The document discusses the evolution of bhakti and Sufi traditions in India from the 8th to 18th centuries, highlighting the integration of various religious beliefs and practices, particularly the dialogue between Brahmanical and local traditions. It details the emergence of early bhakti movements in Tamil Nadu, led by the Alvars and Nayanars, who opposed the caste system and included women in their devotional practices. Additionally, it addresses the influence of political powers on religious dynamics, particularly during the Chola dynasty, and introduces the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka, which challenged caste discrimination and emphasized a different understanding of death and marriage.

1. Bhakti - Sufi
Traditions
Changes in Religious Beliefs and
Devotional Texts(8th
to 18th
century)
Dr. Ajit Kumar Bharti
PGT History

2. Introduction to Bhakti & Sufi Traditions
What are the sources to understand Bhakti
and Sufi Traditions?
• Writers and sages throughout this era utilised a
variety of written sources, including compositions
attributed to poets and saints. Most of these were
in local dialects.
• Often, these compositions were set to music and
compiled by devotees or disciples after the
musician or composer had died.
• Hagiographies written by the faithful are also
referred to as source. Although these could not
be considered literal truths.

3. India is a Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
Integration ofVarious Cults
There were two processes at work to integrate
different cults:
• One was the process of disseminating (Spred)
Brahmanical ideas.This is exemplified by the
composition of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit
verse, meant to be accessible to women and
Shudras.
• There was a second process at work that of the
Brahmana accepting & reworking the beliefs and
practices of Shudras.

4. *In fact, many beliefs and practices were shaped through
a continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskritic Puranic
traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.
*One of the most striking examples of this is in Puri,
Orrisa, where Jagannatha, Lord of the World, a form of
Vishnu, was identified as the main deity.

5. *Goddess cults are also showing signs of integration.
Goddess worship was evidently widespread, often in the
form of a stone-coloured with red and yellow mud.
*Local deities were frequently incorporated into the
Puranic framework by giving them the identity of a wife
of the main male deities – Lakshmi, the wife ofVishnu, or
Parvati, the wife of Shiva, and Saraswati, the wife of
Brahma, in some cases.

6. Difference & Conflicts between cults and
traditions
• Tantric Practices
• Puranic Traditions
• Vedic Traditions

8. *
Q. Hagiography is a life story of
a …………….
(a) religious leader or a saint
(b) place
(c) king or queen
(d) common man

9. *
Q. Prabhu Shree Jagannath is
the incarnation of which God?
(a)Vishnu
(b) Shiva
(c) Indra
(d) Brahma

10. * * *
Q.What are the three major
cults and traditions of
Hinduism?

11. Early Tradition of Bhakti in Tamil Nadu
The Bhakti tradition is often classified
into two broad categories:
• Saguna
• Nirguna.

12. • The Saguna bhakti tradition focuses on the worship
of specific deities such as Shiva,Vishnu & his avatars
(In-carnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi. In
anthropomorphic forms.
• Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was the worship
of an abstract form of god.

13. The Alvars: Some of the earliest bhakti movements (c.
sixth century) were led by the Alvars (literally, those who
are “immersed” in devotion toVishnu) and Nayanars
(literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva).
They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil
in praise of their gods. During their travels the Alvars and
Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their
chosen deities.Very often large temples were later built
at these sacred places.These developed as centres of
pilgrimage.

14. AttitudeTowards Caste
• Alvars & Naynars initiated a movement against
the caste system & Dominance of Brahmanas.
• Many Bhakts joined from different social
backgrounds like cultivators and even those who were
considered untouchables.
• They claimed that their compositions were as
important asVedas.The composition of Alvars, the
Nalayira-Divyaprabandham was described as TamilVeda.
• Tevram was the composition of Nayanars.

15. Women Devotees
This was the most striking feature of these traditions,
which is the presence of women.The compositions
of Andal,The women Alvar were widely sung and to
be sung till date.
Andal saw herself as a beloved ofVishnu, in her versus
she was expressed for her deity. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a
devotee of Shiva adopted a path of extreme
asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her
compositions were preserved with the Nayanar
Traditions.

16. **
Q.The Bhakti tradition is often
classified into which two broad
categories?
(a) Saguna & Nirguna
(b)Vaishnav and Shaiva
(c) Rama and Krishna
(d) Tantric andVedic

17. **
Q.Which among the following is
considered as theTamilVeda?
(a) Nalayira Divyaprabandham
(b) Manimekalai
(c) Tirukkural
(d) Tevram

18. * * *
Q.Who is the female saint of
Nayanar ?

19. Relation with the State
Cholas, Pallavas & pandyas ruled South India.
Buddhism & Jainism had been prevalent in this region
for several centuries.

20. Alvars and Nayanars opposed Buddhism and Jainism
through their hymns.This hostility was due to
competition between religious traditions for royal
patronage. Chola rulers supported Brahmanical and
bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing
temples forVishnu and Shiva.
The most magnificent Shiva temples like Chidambaram,
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were
constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
In this period some of the most spectacular
representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were
produced.

21. TheVirashaivaTradition in
Karnataka
This tradition was led by a Brahman named
Basavana; he was a Jain and a minister in the court
of a Chalukya king.
The followers of Basavana were known as
Virashaivas (Heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats(Wearers
of Linga).They worship Shiva in his manifestation
as a Linga, and men usually wear a small linga in a
silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.

22. Those who were revered include the Jangama (wandering
monks).
Lingayats do not practice Cremation instead they bury their
dead, as they believe the devotee will be united with Shiva
after death.
The also challenged the idea of Caste and pollution attributed
to certain groups by Brahmanas.The theory of rebirth was
also questioned by Lingayats.This won them, followers,
amongst those who were neglected by the Brahmans.
The practice of post-puberty marriages and re-marriage of
widows were encouraged.The understanding of Virashaivas
traditions is derived from Vachanas, composed in Kannada.

23. Religious Ferment in North-India
In north India deities such asVishnu and
Shiva were worshipped in temples, often built
with the support of rulers. Historians have
not found evidence of anything resembling
the compositions of the Alvars and Nayanars.
Several Rajput states emerged in North India.
In most of these states, Brahmans were the
dominant actors & were performing a range
of secular and ritual functions.

24. Little attempts have been made to change the
Brahmanical position, like Naths, Jogis & Siddhas.
Many of them came from artisanal groups, including
weavers, who had long-distance trade in Central Asia
and West Asia.
Many of the new religious leaders questioned the
authority of theVedas & expressed themselves.
The religious leaders were not in the support to win
the support of the rulers.The arrival ofTurks and the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate undermined the
power of many states and Brahmans who were
associated with these kingdoms.

25. *
Q.Who was the leader of the
Virashaivas?
(a) Basavanna
(b) Appar
(c) Sambandar
(d) Sundrar

26. *
Q.Who do not practice
Cremation ?
(a) Lingayats
(b) Alavars
(c) Nayanars
(d)Vaishnav

27. * * * *
Q.Who were / are Naths ?

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