopter said it was difficult to
“understand and follow instructions from dialogue boxes” (Prey Veng PTTC, 5).

21. Barriers Associated with Complexity
At least one-fourth of the teacher trainers in each decision category reported difficulty in using
the ICT skills. A comment by an early adopter hints at his frustration as well as his technological
confusion: “I have written my lesson plan and saved it to my computer which is Windows 98. My lesson
is in drive D. My computer does not have drive B. So I change Windows 98 to Windows XP and format
drive C. When I set up Windows XP my documents I have made in drive B are deleted. I lost all my
lesson plans that I tried my best to write using the computer for two months” (Master, 13). As was
common with many teacher trainers across adoption categories, an early adopter noted it was difficult
to use the software. “For me, I cannot use Excel very fast. When I have a problem, I cannot find a
solution” (Master, 25).
The lack of ability, time, and resources to troubleshoot and repair computers was discussed by
teacher trainers across all decision categories as adding complexity to the task. An early adopter noted
how the “computer does not always work properly and there is a lack of money to get them repaired
and there is no expert to repair them” (Master, 2). A late adopter noted the same frustration saying
that he could not “repair the computers when they were not working properly. . . . I would have to
resort to technicians, thus requiring me to spend a lot of money” (Battambang RTTC, 7). Although
nonfunctioning hardware was often cited as a creating a challenge, troubleshooting software was also
reported to be difficult.

22. Barriers Associated with Complexity
Some teacher trainers mentioned that using the ICT skills was not easy due to
language issues. For instance, one late adopter admitted it was “hard to understand
technical terms. . . . I am not proficient in using foreign languages” (Kampong Speu
PTTC, 10). A late adopter noted this challenge when he said “because of the fact that a
good number of teacher trainees are weak in English, they cannot do well with using
the technologies” (Kandal RTTC, 16).
Complexity was mentioned by teacher trainers who could not troubleshoot
hardware and software problems. Technical complexities centered on the inability to
use Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Photoshop, the Internet, and e-mail. Difficulties
commonly stemmed from language constraints. Teacher trainers additionally
mentioned difficulty in typing in English and Khmer.

23. Barriers Associated with Observability
The lack of reliable electricity was reported to impact the ability of teacher
trainers to practice using the skills, observe tangible results, and observe others
using the skills. Some teacher trainers reported that unstable power supplies led
to the loss of documents during power outages, causing added frustrations.
Other teacher trainers discussed a lack of access to ICTs outside of the
college. The challenge of a lack of computers also involved a lack of peripherals
such as projectors and printers. Without a sufficient number of computers and
other hardware, end users were rarely able to produce observable results or
observe others using the skills gained through the training.

24. Barriers Associated with Trialability
A master teacher trainer noted that trialability was linked with the lack of
computers, lack of electricity, language barriers, complexity of use, and the inability to
find advantages of using the ICTs. “The training center does not have enough materials
or electricity” (Master, 4). The lack of practice often led to discontinued use. A user who
quit using the skills said “I forgot a number of the skills as I do not practice them”
(Battambang PTTC, 3).
Teacher trainers reported computers were not returned when given to the MoEYS
for repair. Thus, outsourcing was the only, albeit expensive, option.
An early adopter noted frustration that some teacher trainers “cannot use the ICT
knowledge in the rural areas because we do not have computers or electricity” (Master,
1). A teacher trainer who rejected using the ICT skills reported that although the TTC had
computers, teacher trainers’ access to these computers was severely limited. “I lack a
chance to work on computers due to the fact the school does not have an internet
connection. There is no clear system for teacher trainers to reserve computers. I want to
use my ICT skills in my subject area, but I don’t have access” (Battambang RTTC, 19).

25. Barriers Associated with Trialability
A common theme with regard to trialability was noted to be a lack of computers. A rejecter said
“after taking part in the said course I was able to understand parts of the ICT skills. Nevertheless, I
forgot almost all that I learned because of the inadequate number of computers” (Kandal PTTC, 2). A
teacher trainer who discontinued use of the ICT skills likewise said the “duration of the course was
too short. The scheme of work for the course was too heavy. I did not have opportunities to practice
the skills I learned when I came back to my TTC. I forgot them because I did not use the ICT skills”
(Prey Veng PTTC, 6). Other teacher trainers mentioned the ICT training course was too short and
indicated that there was not enough time for initial guided practice with experts.
A teacher trainer who rejected use of the ICT skills said it is “very difficult using the ICT skills
because the school does not have a computer lab for students. I fear our trainers will quit using the
ICT skills. They are now calculating students’ scores by hand” (Kampong Cham RTTC, 6). This same
concern was noted by an early adopter who said “we don’t have enough materials for ICT because
there are a lot of students and we do not have enough computers. Students who participate in
training need English. So it is not easy to study ICT” (Master, 8). The theme of a lack of resources
was also extended to basic infrastructure by a late adopter, who said there are “few occasions that
allow me to practice my skills as there is not enough electricity inside my TTC” (Steung Treng PTTC,
8).

26. Barriers Associated with Trialability
This analysis has demonstrated that the diffusion of innovations theory is an effective
framework to conceptualize successes and barriers associated with teacher trainers’ choice to
adopt the use of ICT skills in the context of Cambodia. The main findings of the current study are
summarized below.
1. Richardson’s (2009b) quantitative survey found that complexity was a dominant factor in
teacher trainers' choice to adopt this particular ICT innovation in Cambodia. Discontinue
adopters and rejecters most often noted that trialability was a major barrier to adopting the
use of ICT skills. Rejects discussed how not being able to speak English impeded them from
adopting the skills, whereas discontinuers did not mention this barrier. Most computers were
donated, used units. Many of these computers were outdated and lacked processing power.
This increased the complexity and reduced the end users' ability to practice using the skills.
2. Teacher training was difficult due to language barriers and a lack of software support in the
Khmer language. This barrier also made the application of ICT skills less beneficial and suitable
with the needs of end users. To avoid undue complexity, ICT projects should first ensure that
native language support exists.

27. Barriers Associated with Trialability
3. The lack of reliable electricity made using the ICT skills difficult for some teacher trainers.
This barrier made it difficult for teacher trainers to find advantages to using, practicing, and
observing results from the use of the skills.
4. Lack of computers hindered teacher trainers' ability to use or maintain their technical skills.
Creating policies at the local level to ensure that computers are shared equitably is essential.
Project designers and managers can minimize this challenge by getting grassroots buy-in so
that school-level leaders demand free access to all technologies.
5. Lack of Internet access hindered making full use of newly acquired technical skills. Some
teacher trainers noted how using the Internet at their TTC was expensive. In small countries
such as Cambodia, a centralized group of network personnel would be sufficient. However, in
larger countries, regional teams would be needed.
6. Language contributed to the challenge because teacher trainers often could not make full use
of non-Khmer resources. Ongoing support is vital to reduce the complexity of learning ICT-
related tasks. Having a native language support guide available at the onset is essential.

28. Barriers Associated with Trialability
7. The initial learning curve was so steep that some teacher trainers found using ICT skills was
more time intensive and complex than simply completing the task by hand. This challenge can
be overcome by structuring the training in such a way that advantages are evident. It also
links with the previous challenge where both could be addressed through ongoing support.
8. The inability to practice using the ICT skills was often reported as a barrier to adoption.
Without adequate practice, complexity was raised and the chance of finding advantages was
lowered. Practice could be increased by increasing access to the technologies and by
providing ongoing support. These suggestions would also address some of the previous
challenges.

29. Conclusion
A Cambodian study has found that different adoption groups were uniquely influenced by the
five innovation characteristics. Further research is needed to understand the experiences of the
end-user before, during, and after training to gain a robust picture of how and when potential
adopters shift to become full adopters. Using Roger's (2003) diffusion of innovation model was
not without its limits. Richardson's quantitative study successfully demonstrated that Roger's
innovation characteristics impacted adoption decisions. By understanding that innovation
characteristics link to and influence one another, we are better able to plan, prepare, and
engage in sustainable ICT in Education projects. The current study provides a mechanism of
analysis that allows planners, managers, and policymakers to better implement ICT in Education
training. Gaining an understanding of the end users' experience can greatly impact the
sustainability and spread of ICT-related innovations. The current study serves as one such model
of analysis. For development educators, the findings of this study have two important
implications. First, the five innovation characteristics should be emphasized and actively
accentuated in development projects. Second, through understanding the experiences of the
end user, development educators can better understand the peculiarities of innovation
adoption.

30. Questions
1. Some questions that cross your mind when you read the title?
2. Whether your questions are answered by the text?
3. The most anticipated information available?
4. The summary of each text

31. Answer
1. Several questions that crossed our mind when reading the title include:
• Is Cambodia as a developing country able to adopt the challenges of using technology?
• How does the Cambodian state address the challenge of adopting the use of
technology?
• Is there a way to overcome Cambodia's technological adoption challenges?
2. Yes, our questions are answered by the text.
3. We think the most anticipated information available is about what are the challenges of
adopting the use of technology in Cambodia.
4. Summary This article analyzes the barriers, challenges, and successes in teacher trainers'
adoption of technology training in Cambodia, based on Everett Rogers' theory of
innovation diffusion. The analysis was based on data collected from an open-ended
survey, face-to-face interviews, and document analysis. The findings show that hardware
incompatibility, complexity, language difficulties, a lack of energy, computers, Internet
connection, and practice for trainees, as well as an inability to understand the benefits of
these technologies, were the biggest barriers to adoption. Suggestions for technology
trainers, policy makers, and project managers are offered in the conclusion.

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