Power management notes of MDU,Rohtak 7th sem EEE

Section – A
Present Power Scenario In India
Indian Energy Scenario India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption,
whereas more than 70% of its primary energy needs are being met through imports,
mainly in the form of crude oil and natural Gas. Coming to the power generation in
the country, India has increased installed power capacity from 1362 MW to over
112,058 MW since independence and electrified more than 500,000 villages. This
achievement is impressive but not sufficient.The electricity consumption per capita
for India is just 566 KWh and is far below most other countries or regions inthe world.
Even though 85% of villages are considered electrified,around 57% of the rural
households and 12% of urban households,i.e. 84 million households in the country,
do not have access toelectricity. Electricity consumption in India is expected to riseto
around 2280 BkWh by 2021-22 and around 4500 BkWh by2031-32. Figure 2 shows
the Human Development Index (HDI)which is calculated from the literacy rate, infant
mortality rateand GDP plotted against per capita electricity consumptionCapacity of
body to do work is known as Energy, there are two forms of Energy which are as
following:-
1.2 Conventional Energy Conventional energyis the fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas, which are likely to deplete with time. The use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy
replaced totally the non-conventional methods because of inherent advantages of
transportation and certainty of availability; however these have polluted the
atmosphere to a great extent. India is blessed with an abundance of sunlight, water
and biomass. Enthusiastic efforts during the past two decades are now bearing fruit
as people in all walks of life are more aware of the benefits of Non-Conventional
energy source, especially decentralized energy where required in villages and in
urban or semi-urban centres. India has the world‟s largest programme for Non-
Conventional source of energy.1s
1.3 Non-Conventional Non-conventionalsources of energy are that kind of energy
sources which are essentially infinite. Examples of Non-Conventional include wind
power, solar power, biomass energy, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power. The non- conventional sources are available free of cost and are
pollution-free.
II. TYPES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCE OF ENERGY
2.1 Solar Energy Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of non-
conventional energy. This energy keeps the temperature of the earth above than in
colder space, causes current in the atmosphere and in ocean, causes the water cycle
and generate photosynthesis in plants. The solar power where sun hits atmosphere
is 1017 Watts, whereas the solar power on earth‟s surface is 1016 Watts. The total
worldwide power demand of all needs of civilization is 1013 Watts. Therefore the sun
gives us 1000 times more power than we need. If we can use 5% of this energy, it
will be 50 times what the world will require. Electricity can be produced from the solar
energy by photovoltaic solar cells, which convert the solar energy directly to

electricity. The most significant applications of photovoltaic cell in India are the
energisation of pump sets for irrigation, drinking water supply and rural electrification
covering street lights, community TV sets, medical refrigerators and other small
power loads.
2.2 Wind Energy Wind energy is an indirect source of solar energy conversion which
can be utilized to run windmill, turn drives a generator to produce electricity. Wind
can also be used to provide mechanical power such as for water pumping. The wind
power program is the fastest growing Non-Conventional energy program [in India]
and is almost entirely coming through private sector investments. India has a
potential of around 48,500 MW. With a capacity addition of 12,800 MW, it contributes
to around 75% of the grid-connected Non-Conventional energy power installed
capacity. In India high wind speeds are obtainable in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu,
Saurashtra, western Rajasthan and some parts of central India. Wind energy is
currently making a significant contribution to the installed capacity of power
generation, and is emerging as a competitive option. India with an installed capacity
of 19564MW ranks fifth in the world after Germany, USA, Spain and Denmark in wind
power generation. Energy of wind can be economically used for the generation of
electrical energy.
2.3 Biomass and Biogas Energy The potential for application of biomass, as an
alternative source of energy in India is large. Biomass is produced in nature through
photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion. As the word clearly signifies
Biomass means organic matter. The current potential for power generation from
surplus agro and agro-industrial residues is estimated at 17000 MW. With efficient
power cogeneration plants in new sugar mills and modernization of existing ones, the
potential of surplus power generation through bagasse cogeneration in sugar mills is
estimated at 5000 MW. Thus the total estimated biomass power potential is about
22,000 MW. The technologies being promoted include combustion, gasification and
cogeneration, either for power in captive or grid connected modes, or for heat
applications.
2.4 Tidal Energy The tides in the sea are the result of the gravitational effect of
heavenly bodies like sun and moon on the earth. Due to fluidity of water mass, the
effect of this force becomes apparent in the motion of water, which shows a periodic
rise and fall in levels which is in synthesis with the daily cycle of rising and setting of
sun and moon. This periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea is called tide.
These tides areused to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power.
When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide and when the level
is below the mean sea level, it is called ebb tide. To harness the tides, a dam is to be
built across the mouth of the bay. It will have large gates in it and also low head
hydraulic reversible turbines are installed in it. A tidal basin is formed, which gets
separated from the sea by dam. The difference in water level is obtained between the
basin and sea. By using reversible water turbines, turbines can be run continuously,
both during high tide and low tide. The turbine is connected to generator, potential
energy of the water stored in the basin as well as energy during high tides used to
run turbine, which is connected to generator, generating electricity.

2.5 Geothermal Energy This is the energy, which lies embedded within the molten
core of earth. The steam and the hot water come naturally to the surface of the earth
in some locations of the earth. It is a common knowledge that the earth‟s interior is
made of a hot fluid called „magma‟. The outer crust of the earth has an average
thickness of 32 Km and below that, is the magma. The average increase in
temperature with depth of the earth is 1°C for every 35 to 40 metre depth. At a depth
of 3 to 4 KMs, water boils up and at a depth of about 15 KMs, the temperature is, in
the range of 1000°C to 1200°C. If the magma finds its way through the weak spots of
the earth‟s crust, it results into a volcano. At times, due to certain reasons the
surface water penetrates into the crust, where it turns into steam, due to intense
heat, and comes out in the form of springs or geysers. Move over, the molten magma
also contains water, which it releases in the form of steam, which could be utilized for
electric power generation.
2.6 Hydro Energy The energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be
harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of
watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the
operation of various mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip
hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills. Hydropower is considered to be
a renewable energy source because it uses the continuous flow of water without
using up the water resource. It is also non-polluting, since it does not rely on burning
fossil fuels.The hydroelectric power plants usually require a dam to store water, a
pen-stock for delivering the falling water, electric generators, a valve house which
contains the main sluice valves, automatic isolating valves, and related control
equipment‟s. Also, a surge tank is located just before the valve house to protect the
penstock from a pressure surge, called water hammer, in case the turbine gates are
suddenly closed. In addition to electric energy production, most dams are built for
other uses, including recreation, irrigation, flood control, and public water supply.
Energy planning
Energy planning has a number of different meanings. However, one common meaning of the
term is the process of developing long-range policies to help guide the future of a local, national,
regional or even the global energy system. Energy planning is often conducted within
Governmental organizations but may also be carried out by large energy companies such
as electric utilities or oil and gas producers. Energy planning may be carried out with input from
different stakeholders drawn from government agencies, local utilities, academia and
other interest groups.
Energy planning is often conducted using integrated approaches that consider both the
provision of energy supplies and the role of energy efficiency in reducing demands
(Integrated Resource Planning).[1]
Energy planning should always reflect the outcomes of
population growth and economic development.
Planning and market concepts
Energy planning has traditionally played a strong role in setting the framework for regulations in
the energy sector (for example, influencing what type of power plants might be built or what
prices were charged for fuels). But in the past two decades many countries have deregulated
their energy systems so that the role of energy planning has been reduced, and decisions have
increasingly been left to the market. This has arguably led to increased competition in the energy
sector, although there is little evidence that this has translated into lower energy prices for
consumers. Indeed, in some cases, deregulation has led to significant concentrations of "market
power" with large very profitable companies having a large influence as price setters.

Integrated Resource Planning
Approaches to energy planning depends on the planning agent and the scope of the exercise.
Several catch-phrases are associated with energy planning. Basic to all is resource planning, i.e.
a view of the possible sources of energy in the future. A forking in methods is whether the planner
considers the possibility of influencing the consumption (demand) for energy. The 1970s energy
crisis ended a period of relatively stable energy prices and stable supply-demand relation.
Concepts of Demand Side Management, Least Cost Planning and Integrated Resource
Planning (IRP) emerged with new emphasis on the need to reduce energy demand by new
technologies or simple energy saving.[2][3]
In the United States the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 PURPA and more
comprehensively the Energy Policy Act of 1992introduced these concepts into the legal system,
to be further detailed by individual states.
What is a prefeasibility study?
Prefeasibility studies are an early stage analysis of a potential mining project. They
are conducted by a small team and designed to give company stakeholders the basic
information they need to green light a project or choose between potential
investments. Prefeasibility studies typically give an overview of a mining project’s
logistics, capital requirements, key challenges and other information deemed
important to the decision-making process.
When and why do companies undertake them?
Prefeasibility studies act as one of the first explorations of a potential investment,
following a preliminary resource report and the creation of an orebody model. Based
on the data procured by various assessments, a prefeasibility study may occur.
Companies use these studies to collect information before investing millions of
dollars into tasks like acquiring permits or research equipment.
What information do they include?
In addition to information relating to geological models and mine design, prefeasibility
studies also take into account factors that may impact or interfere with the final
project. That can involve community issues, geographic obstacles, permit challenges
and more.
A comprehensive prefeasibility study should include detailed designs and
descriptions for mine operation, as well as cost estimates, project risks, safety issues
and other important information. There should also be multiple options included in the
study for tackling different issues, as that will provide organizations with more ways
to overcome potential challenges
What is a feasibility study?
Feasibility studies are in-depth reports on many of the same topics as prefeasibility
studies. They are meant to be much more accurate than prefeasibility studies and
require more resources to conduct. Feasibility studies should offer estimates that are
within 10- to 20-percent accuracy, whereas prefeasibility studies are allowed to run
between 20 and 30 percent. These studies are intended to evaluate if a mineral

reserve can be mined effectively and will be profitable. Detailed feasibility studies are
also used as the basis for a project’s capital estimates.
When and why do companies undertake them?
At this point in the process, organizations already have large sums of money at stake
and a drive to see their project through to completion. Feasibility studies are all about
reducing risks and addressing potential issues that may complicate a project. The
studies also include information that is helpful for stakeholders like local governments
or environmental analysts.
In a guide to feasibility studies, Don Hofstrand and Mary Holz-Clause of Iowa State
University note, “[a] feasibility study is usually conducted after producers have
discussed a series of business ideas or scenarios.” The number of business
alternatives being considered can be reduced from here.
What information do they include?
Feasibility studies cover many important points, including technical, economic, legal,
operational and scheduling issues related to a project. Good feasibility studies should
be able to address questions across these topics. A study should feature information
about whether a project is technically possible, how much it will cost, whether it’s in
accordance with the law, how operations will work and when it can be completed.
Market analysis research can also be a vital part of the feasibility study phase. This
type of research is intended to ensure that there is demand for the metal or
commodity a project may produce. Market research also helps to zero in on
competition in the marketplace. This type of information on markets and demand is
especially valuable for investors.]
Centre State Relations in India
The Indian constitution declares India as federal. That means it is a union of
states where power is divided between centre and states as per the
procedure mentioned in the constitution. In this two tier system, the central
government have the final say in all the matters and in this way India is
federal but unitary. The different relations between centre and state are as
follows:
1. LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS
2. ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS
3. FINANCIAL RELATIONS
Legislative Centre-State Relations:
Articles 245 to 255 in the Indian constitution deal with the legislative
aspect of centre states relation. Legislation means the power of making a law
which is enforceable. Both the central and state governments in India have

the power to make laws. But, the matters on which they can make laws
differ. While the centre can make laws applicable to the nation as a whole,
the states have the power to make laws applicable in their own territory that
too in some matters only. Some matters need both the centre and state
legislations. They are as given:
UNION LIST:Union list Include the matters on which only central
government can make legislations. The state governments are bounded by
these legislations. Union list has 100 subjects on which it has exclusive
authority to make laws. These include Foreign affairs, Defence, Armed
forces, Communications, Posts and telegraphs, inter-state trade and
commerce and so on.
STATE LIST:State list includes the matters on which the
respective state governments can make laws. The state list consists
of 61 subjects which include Public order in the state, police,
administration of justice, prisons, Local Governments, agriculture and so
on. However, under some situations such as emergency, The Centre
will take over the State list as well.
CONCURRENT LIST:
The Concurrent list includes the subjects on which both central and state
governments have the power to make laws. The Concurrent list has 52
subjects which include Criminal and Civil procedure, marriage and
divorce, economic and special planning, trade unions, labour welfare
electricity, newspapers, books and printing presses,population
control and so on. However, the centre has the sole powers to take over
the concurrent list if needed.On all the subject matters mentioned above,
finally, the central government have the powers to take over every subject in
any situation. Such is the power given to the centre by the Indian
Constitution.

Administrative Centre-State Relations:Articles 256
to 263 The Indian Constitution deal with the administrative aspect of centre-
state relations in India. Regarding Administration, State governments are
like sub-ordinates to the Centre. Central government gives directions to
the State governments in the course of administrative action.Even some
matters like railways, central excise, income tax, post and telegraph and so
on are directly administered by the central government. Hence, in
administrative matters also Centre has the final say.
Financial Centre-State Relations:Articles 268 to
293 in the Indian constitution deal with the financial aspect of centre-state
relations in India. It mainly deals with the imposition and collection of taxes.
These are categorised as follows:
Taxes levied by the centre but collected and used by the states: The
stamp duties, Excise duties, medicinal and toilet preparations come under
this.
 Taxes levied and collected by the centre but given to the
states: The property tax, taxes on goods carried by railways, Sea,
airways and so on come under this.
 Taxes levied and collected by the centre but distributed
between centre and states: Income tax other than corporate tax
and such other residual taxes come under this.
In addition to this, Centre also gives many grants and loans to the states
from time to time.
Conclusion:
When we observe the centre-state relations in India, the power position given
to the central government is clearly known. Hence, Indian political system is
federal but unitary.
Rehabilitation & Resettlement
INTRODUCTION:

Human beings have been interacting with the environment since time immemorial. Human
interaction with the environment has been growing exponentially all along. This has led to
over exploitation of the ecology in a number ofways, resulting in environmental degradation.
Overwhelming environmental degradation is the prime cause for various natural calamities
like landslides, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, cyclones, avalanches, etc.
Simultaneously, rapid industrialization and globalization during the last few years has resulted
in repurposing of land use. Major economic transformation has been possible only by
changing the use of land for various purposes.
On the other hand, attempts at environmental conservation, by creatingnational reserves &
parks, has also led to a change in land use practices . All such activities have been
responsible for forcing communities to move out of their traditional homes and localities to
new areas where they are forced to start life afresh. This has created a major problem of
resettlement and rehabilitation of people around the globe.
ACTIVITIES LEADING TO RESETTLEMENT:
Resettlement of people is needed due to two major reasons: (a) Natural Reasons (b)Manmade
Reasons
(a)Natural Reasons for Resettlement:
Natural reasons for needing resettlement of populations are various kinds of natural
calamities,likelandslides, floods, earthquakes, tsunami, avalanche, etc. These are usually a
result of over exploitation of natural resources, leading to an erosion & destruction of the
ecology.
As a result of natural calamities, homes and lifestyles of the affected populace are destroyed
and the people are forced to move to new areas to start life afresh.
(b)Manmade Reasons for Resettlement:
Today’s economic growthhas been possible only by repurposing the use of land. Growing
industrialization has led to an increase in the number of factories, etc, being set up.
Globalization has led to the setting up of Special Economic Zonesor SEZ in most countries,
especially in the Third World, for the setting up of industries of various kinds, with all the
modern amenities and infrastructure being provided to the industries concerned. This needs a
lot of land to be set aside for the development of such areas with the necessary infrastructure
–roads, transportation, ports, warehouses, electricity, water, etc. As a result cities are
expanding, with the villages being moved into forest areas and forest cover being reduced.
The original inhabitants of the area, therefore, need to be resettled in new areas.
The infrastructure needs of urban and industrial areashas increased manifold during the last
few decades. This has led to an increase in the exploitation of the various resources of energy,
renewable and non-renewable. A number of dams, power plants, etc., have come up to fulfill
these needs. The construction of damsrequires evacuation of all the villages that come in the
area which will be flooded by the dam waters. As a

result massive resettlement needs to be undertakenthroughout the course of the river wherever
dams are being built on it.
Industrialization also needs plenty of raw materials. Mining has been the source for a lot of
the raw materials needed by industries. The issuing of mining permits in areas rich in
resources means that the local populace has to be evacuated, to ensure that the mining
activities can be performed unhindered.
Another manmade cause responsible for large scale resettlement is the declaration of various
areas as national reserves, in an attempt to conserve existing wildlife. The history of human
civilization has always been set in areas where natural resources abound. This has usually
meant river banks and forests. Early settlers lived in harmony with the flora and fauna around,
knowing that conserving them was essential for their survival. With industrialization came
greed for individual development, resulting in over exploitation of species and at times its
extermination. The drastic imbalance today has made governments realize that they need to
conserve the ecology of their various forests. In this attempt forests have been declared as
national reserves and the indigenous people residing in them have been moved out of their
traditional homes.
Manmade disasters like Bhopal-gas tragedy, derailment of trains, etc., also create situations
demanding resettlement of large populations.
REHABILITATION:
Resettlement is not just about moving people from one home and environment to another. It
also entails ensuring that they are able to provide for and fulfill their families’ needs, specially
food, clothing and shelter. It, thus, falls on the authorities concerned to make sure that
adequate arrangements are made to ensure this in the new area that the community shifts to.
PROBLEMS FACED DURING RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION
Various problems are faced during the process of resettlement and rehabilitation, mostly by
the people who are being resettled.
Loss of arable land: A lot of land has been acquired for building dams. This means that
thousands of acres of fertile, arable farm land which was used for cultivation have now been
submerged and are not available for cultivation. Alternative land provided is usually on barren
land which needs decades of tilling for it to become profitably productive. Similar is the case
with land acquired for industries.
Loss of forests, flora & fauna: Where the construction ofvarious dams is concerned, large
tracts of forest areas have been flooded and have now disappeared. The entire flora and fauna
and the associated ecologies of these regions have been destroyed.
Extinction of indigenous populations: The displacement of indigenous communities from
their ancestral lands has led to a destruction of their traditional lifestyles, cultures, customs
and traditions. As a result indigenous populations are rapidly diminishing and heading
towards extinction.

Quality of land/area of resettlement:It has been found that the resettlement area is usually
such that the quality of land given in compensation is much lower than the original land that
the displaced people possessed. As a result, it becomes very difficult for these oustees to grow
crops on this land to feed their families.
Water facilities: In India, most acquisition of land so far has been for building bigdams. The
people living along the rivers are used to free availability of water. Though the authorities are
supposed to keep in mind the water requirements of the communities that are to be moved,
specially drinking water facilities, more often than not this has not been done.
Loss of means of livelihood: In India, even today, most professions are inherited, especially in
the rural areas and the poorer segments of society. When a population moves to a new area
they are forced to take up new professions which they are not trained for or skilled in. As a
result they are unable to feed their families, leading to deepening poverty.
Multiple displacements: People are moved from one area to another due to a new
development project. A few years later another new project is envisaged in the area where
they have now been resettled. As a result they have to move yet again. This has repeated
effects on their lifestyles and livelihoods, leading to a further deepening of their poverty.
Project Beneficiaries Vs Project Affected: It has generally been found that project affected do
not end up being project beneficiaries. The fruits of developmental projects are directly
enjoyed by the affluent residing in urban areas, rather than those who have sacrificed their
homes for the so-called development of the country. Result is that the displaced find
themselves doubly exploited –loss of homes, cultures, traditional livelihoods on the one hand
and continued deepening poverty on the other, since they are not trained for the jobs that are
available.
Section - B
Procurement
Definition
Related Terms
The act of obtaining or buying goods and services. The process includes preparation and
processing of a demand as well as the end receipt and approval of payment. It often involves
(1) purchase planning,
(2) standards determination,
(3) specifications development,
(4) supplier research and selection,
(5) value analysis,
(6) financing,
(7) price negotiation,
(8) making the purchase,
(9) supply contract administration,
(10) inventory control and stores, and
(11) disposals and other related functions.
The process of procurement is often part of a company's strategy because the ability to purchase

certain materials will determine if operations will continue.
A business will not be able to survive if it's price of procurement is more than the profit it makes
on selling the actual product.
CONTNTRACTING AND PROCUREMENT
Contracting and Procurement offers a wealth of opportunities in Shell’s Upstream and Downstream
businesses, building relationships with suppliers and supporting the global delivery of services.
Contracting and Procurement at Shell offers a variety of exciting career opportunities
A Contracting and Procurement role at Shell could see you assigned to support some of our
groundbreaking exploration projects, while learning on the job and, collaborating with a team
of highly skilled and experienced professionals delivering strategic business plans.
A career in Contracting and Procurement at Shell is not only an excellent opportunity for
ambitious individuals to progress in one of the industry’s most innovative companies, it's also
a chance to continue developing yourself as a professional and work with cutting-edge
procurement tools and systems.
Casting its influence on many areas of Shell’s business operations, C&P requires remarkable,
creative candidates who can build and maintain relationships, provide support solutions to our
businesses, and have the drive to effectively negotiate for a lower cost of supply while
maintaining quality and safety standards.
As many of our Contracting and Procurement roles involve working with cross-functional
teams, your ability to work in an end-to-end environment will be beneficial. You will be part
of a mentorship programme focused on nurturing your professional and personal development
and work in an environment that supports and promotes diversity, collaboration and social
responsibility.
Meet the manager
As Contracting and Procurement Manager for Shell Exploration and Production, Joseph Yuen
has a varied and busy role. “I am accountable to deliver and execute the C&P strategy and all
Contracting and Procurement activities in accordance with global policies, practices and
project requirements associated with Deepwater, Midstream and Downstream,” he says.
Joseph also plays a key role in forming groundbreaking projects, adding: “It is very exciting
to be making a noticeable impact on projects in the early stages of development.”
For Joseph it's this constant stimulation, and the fact that the working environment at Shell is
one that promotes responsibility, that makes his role so rewarding: “People at Shell are really
interested in balancing the need to fulfil their business objectives in an environmental, social
and economically-focused manner. People feel passionately about not only serving Shell but
our community too.”

Consulting Services for the Power &
Utilities industry
Delivering knowledge, value, and experience
The global power and utilities industry is ever-changing—developments in
resource conservation, technology and business models are creating an
environment where traditional utilities face challenges from many directions.
There are new sources of competition. A change in the way regulators think.
Disruptive technologies and business models. A shift to natural gas and away
from coal and nuclear. Customers who want information and services available at
their fingertips. The industry is changing more rapidly than at any time since
Thomas Edison. As it does, we are here to make that change happen
with you.
Classification of contract
Contract is an agreement enforceable by law. Between two or more parties
for the doing or not doing of something specified.Contracts can also be
classified according to performance. A contract can be
either executed or executor. An executed contract—is where one party has
performed all that is required to be done according to the contract. For
example, Alan delivers one tonne of wood to Brian. Alan has performed his
part of the contract, now it remains for Brian to pay the price. An executor
contract—This is a contract where both parties still have obligations to perform
under the contract.
Classification of contract
Contracts can be classified into five broad divisions namely
1. The method of formation of a contract
2. The time of performance of contract
3. The parties of the contract
4. The method of formalities of the contract
5. The method of legality of the contract
1. The method of formation of a contract
Under the method of formation of a contract may be three kinds
 Ø Express contract Implied contract
 Ø Quasi contract
Express contract: Express contract is one which expressed in
words spoken orwritten. When such a contract is formal, there is no difficulty
in understanding the rights and obligations of the parties.
Implied contract: The condition of an implied contract is to be understood
form the acts, the contract of the parties or the course of dealing between
them.

Quasi contract: There are certain dealings which are not contracts strictly,
though the parties act as if there is a contract. The contract Act specifies the
various situations which come within what is called Quasi contract.
2.The time of performance of contract
Under the method of the time of performance of contract may be two kinds
 Ø Executed Contract
 Ø Executory Contract
Executed Contract: There are contracts where the parties perform their
obligations immediately, as soon as the contract is formed.
Executory Contract: In this contract the obligations of the parties are to be
performed at a later time.
3. The parties of the contract
Under the method of the parties of the contract may be two kinds
 Ø Bilateral Contract
 Ø Unilateral Contract
Bilateral Contract: There must be at last two parties to the contract.
Therefore all contracts are bilateral or multilateral.
Unilateral Contract: In certain contracts one party has to fulfill his
obligations where as the other party has already performed his obligations.
Such a contract is called unilateral contract.
4. The method of formalities of the contract
Under the method of the method of formalities of the contract may be two
kinds
 Ø Formal contract
 Ø Informal contract
Formal contract: A formal contract is a contract which is formatted by
satisfied all the essentials formalities of a contract.
Informal contract: An informal contract is a contract which is failed to satisfy
all or any of the essentials formalities of a contract.
5.The method of legality of the contract
Under the method of the method of legality of the contract may be five kinds

1. Valid Contract
2. Void Agreement
3. Void able Contract
4. Unenforceable Agreement
5. Illegal Agreement
Valid Contract: An agreement which satisfied all the essential of a contract
and which is enforceable through the court is called valid contract.
Void Agreement: An agreement which is failed to satisfied all or any of the
essential element of a contract and which is not enforceable by the court is
called void agreement. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be
void. A void agreement has no legal fact. It confers no right on any person and
created no obligation.
Example: An agreement made by a minor. Void able Contract: An agreement
which is enforceable by law at the open of one or more parties of the contract
but not at the open of the other or others is a void able contract.
A void able contract is one which can be avoided and satisfied by some of the
parties to it. Until it is avoided, it is a good contract.
Example: contracts brought about by coercion or undue influence or
misrepresentation or fraud.
Unenforceable Agreement: An Unenforceable Agreement is one which
cannot be enforcing in a court for its technical and formal defect.
Example: (1) An agreement required by law to register but not resisted. (2) An
agreement with not satisfied stamped.
Illegal Agreement: An illegal agreement is one which is against a law
enforcing in Bangladesh.
Whatis project management?
Definition
Project management is the application of processes, methods, knowledge, skills and
experience to achieve the project objectives.

General
A project is a unique, transient endeavour, undertaken to achieve planned objectives, which
could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits. A project is usually deemed to be
a success if it achieves the objectives according to their acceptance criteria, within an agreed
timescale and budget.
A key factor that distinguishes project management from just 'management' is that it has this
final deliverable and a finite timespan, unlike management which is an ongoing process.
Because of this a project professional needs a wide range of skills; often technical skills, and
certainly people management skills and good business awareness.
The core components of project management are:
 definingthe reasonwhyaprojectisnecessary;
 capturingprojectrequirements,specifyingqualityof the deliverables,estimatingresourcesand
timescales;
 preparinga businesscase tojustifythe investment;
 securingcorporate agreementandfunding;
 developingandimplementingamanagementplanforthe project;
 leadingandmotivatingthe projectdelivery team;
 managingthe risks,issuesandchangesonthe project;
 monitoringprogressagainstplan;
 managingthe projectbudget;
 maintainingcommunicationswithstakeholdersandthe projectorganisation;
 providermanagement;
 closingthe projectina controlled fashionwhenappropriate.
Objectives may be expressed in terms of:
 outputs(suchas a newHQ building);
 outcomes(suchas staff beingrelocatedfrommultiple locationstothe new HQ);
 benefits(suchasreducedtravel andfacilitiesmanagementcosts);
 strategicobjectives(suchasdoublingthe organisation’sshare price inthree years).
Why do we use project management?
Project management is essentially aimed at producing an end product that will effect some
change for the benefit of the organisation that instigated the project. It is the initiation,
planning and control of a range of tasks required to deliver this end product. Projects that
require formal management are those that:
 produce somethingneworaltered,tangible orintangible;
 have a finite timespan:adefinitestartandend;

 are likelytobe complex intermsof workorgroups involved;
 require the managementof change;
 require the managementof risks.
 providingagreaterlikelihoodof achievingthe desiredresult;
 ensuringefficientandbest value use of resources;
Organisational Planning
Organisational planning refers to the process ofidentifying organization’s objectives and formulating
and monitoring specific strategies to achieve them. It also entails staffing and resource allocation and
is one of the important responsibilities of a management team.
Organizational structures need to be formulated and implemented with a view to achieve
organizational goals in an efficient manner. Thus, having a suitable organizational structure in place is
a prerequisite for long term success.
Developing goals and objectives
Before shaping the organisational structure, the goals and objectives need to be clearly established.
Good goals should:
 be statement ofends, not ofmeans
 reflect what you want, not what you are doing
 be realistic enough to be implemented
 be realistic enough to be implemented within organisation's resources
 be qualitative as well as measurable.
Good objectives should specify:
 a particularintended outcome
 a timeframe within which outcomewill be reached
 methods by which outcomewill be pursued
Time scheduling
Definition
Time scheduling is a collection of techniques used to develop and present schedules that show when
work will be performed.
General
The choice of tools and techniques used to develop a time schedule depends upon the level of detail
available about the work that needs to be done.

Where the work is well defined, modelling techniques can be used to show the sequence of working
and logical dependencies between each package of work. The resulting model can be used to predict
start and finish times, and identify where there is flexibility in the schedule.
If requirements are clear but the means to achieve them is less so, or where the requirements are
subject to significant change as the work proceeds, then modelling techniques are less appropriate.
Project
Network analysis can be used where the work is well defined. The analysis process has four
stages:
 create a logical model of how the work will be performed;
 estimate activity durations;
 calculate timings for the activities;
 present the results.
Each aspect of the process is considered by the team, using subject-matter experts when appropriate.
A schedule agreed by the team is more likely to succeed than one imposed from above.
The logical model is known as a network diagram. This can be drawn in different formats. The
common format used by scheduling software is activity-on-node, or precedence networking.
Organization Management -
Meaning, Need and its Features
A set-up where individuals from diverse backgrounds, different educational qualifications and varied
interests come together to work towards a common goal is called an organization.
The employees must work in close coordination with each other and try their level best to achieve the
organization’s goals.
It is essential to manage the employees well for them to feel indispensable for the organization.
Organization management helps to extract the best out of each employee so that they
accomplish the tasks within the given time frame.
Organization management binds the employees together and gives them a sense of loyalty towards
the organization.
What is Organization Management ?
 Organization management refers to the art of getting people together on a common platform
to make them work towards a common predefined goal.
 Organization management enables the optimum use of resources through meticulous
planning and control at the workplace.
 Organization management gives a sense of direction to the employees. The individuals
are well aware of their roles and responsibilities and know what they are supposed to do in the
organization.
An effective management ensures profitability for the organization. In a layman’s language
organization management refers to efficient handling of the organization as well as its employees.

Need for Organization Management
 Organization management gives a sense of security and oneness to the employees.
 An effective management is required for better coordination among various departments.
 Employees accomplish tasks within the stipulated time frame as a result of effective
organization management.
 Employees stay loyal towards their job and do not treat work as a burden.
 Effective organization management leads to a peaceful and positive ambience at the
workplace.
Essential Features of Organization Management
1. Planning
 Prepare an effective business plan. It is essential to decide on the future course of
action to avoid confusions later on.
 Plan out how you intend to do things.
2. Organizing
 Organizing refers to the judicious use of resources to achieve the best out of the
employees.
 Prepare a monthly budget for smooth cash flow.
3. Staffing
 Poor organization management leads to unhappy employees who eventually create
problems for themselves as well as the organization.
 Recruit the right talent for the organization.
4. Leading
 The managers or superiors must set clear targets for the team members.
 A leader must make sure his team members work in unison towards a common
objective. He is the one who decides what would be right in a particular situation.
5. Control
 The superiors must be aware of what is happening around them.
 Hierarchies should be well defined for an effective management.
 The reporting bosses must review the performance and progress of their subordinates
and guide them whenever required.
6. Time Management
 An effective time management helps the employees to do the right thing at the right
time.
 Managing time effectively always pays in the long run.
7. Motivation
 Motivation goes a long way in binding the employees together.
 Appreciating the employees for their good work or lucrative incentive schemes go a
long way in motivating the employees and make them work for a longer span of time.
Managerialeconomicsor Management
Managerial economics is the "application of the economic concepts and economic analysis to
the problems of formulating rational managerial decisions".[1]
It is sometimes referred to
as business economics and is a branch of economics that applies microeconomic analysis to
decision methods of businesses or other management units.
As such, it bridges economic theory and economics in practice.[2]
It draws heavily from
quantitative techniques such as regression analysis, correlation and calculus.[3]
If there is a
unifying theme that runs through most of managerial economics, it is the attempt
to optimizebusiness decisions given the firm's objectives and given constraints imposed by
scarcity, for example through the use of operations research, mathematical programming, game
theoryfor strategic decisions,[4]
and other computational methods.[5]
Managerial decision areas include:
 assessment of investible funds

 selecting business area
 choice of product
 determining optimum output
 sales promotion.
Almost any business decision can be analyzed with managerial economics techniques, but it is
most commonly applied to:
 Risk analysis – various models are used to quantify risk and asymmetric informationand to
employ them in decision rules to manage risk.[6]
 Production analysis – microeconomic techniques are used to analyze production
efficiency, optimum factor allocation, costs, economies of scale and to estimate the firm's
cost function.
 Pricing analysis – microeconomic techniques are used to analyze various pricing
decisions including transfer pricing, joint product pricing, price discrimination, price elasticity
estimations, and choosing the optimum pricing method.
 Capital budgeting – Investment theory is used to examine a firm's capital purchasing
decisions.[7]
At universities, the subject is taught primarily to advanced undergraduates and graduate business
students. It is approached as an integration subject. That is, it integrates many concepts from a
wide variety of prerequisite courses. In many countries it is possible to read for a degree in
Business Economics which often covers managerial economics, financial economics, game
theory, business forecasting and industrial economics.
Project Cost Control
Introduction
Almost all the projects need to be guided right throughout in order to receive the
required and expected output at the end of the project. It is the team that is responsible
for the project and most importantly the project manager that needs to be able to carry
out effective controlling of the costs. There are, however, several techniques that can be
used for this purpose.
In addition to the project goals that the project manager has to oversee, the control of
various costs is also a very important task for any project. Project management would
not be effective at all if a project manager fails in this respect, as it would essentially
determine whether or not your organization would make a profit or loss.
Cost Control Techniques
Following are some of the valuable and essential techniques used for efficient project
cost control:
1 - Planning the Project Budget
You would need to ideally make a budget at the beginning of the planning session with
regard to the project at hand. It is this budget that you would have to help you for all
payments that need to be made and costs that you will incur during the project life
cycle. The making of this budget therefore entails a lot of research and critical thinking.

Like any other budget, you would always have to leave room for adjustments as the
costs may not remain the same right through the period of the project. Adhering to the
project budget at all times is key to the profit from project.
2 - Keeping a Track of Costs
Keeping track of all actual costs is also equally important as any other technique. Here,
it is best to prepare a budget that is time-based. This will help you keep track of the
budget of a project in each of its phases. The actual costs will have to be tracked
against the periodic targets that have been set out in the budget. These targets could
be on a monthly or weekly basis or even yearly if the project will go on for long.
This is much easier to work with rather than having one complete budget for the entire
period of the project. If any new work is required to be carried out, you would need to
make estimations for this and see if it can be accommodated with the final amount in
the budget. If not, you may have to work on necessary arrangements for 'Change
Requests', where the client will pay for the new work or the changes.
3 - Effective Time Management
Another effective technique would be effective time management. Although this
technique does apply to various management areas, it is very important with regard to
project cost control.
The reason for this is that the cost of your project could keep rising if you are unable to
meet the project deadlines; the longer the project is dragged on for, the higher the
costs incurred which effectively means that the budget will be exceeded.
The project manager would need to constantly remind his/her team of the important
deadlines of the project in order to ensure that work is completed on time.
4 - Project Change Control
Project change control is yet another vital technique. Change control systems are
essential to take into account any potential changes that could occur during the course
of the project.
This is due to the fact that each change to the scope of the project will have an impact
on the deadlines of the deliverables, so the changes may increase project cost by
increasing the effort needed for the project.
5 - Use of Earned Value
Similarly, in order to identify the value of the work that has been carried out thus far, it
is very helpful to use the accounting technique commonly known as 'Earned Value'.
This is particularly helpful for large projects and will help you make any quick changes
that are absolutely essential for the success of the project.
The Additional Steps for Project Cost Control

It is advisable to constantly review the budget as well as the trends and other financial
information. Providing reports on project financials at regular intervals will also help
keep track of the progress of the project.
This will ensure that overspending does not take place, as you would not want to find
out when it is too late. The earlier the problem is found, the more easily and quickly it
could be remedied.
All documents should also be provided at regular intervals to auditors, who would also
be able to point out to you any potential cost risks.
Conclusion
Simply coming up with a project budget is not adequate during your project planning
sessions. You and your team would have to keep a watchful eye on whether the costs
remain close to the figures in the initial budget.
layout of a thermal power station is shown below.
.
Section – C
Power Sector in India
The power sector in India is mainly governed by the Ministry of Power. There are three
major pillars of power sector these are Generation, Transmission, and Distribution. As far
as generation is concerned it is mainly divided into three sectors these are Central
Sector, State Sector, and Private Sector.
Central Sector or Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), constitute 29.78%
(62826.63MW) of total installed capacity i.e, 210951.72 MW (as on 31/12/2012) in
India. Major PSUs involved in the generation of electricity include NHPC Ltd., NTPC
Ltd.,, and Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL).
Besides PSUs, several state-level corporations are there which accounts for
about 41.10% of overall generation , such as Jharkhand State Electricity Board (JSEB),
Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB), Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB), in
Gujarat (MGVCL, PGVCL, DGVCL, UGVCL four distribution Companies and one controlling
body GUVNL, and one generation company GSEC), are also involved in the generation
and intra-state distribution of electricity.

Other than PSUs and state level corporations, private sector enterprises also play a
major role in generation, transmission and distribution,
about 29.11%(61409.24MW) of total installed capacity is generated by private sector.
The PowerGrid Corporation of India is responsible for the inter-state transmission of
electricity and the development of national grid.
The Ministry of Power is the apex body responsible for the development of electrical
energy in India. This ministry started functioning independently from 2 July 1992;
earlier, it was known as the Ministry of Energy. The Union Minister of Power at present
is Sushilkumar Shinde and Minister of State for Power is K.C Venugopal.
India is world’s 6th largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4% of global energy
consumption, with Maharashtra as the leading electricity generator among Indian states.
Due to India’s economic rise, the demand for energy has grown at an average of 3.6%
per annum over the past 30 years. At the end of December 2012, the installed power
generation capacity of India stood at 210951.72MW, while the per capita energy
consumptionstood at 733.54 KWh(2008-09). The Indian government has set an
ambitious target to add approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation capacity by
2012. The total demand for electricity in India is expected to cross 950,000 MW by
2030.
India is the sixth largest in terms of power generation. About 65% of the electricity
consumed in India is generated by thermal power plants, 22% by hydroelectric power
plants, 3% by nuclear power plants and rest by 10% from other alternate sources like
solar, wind, biomass etc. 53.7% of India’s commercial energy demand is met through
the country’s vast coal reserves. The country has also invested heavily in recent years on
renewable sources of energy such as wind energy. As of March 2011, India’s installed
wind power generation capacity stood at about 12000 MW. Additionally, India has
committed massive amount of funds for the construction of various nuclear reactors
which would generate at least 30,000 MW. In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion
plan to produce 20,000 MW of solar power by 2020 under National Solar
Mission.
The per capita power consumption in India is 733.54KWh/yr, which is very minimal as
compared to global average of 2340KWh/yr.
Electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution are extremely high,
about 28.44%(2008-09). India needs to tide over a peak power shortfall of 13%
between 5pm and 11pm by reducing losses due to theft and pilferage.. Due to shortage of
electricity, power cuts are common throughout India and this has adversely effected the
country’s economic growth. Theft of electricity, common in most parts of urban India,
amounts to 1.5% of India’s GDP. The condition of utilities are not good either,
cumulative loss of 110 power utilities are estimated as Rs 86,136 crore which is
expected to to rise to Rs 1,16,089 crore by 2014-15. Despite an ambitious rural
electrification program, some 400 million Indians lose electricity access during
blackouts. While 84.9% of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 46
percent of rural households have access to electricity.
Electricity Generation
(Data Source CEA, as on 31/12/2012)
Grand Total Installed Capacity is 210951.72 MW.
The data below are in MW
COAL GAS DIESEL NUCLEAR HYDRO RES TOTAL
STATE SECTOR 49933.00 5215.32 602.61 0.00 27395.00 3569.92 86715.85
CENTRAL
SECTOR 41995.00 6702.23 0.00 4780.00 9349.40 0.00 62826.63
PRIVATE SECTOR 28945.38 6985.50 597.14 0.00 2595.00 22286.22 61409.24
TOTAL 120873.38 18903.05 1199.75 4780.00 39339.40 25856.14 210951.72
PERCENTAGE(%) 57.29% 08.96% 0.57% 2.27% 18.65% 12.26%
 Captive Genrating capacity connected to the Grid (MW) = 34444.12

 The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in
the country.
 India was one of the pioneering countries in establishing hydro-electric power plants.
The power plant at Darjeeling and Shimsha(Shivanasamudra) was established in 1898
and 1902 respectively and is one of the first in Asia.
 R.E.S. INCLUDES :- SHP – 2900 MW , WIND – 12000 MW,B.P. & B.G. –2313.33 MW, U&I & SOLAR – 114.74 MW
(SHP – SMALL HYDRO POWER, B.P. – BIOMASS POWER, B.G.- BIOMASS GASIFIER, U&I – URBAN &
INDUSTRIAL WASTE)
Electricity Transmission
Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over a long distance at
high voltage, generally of 132kV and above. In India bulk transmission has increased
from 3,708 ckm in 1950 to more than 166000ckm, out of which 75556ckm is
transmitted by Power Grid Corporation of India (as on 30 Sep. 2010 ). The
entire country has been divided into five regions for transmission systems,
namely, Northern Region, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern
Region and Western Region. The Interconnected transmission system within
each region is also called the regional grid.
The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had traditionally been
linked to generation projects as part of the evacuation system. Ability of the power
system to safely withstand a contingency without generation rescheduling or load-
shedding was the main criteria for planning the transmission system. However, due to
various reasons such as spatial development of load in the network, non-commissioning
of load center generating units originally planned and deficit in reactive compensation,
certain pockets in the power system could not safely operate even under normal
conditions. This had necessitated backing down of generation and operating at a lower
load generation balance in the past. Transmission planning has therefore moved away
from the earlier generation evacuation system planning to integrate system planning.
While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and distribution has been
Alternating Current (AC) technology, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
technology has also been used for interconnection of all regional grids across
the country and for bulk transmission of power over long distances.
Certain provisions in the Electricity Act 2003 such as open access to the transmission and
distribution network, recognition of power trading as a distinct activity, the liberal
definition of a captive generating plant and provision for supply in rural areas are
expected to introduce and encourage competition in the electricity sector. It is expected
that all the above measures on the generation, transmission and distribution front would
result in formation of a robust electricity grid in the country.
Electricity Distribution
The total installed generating capacity in the country is 210951.72MW,and
the total number of consumers is over 146 million. Apart from an
extensive transmission system network at 500kV HVDC, 400kV, 220kV,
132kV and 66kV which has developed to transmit the power from
generating station to the grid substations, a vast network of sub
transmission in distribution system has also come up for utilisation of the
power by the ultimate consumers.
However, due to lack of adequate investment on transmission and distribution (T&D) works, the T&D
losses have been consistently on higher side, and reached to the level of 28.44% in the year 2008-
09.The reduction of these losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State Utilities.
As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net work, concept of Aggregate
Technical and Commercial (AT&C) loss was introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as well as
commercial losses in the network and is a true indicator of total losses in the system.
High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate investments over the years for
system improvement works, which has resulted in unplanned extensions of the distribution lines,

overloading of the system elements like transformers and conductors, and lack of adequate reactive
power support.
The commercial losses are mainly due to low metering efficiency, theft & pilferages. This may be
eliminated by improving metering efficiency, proper energy accounting & auditing and improved billing
& collection efficiency. Fixing of accountability of the personnel / feeder managers may help
considerably in reduction of AT&C loss.
With the initiative of the Government of India and of the States, the Accelerated Power Development
& Reform Programme(APDRP) was launched in 2001. APDRP meant to upgrade the distribution
system, minimize transmission and distribution losses, improve metering and assign responsibility
for the realization of user charges —has not been able to bring down losses to 15% by the end of
2007, as originally targeted in 2000-01.
The APDRP programme is being restructured by the Government of India, so that the desired level of
15% AT&C loss could be achieved by the end of 11th plan.(estimated plan cost – Rs50000 crore)
The main objective of the programme was to bring Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C) losses
below 15% in five years in urban and in high-density areas. The programme, along with other
initiatives of the Government of India and of the States, has led to reduction in the overall AT&C loss
from 38.86% in 2001-02 to 28.44% in 2008-09.
RGGVY, which had a target of providing electricity to 125,000 villages and connecting 23 million
below-poverty-line households across the country by 31 March, has also been faltering.
The Government of India has an ambitious mission of POWER FOR ALL BY 2012. This
mission would require that the installed generation capacity should be at least 200,000
MW by 2012 from the present level of 167278.36MW. Power requirement will double by
2020 to 400,000MW.
The government had earlier planned to add 78,000 MW of power capacity by the end of the 11th
Plan, which the Planning Commission had scaled down to 62,000 MW. This may now be further
curtailed to 58,000 MW (as on Dec’ 2010).
Objectives
 Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth rate of 8%
 Reliable power
 Quality power
 Optimum power cost
 Commercial viability of power industry
 Power for all
Strategies
 Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation, optimization of capacity utilization,
controlling the input cost, optimisation of fuel mix, Technology upgradation and utilization of Non
Conventional energy sources
 Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid including Interstate
connections, Technology upgradation & optimization of transmission cost.
 Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on System upgradation, loss
reduction, theft control, consumer service orientation, quality power supply commercialization,
Decentralized distributed generation and supply for rural areas.
 Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and making the sector commercially
viable.
 Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the power sector.
 Conservation Strategy to optimise the utilization of electricity with focus on Demand Side
management, Load management and Technology upgradation to provide energy efficient
equipment / gadgets.
Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to enhance the general public
awareness.,
Present Scenario

At Present in power sector nearly half i.e., 49.15% is under State electricity Boards, which is followed by
Public Sector Unit’s like NTPC, NHPC, NPCIL etc. The role of private sector is about 19.85%, which is at
present least among the three sectors, but private sector is growing at a far greater pace than any other
sector, the latest advancements in this direction are allotment of UMPP’s to private sector.
The major companies in these three sectors are dealt in detail in
the link given below:
Public Sector Units in Power Sector : Contains major players in public sector like
NTPC , NHPC , NPCIL , DVC , CERC etc.
 Power Finance Corporation
 Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
– Ministry of Power, Govt. of India Formed – 24 July 1998 Head Quarter – New Delhi
Damodar Valley Corporation Head Quarter – Kolkata Founded – July 7, 1948 Chairman – Devendra
Singh Vision – To establish DVC as a mega pithead power producer and distributor…
 Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited
Type – Public Sector Undertaking, Government Owned Head Quarter – Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Chairman & M.D – A.R. Ansari Employee – 19115(2007)
 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited
Type – State Owned Enterprise Founded – Sep’ 1987 Head Quarter – Mumbai, India Chairman &
Managing Director – Dr. S.K.Jain Net…
 NHPC Limited
Type - State Owned Enterprise; Public Limited Founded – 1975 Head Quarter – Faridabad, India
Chairman & Managing Director – S.K. Garg Net…
 NTPC Limited
Type- State Owned Enterprise; Public Limited Founded- Nov 7,1975 Head Quarter- Delhi, India
Chairman & Managing Director- Arup…
Private Company in Power Sector: contains major players in private sector like
Reliance Energy , Suzzlon , TATA Power etc.
 Adani Power
Industry Name: Power – Generation/Distribution House Name: Adani Group Incorporation
Date: 22/08/1996 Management (Adani Power Limited) …
 Tata Power Company Ltd.
Industry Name: Power – Generation/Distribution/Transmission House Name: Tata Group
Incorporation Date: 18/09/1919 Market Cap (Rs Cr.): 33,122(as on…
 Suzlon Conceived in 1995 with just 20 people, Suzlon is now a leading wind power company with:
Over 16,000 people in 25 countries Operations across…
 Reliance Power Limited
Type-Public Company Founded-2007 Head Quarter-Navi Mumbai, India Founder & Chairman-Anil
Ambani Parent- Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group The…
Complete List of Generating Companies/Transmission
Companies/Distribution Companies/ Regulatory Commission on
State Basis:
Andra Pradesh
Govt
Regulatory
Commission
Generating
Companies
Transmission
Companies
Distribution
Companies
APERC APGenco APTransco
APEPDCL
APCPDCL
APNPDCL

APSPDCL
Arunachal Pradesh
Govt
Regulatory
Commission Generating Companies Transmission Companies
Distribution
Companies
—– Arunachal Pradesh Electricity Department
Assam
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
AERC APGCL AEGCL SLDC
LAEDCL
UAEDCL
CAEDCL
Bihar
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
BERC BSPGC BSPTC NBPDC/SBPDC
Chhattisgarh
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
CSERC CSPGCL ———————————-CSPTCL———————————CSPDC
Delhi
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
DERC IPGCL
Delhi Transco Ltd
SLDC Delhi
BRPL/BYPL
NDPL
Goa
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies

Goa JERC Govt. of Goa Electricity Department
Gujarat
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
GERC GSECL GETCO
MGVCL
PGVCL
UGVCL
DGVCL
Haryana
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
HERC HPGCL HVPNL
DHBVNL
UHBVNL
Himachal Pradesh
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
HPERC Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board (HPSEB)
Jammu & Kashmir
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
JKSCRA J&K State Power Development Corporation(JKSPDC)
Jharkhand
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
JERC Jharkhand State Electricity Board (JSEB)
Karnataka
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies

KERC KPCL KPTCL
BESCOM
MESCOM
HESCOM
GESCOM
CESCOM
Kerala
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
KSERC Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB)
Madhya Pradesh
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
MPERC MPGCL
MPTCL
MPSLDC,Jabalpur
MPPKVVCL
MPPKVVC
MPMKVVC
Maharashtra
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
MERC MahaGenco
MahaTransco
Maharastra SLDC,Kalwa
BSES
MahaVitran
REL
TPCL
Orissa
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
OERC
OPGC
OHPC
OPTCL
GRIDCO
SLDC Orissa
CESU
NESCO
SouthCo
WESCO
Punjab

Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
PSERC PSPCL —————————– PSTCL
Rajasthan
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
RERC RVUNL RVPNL
JAIPURDISCOMAJMER
DISCOM JODHPUR DISCOM
Uttar Pradesh
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
UPERC UPRVUNLUPJVNL UPTCLUPPCL
KESCoNPCLPAVVNL
PUVVNL
DVVNL
MVVNL
Tamil Nadu
Govt
Regulatory
Commission Generating Companies Transmission Companies Distribution Companies
TNERC TANGEDCO TANTRANSCO TANGEDCO
Uttarakhand
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
UERC UJVNL PTCUL UPCL
West Bengal
Govt
Regulatory
Distribution
Companies
WBERC WBPDCL WBSETCL WBSEDCL

Power Finance Corporation
Power Finance Corporation Ltd. is an Indian financial institution. Established in 1986, it is the
financial back bone of Indian Power Sector. Net worth of the company in the year 2007-2008 was
8688 Crore Indian Rupees.[1]
Initially wholly owned by the Govt. of India, the company issued an
IPO in January, 2007. The issue was oversubscribed by over 76 times, which is the largest for an
IPO of any Indian Company in recent times.[2]
PFC is listed on the Bombay Stock
Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE). The company has been conferred with
many prestigious awards, the latest of which is "KPMG-Infrastructure Today Award 2008" for its
contribution in development of power sector. It is also an ISO 9001:2000 certified company[3]
and
enjoys the status of Navratna Company in India.
The Corporation is headed by the Chairman and Managing Director; who at present is Shri. Rajiv
Sarma.[4]
The company has three wings, each headed by a Functional Director namely,
Commercial Division, Projects Division and Finance & Financial Operations division. The
Commercial Division looks after the credit appraisal and categorization of borrower entities,
power sector reforms, review & analysis. The Projects Division controls the operation in various
states and project appraisal. Finance & Financial Operations Division looks after the Fund
Mobilization and Disbursement. PFC is a lean organization. The number of employees during
year 2013-2014 were 440.
Operations[edit]
Since its inception, PFC has been providing financial assistance to power projects across India
including generation, transmission, distribution and RM&U projects. Recently, it has forayed into
financing of other infrastructure projects which have backward linkages to the power sector like
coal mine development, fuel transportation, oil & gas pipelines etc. The borrower profile includes
State Electricity Boards, State sector power utilities, Central sector power utilities and Private
sector companies. PFC is also the nodal agency for the implementation of the ambitious Ultra
Mega Power Plants (UMPPs) and the R-APDRP programme[5][6]
of Govt. of India. The company
also has the mechanism of rating different state Power Utilities on its performance.
“Grid management”
Grid management sets out the rules for how Transpower as the grid operator will provide the
grid, such as capacity and direction of flow, and how they can change aspects of the grid.
Electrical grid

General layout of electricity networks. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for Germany
and other European systems.
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers to
consumers. It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power, high voltage
transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers, and distribution lines
that connect individual customers.[1]
Power stations may be located near a fuel source, at a dam site, or to take advantage
of renewable energy sources, and are often located away from heavily populated areas. They are
usually quite large to take advantage of economies of scale. The electric power which is
generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power
transmission network.
The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across
international boundaries, until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the company that owns
the local electric power distribution network).
On arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a
distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring. Finally, upon
arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to
the required service voltage(s).
Electrical grids vary in size from covering a single building through national gridswhich cover
whole countries, to transnational grids which can cross continents.
Section - D
What is a Hazard?
When we refer to hazards in relation to occupational safety and health the most commonly used
definition is ‘A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or
persons’.
The terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably but this simple example explains the
difference between the two.

If there was a spill of water in a room then that water would present a slipping hazard to persons
passing through it. If access to that area was prevented by a physical barrier then the hazard
would remain though the risk would be minimised.
What is Risk?
When we refer to risk in relation to occupational safety and health the most commonly used
definition is ‘risk is the likelihood that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects if
exposed to a hazard.’
Categorising Risk
The level of risk is often categorised upon the potential harm or adverse health effect that the
hazard may cause, the number of times persons are exposed and the number of persons
exposed. For example exposure to airborne asbestos fibres will always be classified as high
because a single exposure may cause potentially fatal lung disease, whereas the risk associated
with using a display screen for a short period could be considered to be very low as the potential
harm or adverse health effects are minimum.
Control measures include actions that can be taken to reduce the potential of exposure to the
hazard, or the control measure could be to remove the hazard or to reduce the likelihood of the
risk of the exposure to that hazard being realised. A simple control measure would be the secure
guarding of moving parts of machinery eliminating the potential for contact. When we look at
control measures we often refer to the hierarchy of control measures.
1. Eliminate the
hazard
Eliminationof the hazardisnotalwaysachievable thoughitdoestotally
remove the hazardand therebyeliminatesthe riskof exposure.Anexample
of thiswouldbe thatpetrol stationattendantsinIrelandare nolonger
exposedtothe riskof chronicleadpoisoningfollowingthe removalof lead
frompetrol productssoldat forecourts.

2. Substitute the
hazard witha
lesserrisk
Substitutingthe hazardmaynotremove all of the hazards associatedwiththe
processor activityandmay introduce differenthazardsbutthe overall harm
or healtheffectswill be lessened.Inlaboratoryresearch,toluene isnow often
usedas a substitute forbenzene.The solvent-propertiesof the twoare
similarbuttoluene islesstoxicandisnot categorisedasa carcinogen
althoughtoluene cancause severe neurological harm.
3. Isolate the
hazard
Isolatingthe hazardisachievedbyrestrictingaccess toplantand equipment
or in the case of substanceslockingthemawayunderstrictcontrols.When
usingcertainchemicalsthenafume cupboardcan isolate the hazardfromthe
person,similarlyplacingnoisyequipmentinanon-accessible enclosureor
room isolatesthe hazardfromthe person(s).
4. Use engineering
controls
EngineeringControlsinvolveredesigningaprocesstoplace a barrierbetween
the personand the hazard or remove the hazardfromthe person,suchas
machineryguarding,proximityguarding,extractionsystemsorremovingthe
operatorto a remote locationawayfromthe hazard.
5. Use
administrative
controls
Administrative controlsincludeadoptingstandardoperatingproceduresor
safe workpracticesor providingappropriate training, instructionor
informationtoreduce the potentialforharmand/oradverse healtheffectsto
person(s).Isolationandpermittoworkproceduresare examplesof
administrativecontrols.
What is Risk Assessment?
Risk Assessment is where the severity of the Hazard and its potential outcomes are considered
in conjunction with other factors including the level of exposure and the numbers of persons
exposed and the risk of that hazard being realised. There are a number of different formulae used
to calculate the overall risk from basic calculations using high, medium and low categories to
complicated algorithms to calculate risks at Nuclear power stations and other high risk work
locations.
It is important to ensure that the residual risk following implementation of control measures is ‘as
low as is reasonably possible (ALARP). For a risk to be ALARP it must be possible to
demonstrate that the cost involved in reducing the risk further would be grossly disproportionate
to the benefit gained. Further guidance on risk assessment can be found in the publication
Workplace Safety and Health
Management

INTRODUCTION
Safety and health principles are universal, but how much action is needed will
depend on the size of the organisation, the hazards presented by its activities,
the physical characteristics of the organisation, products or services, and the
adequacy of its existing arrangements.
Many of the features of effective safety and health management are analogous
to the sound management practices advocated by proponents of quality
management, environmental protection, and business excellence.
Commercially successful companies often excel at safety and health
management as well, precisely because they apply the same efficient business
expertise to safety and health as to all other aspects of their operations.
While the quality management of products or services and environmental
protection principally protect physical phenomena, safety and health
management in the workplace involves protecting people and developing a
safety culture between employers and employees. However, there are
considerable similarities between the approaches to safety and health described
here and those advocated for effective quality management (ISO 9000 series of
standards) or environmental protection (ISO 14000 series).
For example, quality management systems promote continuous
improvement in all aspects of an organisation’s activities. They are founded
on a continuous process of:
• identifying the key processes;
• setting performance standards;
• measuring achievement against these standards;
• taking corrective action;
• identifying opportunities for improvement.
Success in quality management requires the development of supportive
organisational cultures. Quality management systems also stress the importance
of the active involvement of all employees in the quality process, and the crucial
importance of visible leadership by managers
Organisations that manage safety and health successfully invariably have a
positive safety culture and active safety consultation programmes in place.
Successful organisations can establish and maintain a culture that supports
safety and health. Practical methods of designing, building, operating, and
maintaining the appropriate systems are outlined in this guidance. In the
following sections the similarities and strong links between total quality
management, environmental protection and effective safety and health
management will become increasingly apparent.

DIAGRAM 1: KEY ELEMENTS OF A SAFETY AND HEALTH
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Control link
Information link
Auditing
Initial
review
Safety and
Health policy
Planning
Implementation
and operation
Measuring
performance
Reviewing
performance

Hazard identification, risk assessment and risk
control
There are three steps used to manage health and safety at work.
1 Spot the Hazard (Hazard Identification)
1. Assess the Risk (Risk Assessment)
2. Make the Changes (Risk Control)
At work you can use these three ThinkSafe steps to help prevent accidents.
Using the ThinkSafe steps
1. Spot the hazard
Key point
A hazard is anything that could hurt you or someone else.
Examples of workplace hazards include:
 frayed electrical cords (could result in electrical shock)
 boxes stacked precariously (they could fall on someone)
 noisy machinery (could result in damage to your hearing)
During work experience, you must remain alert to anything that may be dangerous. If
you see, hear or smell anything odd, take note. If you think it could be a hazard, tell
someone.
2. Assess the risk
Key point
Assessing the risk means working out how likely it is that a hazard will harm someone
and how serious the harm could be.
Whenever you spot a hazard, assess the risk by asking yourself two questions:
 how likely is it that the hazard could harm me or someone else?
 how badly could I or someone else be harmed?
Always tell someone (your employer, your supervisor or your health and safety
representative) about hazards you can't fix yourself, especially if the hazard could
cause serious harm to anyone.
For example:
 ask your supervisor for instructions and training before using equipment
 ask for help moving or lifting heavy objects

 tell your supervisor if you think a work practice could be dangerous
If you are not sure of the safest way to do something on work experience, always ask
your work experience supervisor.
3. Make the changes
Key point
It is your employer's responsibility to fix hazards. Sometimes you may be able to fix
simple hazards yourself, as long as you don't put yourself or others at risk. For
example, you can pick up things from the floor and put them away to eliminate a trip
hazard.
The best way to fix a hazard is to get rid of it altogether. This is not always possible,
but your employer should try to make hazards less dangerous by looking at the
following options (in order from most effective to least effective):
 Elimination - Sometimes hazards - equipment, substances or work practices - can be
avoided entirely. (e.g. Clean high windows from the ground with an extendable pole
cleaner, rather than by climbing a ladder and risking a fall.)
 Substitution - Sometimes a less hazardous thing, substance or work practice can be
used. (e.g. Use a non-toxic glue instead of a toxic glue.)
 Isolation - Separate the hazard from people, by marking the hazardous area, fitting
screens or putting up safety barriers. (e.g. Welding screens can be used to isolate
welding operations from other workers. Barriers and/or boundary lines can be used to
separate areas where forklifts operate near pedestrians in the workplace.)
 Safeguards - Safeguards can be added by modifying tools or equipment, or fitting
guards to machinery. These must never be removed or disabled by workers using the
equipment.
 Instructing workers in the safest way to do something - This means developing
and enforcing safe work procedures. Students on work experience must be given
information and instruction and must follow agreed procedures to ensure their safety.
 Using personal protective equipment and clothing (PPE) - If risks remain after the
options have been tried, it may be necessary to use equipment such as safety
glasses, gloves, helmets and ear muffs. PPE can protect you from hazards associated
with jobs such as handling chemicals or working in a noisy environment.
Sometimes, it will require more than one of the risk control measures above to
effectively reduce exposure to hazards.
THE FIVE STEPS TO RISK ASSESSMENT?
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) advises employers to follow five steps when carrying out a
workplace risk assessment:
Step 1: Identify hazards, i.e. anything that may cause harm.
Employers have a duty to assess the health and safety risks faced by their workers. Your employer
must systematically check for possible physical, mental, chemical and biological hazards.
This is one common classification of hazards:

 Physical: e.g. lifting, awkward postures, slips and trips, noise, dust, machinery, computer
equipment, etc.
 Mental: e.g. excess workload, long hours, working with high-need clients, bullying, etc. These are
also called 'psychosocial' hazards, affecting mental health and occurring within working
relationships.
 Chemical: e.g. asbestos, cleaning fluids, aerosols, etc.
 Biological: including tuberculosis, hepatitis and other infectious diseases faced by healthcare
workers, home care staff and other healthcare professionals.
Step 2: Decide who may be harmed, and how.
Identifying who is at risk starts with your organisation's own full- and part-time employees.
Employers must also assess risks faced by agency and contract staff, visitors, clients and other
members of the public on their premises.
Employers must review work routines in all the different locations and situations where their staff
are employed. For example:
 Home care supervisors must take due account of their client's personal safety in the home, and
ensure safe working and lifting arrangements for their own home care staff.
 In a supermarket, hazards are found in the repetitive tasks at the checkout, in lifting loads, and in
slips and trips from spillages and obstacles in the shop and storerooms. Staff face the risk of
violence from customers and intruders, especially in the evenings.
 In call centres, workstation equipment (i.e. desk, screen, keyboard and chair) must be adjusted to
suit each employee.
Employers have special duties towards the health and safety of young workers, disabled
employees, nightworkers, shiftworkers, and pregnant or breastfeeding women.
Step 3: Assess the risks and take action.
This means employers must consider how likely it is that each hazard could cause harm. This will
determine whether or not your employer should reduce the level of risk. Even after all precautions
have been taken, some risk usually remains. Employers must decide for each remaining hazard
whether the risk remains high, medium or low.
Step 4: Make a record of the findings.
Employers with five or more staff are required to record in writing the main findings of the risk
assessment. This record should include details of any hazards noted in the risk assessment, and
action taken to reduce or eliminate risk.
This record provides proof that the assessment was carried out, and is used as the basis for a later
review of working practices. The risk assessment is a working document. You should be able to read
it. It should not be locked away in a cupboard.
Step 5: Review the risk assessment.

A risk assessment must be kept under review in order to:
 ensure that agreed safe working practices continue to be applied (e.g. that management's safety
instructions are respected by supervisors and line managers); and
 take account of any new working practices, new machinery or more demanding work targets.
HOW SHOULD MY EMPLOYER DEAL WITH HAZARDS?
The basic rule is that employers must adapt the work to the worker. The key aims of risk
assessment are to:
 prioritise the risks – i.e. rank them in order of seriousness; and
 make all risks small – the two main options here are to:
o eliminate the hazard altogether; or
o if this is not possible, control the risks so that harm is unlikely.
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 set out safety management
guidance for employers for tackling risks, which you can find in schedule 1 (General Principles of
Prevention). The basic approach is also known as a 'hierarchy of control' because it sets out the
order in which employers must approach risk management:
1. Substitution (i.e. try a risk-free or less risky option).
2. Prevention (e.g. erect a machine guard, or add a non-slip surface to a pathway).
3. Reorganise work to reduce exposure to a risk. A basic rule is to adapt the work to the worker. In an
office, ensure chairs and display screen equipment (DSE) are adjustable to the individual, and plan
all work involving a computer to include regular breaks. For monotonous or routine work, introduce
work variety and greater control over work. In call centres, introduce work variety by providing
work off the phones and varying the type of calls handled.
4. As a last resort, issue personal protective equipment (PPE) to all staff at risk, and make sure they
are trained in when and how to use this equipment, such as appropriate eye protection, gloves,
special clothing, footwear.
5. Provide training in safe working systems.
6. Provide information on likely hazards and how to avoid them.
7. Provide social and welfare facilities, such as washing facilities for the removal of contamination, or a
rest room.
HOW OFTEN SHOULD A RISK ASSESSMENTTAKE PLACE?
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) says risk should be assessed "every time there are new
machines, substances and procedures, which could lead to new hazards."
An employer should carry out a risk assessment:

 whenever a new job brings in significant new hazards. If there is high staff turnover, then the way
new staff do their work should be checked against the risk assessment, and training provided in safe
working practices if necessary;
 whenever something happens to alert the employer to the presence of a hazard – for example, an
unusual volume of sickness absence, complaints of stress and bullying, or unusually high staff
turnover;
 in response to particular changes to the level of risk to individual employees – for example, where
an employee returns to work after a period of long-term sickness absence; or
Where an employee is pregnant or breastfeeding and her work might involve a risk to her or her
unborn child’s health and safety. (Regulation 16, Management of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations 1999).
Basic Electrical Safety Rule(s)
The OSHA regulation regarding electrical safe practices states two very important basic
points. The first is that live parts shall be de- energized before working on or near them. The
second point is that even after the exposed parts have been de- energized, they shall still be
treated as energized until they are locked out and/or tagged out. That is why the BASIC
RULE for electrical safe practices procedure is stated as follows.
ALL ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS, BARE OR INSULATED, ARE
ASSUMED TO BE ENERGIZED UNTIL PROVEN OTHERWISE. THEY SHALL BE
DE-ENERGIZED, LOCKED OUT AND TESTED FOR THE ABSENCE OF
VOLTAGE BEFORE WORKING ON THEM OR WORKING NEAR THEM. WORK
ON ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS MAY ONLY BE PERFORMED BY
QUALIFIED PERSONNEL WHO HAVE BEEN AUTHORIZED TO DO THE
WORK.
As with any procedure, revisions are commonplace. Workers should always check to
ensure they are working from the latest revision when using a procedure.
The safest way to avoid electrical hazards is to de-energize the conductors to be worked on or
near, and, assure that they cannot be re-energized. This is known as putting the conductors in
an electrically safe work condition and should always be your first consideration.
An electrically safe work condition will be achieved and verified by the following process:
• Determine all possible sources of electrical supply to the specific equipment. Check
applicable up-to date drawings, diagrams and identification tags.
• After properly interrupting the load current, open the disconnecting device(s) for each
source.
• Where it is possible, visually verify that all blades of the disconnecting devices are fully
open or that drawout type circuit breakers are withdrawn to the fully disconnected
position.
• Apply lockout/tagout devices in accordance with a documented and established policy.

5) Use adequately rated voltage detector to test each phase conductor or circuit part to verify
they are de-energized. Before and after each test, determine the voltage detector is operating
satisfactorily.
• Where the possibility of induced voltages or stored electrical energy exists, ground the
phase conductors or circuit parts before touching them. Where it could be reasonably
anticipated that the conductors or circuit parts being de-energized could contact other
exposed energized conductors or circuit parts, apply ground connecting devices rated for
the available fault duty.

Power management notes of MDU,Rohtak 7th sem EEE

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Power management notes of MDU,Rohtak 7th sem EEE