This document is a historical study on Sri Lanka's pre and post-colonial socioeconomic, ethnic, and leadership issues, focusing on the civil war and its aftermath. It employs a qualitative methodology to analyze the country's history from the 6th century BC to 2009, addressing factors influencing ethnic unity, governance, and colonial impacts. The research highlights how past events and leadership decisions shape the current socio-political landscape and stresses the necessity for understanding history to prevent future conflicts.

1. Independence to Freedom
A Historical Country Study on Sri Lanka, its Pre and Post
Colonial Socioeconomic, Ethnic and Leadership Constitutions
By :
Samanga Prasanajith Amarasinghe

2. Introduction
 May 18th 2009, marked the ending to a long lasted battled between the LTTE
and the Sri Lankan Government which erupted in 1983 due to the lack of
proper leadership by the post colonial leaders of Sri Lanka.
 However, as Dr. Y. Ranjith Amarasinghe a pioneer in the Sri Lankan political
arena stated, “The lack of war doesn’t necessarily mean the existence of
peace”. Therefore with the ending of the Sri Lanka’s civil war the nation
must seek for answers in fixing the problems which caused the eruption of
1983.
 This study based on the Sri Lanka’s historical backdrop was conducted in
finding the answers for sustaining the post was developments of Sri Lanka
furthermore in proving that the answers to Sri Lanka’s post war development
lies in its own past.
2

3. Introduction (Cont)
 This presentation will address the key components of the research
study submitted by the author, hence it consist of the following
segments.
◦ The Nature of the Project
◦ The Scope of the Project
◦ The Limitations of the Project
◦ The level of Assumptions in the project
◦ The research Mythology utilized in the Project
◦ The Findings
◦ Conclusion
3

4. The Research Mythology
 The study of post war development of Sri Lanka via its
influential leader’s form the 6th century BC to present with a
focus on their impact on the history and socioeconomic of the
nation consist of multidisciplinary research thus the
methodology utilized in the research was Qualitative research
method.
 According to Thomas-Murray (2003):
The qualitative method involves an interpretive naturalistic
approach to its subject matter where the researcher study things
in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of them or
interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning the people bring to
them. (p. 1)
4

5. The Nature of the Project
 This qualitative research observes the history of Sri
Lanka from 6th century BC to post war era of 2009
AD highlighting the socioeconomic changes that
influenced the nation throughout the centuries due to
its geography, ethnicities, history, and colonization
via eight decisive stages of the nation’s history.
 After which, the study has the causes for postcolonial
insecurities along with the violent era. Following
which present indicative methods of post war
redevelopment through the history of Sri Lanka in
comparison to the nations is past.
5

6. The Limitations of the Project
 This study was limited due to the time periods being
summarized from 6th century BC to present covers a vast
array of events which cannot be captured as a whole in
every aspect.
 This study was limited due to the scholarly works obtained
for the purpose as there are so many books and study
materials deriving through the centuries of Sri Lankan
history only a limited amount of materials were chosen to
suit the needs of the research.
 This study was also limited due to the time frame granted in
presenting all the materials from 6th century BC to 2009 AD.
6

7. The levels of Assumptions
 There a three assumptions made on this thesis, first
being the literature selected for the research assessed
by the writer to be of validity in the research
proceeding, such as the information used based on the
Mahawansa the great chronology of Sri Lanka.
 The second assumption is the researcher’s conviction
that the possibility of the finding the answers to the Sri
Lankan future is hidden in its past socioeconomic
infrastructure.
 Third assumption made by the researcher is that the
results of the findings through this study will be of
great impact on all ethnicities of Sri Lanka alike, in
which despite being a good finding there will be some
or many who will not agree with the results.
7

8. The Scope of the Project
 In standing with the thesis statement of the project, an array
of literatures as Sannas, Rock carving, Engraves, Survey
reports, Colonial gazettes, Memoirs, additionally.
 Eyewitness accounts,
 Personal journals
 Scholarly journals
 Research from pre colonial to post war eras of Sri
Lanka has been also used.
 Through these literatures, the eight crucial stages of Sri
Lanka’s history that decided the outcome of the nation’s
current standing as a war, toned nation despite the past days
of great socio-economic stability was observed.
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9. The Problem at Hand
 Sri Lanka we engulfed in a 26 year
conflict with a sect of freedom fighters
known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam.
 Their Goal was to obtain a independent
Sri Lankan Army, SF Unit Passing
out Ceremony Eelam or a Tamil nation within Northern
Sri Lanka under their control.
 Reason for this need, is founded by
insensitivity, towards the needs of the Sri
Lankan minorities on behalf of the post
LTTE , Anti Armor Unit Parade colonial Leaders.
9

10. The Problem at Hand Cont.
 Additionally the foundation to the insensitivity
towards the Sri Lankan minorities during the post
colonial era was a result of the Separatist Mentality,
that was instilled among the natives by the
colonists.
 According to S.J Tambiah (1986):
“The Boss”, the two British over see the
 The administrative needs of the British Raj for a certain
building of a railroad, while the natives number of local English educated white collar workers and
become slaves in their own country. Author professionals, along with the activities of the Christian
obtained this from his private collection missionaries, who established a great number of schools
dispensing English and vernacular education, determined the
absolute numbers of Sri Lankans who were educated in
government and mission schools, and, even more
importantly, determined which segment of the local
population would be the primary beneficiaries. (p. 65)
10

11. The Findings
11

12. Pre 6 th Century BC
 There were Two Clans in Sri Lanka
◦ Naga : The Snake Worshipers
◦ Yaksha : Demon Worshipers, famous known
Yaksha is Ravana from the epic Ramayana.
 Around 6th Century BC a Tribe of North Indian
Temple drawing of Ravana,
settlers arrive in Sri Lanka
the King of Yakshas in Sri
lanka ( Ramayana)  Their leader named Vijaya, who marries a
Yaksha woman, claim the throne to the Yaksha
clan and establish their own, tribe named the
Sinhalese.
12

13. Yaksha Tribe
◦ Yakshas were a popular tribe in North India
who migrated to Sri Lanka at one time or the
another.
 According to Upinder Singh (2009):
It is difficult to estimate the antiquity of the Yakshas
and Yakshis. However, during 300 BCE- 200 BCE,
they were still an important part of the religious
landscape. These cults are often described as minor,
YAKSHA STELE. CENTRAL INDIA
Source : Author obtain the Image from
rural folk cults, but the evidence indicates otherwise.
asianartssource.com website The many imposing stone images of Yakshas and
Yakshis from Matura and elsewhere were evidently
products of urban workshops produced for urban
clients. (p. 430)
13

14. Naga Tribe
 Like the Yaksha, the Nagas were also a North
Indian tribe that migrated to Sri Lanka. But they
were more sophisticated and civilized than the
Yaksha Tribe.
 In his text the Return of the Serpents of Wisdom,
Naga Idols from India, still being
worshiped : Author obtain the
Mark Amaru Pinkhan reveals that Naga people’s
Image from Anubimb,com website
origins can be traced to the kingdom of Kashi on
the Ganges and Nagpur or the city of the Nagas
(Pinkham, 1996, p. 110).
14

15. Sinhala Tribe
 The Sinhala Tribe which settled in Sri Lanka
around 6th century BC, established by their leader
named Vijaya who is said to have been the prince
of Lala country in India.
 His father being known as Sinhabahu, ( Hand of
the Lion) and his grand father to be known as a
Lion or a nobleman of the Lion tribe, he called
Ancient Lion Flag of Sri Lanka:
Author obtained the image from
the new and the then dominant tribe Sinhalese (
sinhalaheritage.org website
People of the Lion).
15

16. Finding 1:We are all One
 Sinhalese being named as the ruling ethnic group, by
the British colonist, made one the boss over the
others. However, Sinhalese clan has the same
background as the Tamils, proven through the study.
◦ Naga ( Linked with the Tamils) were from India
◦ Sinhalese, founder Vijaya is from India, Lala region.
 Hence, both the Majority and the Large minority was
from India.
Aborigines of Sri Lanka:
Obtained from the authors Private
collection
 Yakshas were the oldest settlers in the island proven
through the Ramayana, and Mahawansa, and works of
Pliny, Ptolemy.
◦ Yaksha being the oldest tribe in Sri Lanka are Linked
with the modern day native jungle people or aborigines,
known as the Veddas of Sri Lanka were also from India.
16

17. Three ancient Tribes, Three ways of life what
happened?
 Pre 6th century BC and Post North Indian era, there were three tribes,
but through the studies conducted for the research despite wars fought
for territory, kingship and no ethnic violence was found.
 Instead the focal point of the Sri Lankan ancients was ethnic
assimilation.
 According to R.B Herath (2002):
 The mass migration of North Indians to the island had a big impact on its aboriginal culture. The
North Indian new comers were relatively more sophisticated people, with iron tools, advanced
agriculture, trading, and communication techniques. They started to use iron ploughs in preparing
the land for paddy cultivation. The indigenous community of Balangoda culture had to adapt to the
new ways or relocate inland to the forests. The migrants did, however, integrated with some of the
indigenous people of the island. The indigenous people who refused to assimilate the new comers
retreated to forests and continued to live as before. (pp. 12-13)
17

18. Ancient unity in three religions
 Ancient Ethnic unity exampled through Architecture.
 The ancient Guard stone a common architectural
component found in all Buddhist edifies wide spread
throughout ancient kingdoms.
 Observing these statues, one can see Buddhist, Yaksha, Naga beliefs
combined. The image is a image of a Naga King, symbolized by the seven
headed snake behind the statue. He is holding a stock of grain and a filled
jug, which symbolizes prosperity. However, to his left foot is small status
of what we call a Bhairava, a semi evil sprit that guards treasures, which
comes from Yaksha beliefs.
 The Purpose of these guard stones is to provide protection
to the Buddhist stupa, and temple complexes which holds
treasures.
A Guard Stone at Anuradhapura ◦ According to Willian Crooke (1896), “the Jainas worship Bhairava
built in 8 Century BC, Authors
Private collection
as the protector or agent of the Jaina church and community”
(p.108).
18

19. Finding 2 : Ancient Monarchy and the de-centralized
government system held the Ethnic unity.
 Ancient Sri Lankan monarchs unlike
their European counterparts were
more field based leaders.
 They were true leaders that led by
instilling inspiration, than by power.
Kandyan Nobles, Author obtained
the image from  According to G.C Mendis (1951):
Ranmangala.blogspot.com website
 They believed that by fasting and paying penance a
king could cause the rain to fall on a country
affected by drought and thus save it from harm. But
since similar deeds could be performed even by
others who had attained great spiritual powers, it did
not mean that kings were associated with any divine
powers, merely because they were kings. (p. 29)
19

20. Ancient Governing System
 Ancient governing system of Sri Lanka despite being a
monarchical rule, was a true democracy.
 The foundation system of government that controlled
all aspects of the ancient socioeconomic system was the
village council or Gansabaha the people in the frontline
decided the decisions for a individual village, or
collectively for a region.
Kandyan Chief, in the late 1800
author obtained this image from According to Lennox Mills (1964):
authors Private collection
 As in many primitive agricultural communities, the village had
possessed an organ of self-government in the Gansabhawa, a
council composed of representatives of the raiyats, which
regulated the affairs of the village and enforced its ancient
customary law. A very important part of this law was the binding
customs, which regulated every detail of agriculture, and in
particular assigned to each cultivator his share in the use and
preservation of irrigation works. (p. 131)
20

21. The results of the pre-colonial
system of Governing
 Established harmony, and peace among the people.
 According to Arnold Write (1999):
 Tamil soldiers were employed as mercenaries by the native kings; alliances in
marriage were repeatedly, almost regularly, made with the royal families of the
continent. A succession of Tamil conquerors invaded the island and usurped its
thrones. All these things, as well as the ordinary intercourse of commerce
between neighboring countries, familiarized the Sinhalese with the Hinduism
of the time. (p. 345)
 With the sustained peace among the people, the nation
was able to maintain a well developed economic stability
as well.
 According to James Duncan (1990):
 During the early period, the system of irrigation agriculture was highly
developed both technically and in terms of social organization. In many
respects, it was comparable to the more widely known hydraulic civilizations
Village Scene in the late 1903 such as found in the ancient Middle East and china. The Sinhalese engineer
author obtained this image from constructed a multitude of cisterns, and were the first to invent the valve pit and
authors Private collection other sophisticated irrigation techniques. (p. 28)
21

22. The results of the pre-colonial system of
Governing Cont.
 The village councils being the central decision
maker, as well as the main trade being paddy
cultivation, the people were compelled to place
their differences aside and unit as a collective.
 In addition it this strengthened the family unit
which hold the foundation to any socioeconomic
system, making Sri Lanka into a strong nation.
 According to G.C Mendis (1951):
 The people, therefore, organized themselves in small bodies
for their own protection and for the carrying on of their
activities, which needed co-operation. The families which
were closely connected usually banded together in order to
protect their members, and looked after those who through
sickness or old age were unable to provide for themselves.
(p. 28)
22

23. Colonial Occupation
23

24. Portuguese
 The Portuguese rule in Sri Lanka was a militaristic regime
overwhelmed by constant battles with the natives and the
native rulers.
 Portuguese methods of force conversations towards
Christianity inflicted sizable damage to the Sri Lankan
socioeconomic structure, which was founded in a
Buddhist, and Hindu based structure.
A Roman catholic church in  According to Colin Metcalfe Enriquez (1884):
Colombo, author obtained this
image from chest of books website The exasperated Portuguese now continued the struggle
under the Villainous Jerome Azavedu, whose barbarities
included the slaughter of women and babies with every
appropriate refinement. It was this devil who made a pub
about Galle while massacring its children “How the young
Gallos (cocks) Crow.” (p. 116)
24

25. Portuguese Changes
 Mass conversion of the natives, the Portuguese build
mission schools, where a strong Christian based education
was provided to the natives in all three languages as
Portuguese, Sinhalese, or Tamil.
 A new social class was developed in the Portuguese
occupied low countries of Sri Lanka. What is more, is that
until the collapse of the colonial system, many of the new
elite families, that held prominence in the Sri Lankan
society, bore roots to this era.
The portuguese building a fort, using
local labor author obtained this image
from Lankapura.com website
 Ancient system of duties to the King or the Rajakariya, used
by the ancient kings in obtaining support for the
development of irrigation systems, religious edifices and
cities was utilized by the Portuguese for construction and
military purposes (Nubin, 2002, p. 108)
25

26. Dutch
◦ Dutch came to Sri Lanka in their attempt to obtain total control of
the south Asian spice trade from the Portuguese (Dijk,2006,P.58).
◦ The King of Sri Lanka signed a treaty with the Dutch representatives
to hand all Portuguese possessions in return for their support in
ridding the nation of the portuguese (De Silva, 1988, P.42).
◦ But this friendship between the two nation was dissolved due to the
Dutch exploiting the conditions of the agreement (Augustus,
1841,P.2).
 According to Augustus De Butts (1841):
The European colonists were only able to retain possession of the coast,
and of a belt of land encircling the island, varying from twenty to thirty
The Dutch drawing of king
Rajasinha, with a Dutch official. miles in breadth. This, after many severe contests with the natives, was
author obtained this image from his
private collection secured to the Dutch by treaties, which were, however, violated whenever
the interests of either of the contending parties prompted them so to do.
(P.2)
26

27. Dutch Changes
 The Dutch as the Portuguese exercised a military based totalitarian rule over
their subjects residing in the low lands of the Island, however unlike the
Portuguese they were much placid concerning religious conversions
(Ferguson,1883).
◦ According to John Ferguson (1883), “pursued a far more enlightened administrative
policy; though, as regards commerce, it was selfish and oppressive” (Ferguson, 1883,
p. 5)
 The Dutch differing from the Portuguese encouraged and balanced the paddy
cultivation, which enabled the old social structure to be maintained in some
form or the other.
The Dutch drawing of king  The Dutch Roman Law, Protestantism, and their attempts on assimilating with
Wimaladharmasuriya, with a Dutch
official. author obtained this image the locals can be observed as the most impacting influences, which were
from Riola Sri lanka travel website
carried throughout the postcolonial history of Sri Lanka (Schrikker, 2007, P
51).
 Also the Dutch education system, which focused on converting the local
peoples to become Dutch loyalists, as well as the creation of the new ethnic
group called the Dutch Burghers, a mix of Dutch and native people.
27

28. British
 The British first established themselves in Sri Lanka
with a treaty that gained them the rights for the trade
and authority over the Dutch controlled areas in Sri
Lanka in return for their support in ridding the Dutch
out of the nation (Reddy,2003).
 The British unlike their previous colonists unitized well
established methods of dominion, same way they
further utilized advance technology, and practices in
The British Governor with the
Kandyan nobles author obtained
this image from his private
slowly taking control of the whole nation (Reddy,2003,
collection pp. 61-62).
 Eventually by 1815, the British replaced the once
strong monarchial system of Sri lanka with the British
administration, ripping the country of its uniting factors
(Ferguson, 1893, pp.204-223).
28

29. British Changes
 In 1815 Obtained the full dominions of the country including the
kingdom of Kandy establishing the crown of England as the
monarch of the Island.
 Took the power away from the Sri Lanka’s ruling elites and gave
it to people that favored the British.
 With the power of the ruling elites given to anyone who speak
English and bow to the British, paved the way to a new social
The British Raj in Colombo early elite group.
1900 author obtained this image
from his private collection
 The British also created various reforms which took the
authority and power away from Buddhist monasteries which held
the foundation to Sri Lanka’s identity and unity.
 Established centralized rule doing away with the Rajakariya and
the old de-centralized governing system of the village councils
where everybody was part of the decision making.
29

30. British Changes Cont.
 Introduced British education system, similar to the
one used in England, and establishing formal
schools with an education designed by the British.
 The British also exploited land which they obtained
through their implemented legislatures.
 Introduced imbalanced modernization, where they
The Archduke Franz Ferdinand during
his visit to Sri Lanka, author obtained
developed areas which they did business with while
this image from his private collection
abandoning other sectors.
 The British also began the introduction of cash crops
as Tea, Coconut, Rubber and spices which benefited
the crown, and in working these began a mass
migration of laborers from south India.
30

31. Post Colonial Systems
 In February 4th 1948 Sri Lanka obtained it’s independence, however the
leadership of the nation fell to the members of the new social elites (Desilva,
1981).
 The new administration had some vital question to be resolved in benefiting
the nation to maintain a sustained growth mentioning few are.
◦ National language
◦ Indian Tamil citizenship concerns
◦ Rights of the minorities
The second prime minister of Sri
Lanka, S.W.R.D Bandaranaike on
the right side, author obtained this
image from his private collection
 The various systems of governing which followed the independence failed to
address these concerns. Furthermore the leaders of post colonial Sri lanka,
being lenient towards the decayed Sinhalese systems, and heritages began
favoring the majority.
 This led to various protests by the minorities, which resulted in the outbreak of
the 1950’s riots.
31

32. Violent Stage
 Anti Tamil demonstrations as 1953 Harthal, 1958 and Gal
Oya, also the 1977 Anti Tamil Riots that ended in Sri
Lankan Black July of 1983 killing close to 400 - 3,000
(Tambaiah, 1996).
 Two of these uprisings were due to JVP (Janatha Vimukthi
The Black July 1983 image of
Colombo, and the burned shops in Peramuna) insurgencies, which occurred in 1971 and 1987,
the background. Author obtained
this image from JDS website resulting in approximately 60,000 people being killed by the
year 1990 (Staff, 1992)
 Between years 2000 and 2009, a total of 13,503 civilians and
27,827 soldiers on were killed by the uprising (Singh, 2009).
32

33. Results of the Violence
 1982 to 1996 Sri Lanka’s defense expenditure
increased from 3.1 % to 21.6% of the total
government expenditure (Central, 2010).
 Central Bank of Sri Lanka’s review of the economy
annual report a total estimated lost GDP of Rupees
615 Million to Rs. 12,045 Million was recorded
between 1984 and 1996 (Central,2010).
 Approximately 186,935 human lives were lost within
a period of 38 years from 1971 to 2007 (AFP, 2009).
 In 1990, 26,935 people were extra judicially killed
“Disappearances” (Senanayake, 2001)
33

34. Conclusion
 Proven by the study, Sri Lanka the 32 year conflict inflicted much
damages to the nations socio economic growth. Furthermore the
study also established that the reason for the conflict was a result of
the colonial and post colonial separatist mentality. Furthermore
triggering reasons for the civil disruption also was due to the
negligence on behalf of the post colonial leader of Sri Lanka on
uniting the ethnicities of the nation. Additionally in looking back
the study prove that Sri Lanka even during the ancient times
maintained three ethnic groups.
34

35. Conclusion Cont.
 During the ancient times wars or on the basis of race
was not deployed against another human being. Instead
they practiced ethnic assimilation, which made Sri
lanka into an glories and prosperous nation among the
ancient nations of the world. Therefore in obtaining a
sustained growth in the post war Sri lanka the leaders
must focus on uniting the ethnicities and addressing the
future concerns for the nation as a collective.
35

36. Reference
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 Central, B. o. (2010, March 30). International Center for Ethnic Studies. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from Sri
Lanka: Cost of war: http://www.ices.lk/sl_database/ethnic_conflict/cost_of_war.shtml#Table%202
 Crooke, W. (1896). The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Vol. I). Westminister: Archibald
Constable & Co.
 De Silva, K. M. (1981). A history of Sri Lanka. London: C.Hurst & Co.Ltd.,.
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Agricultural and Commercial Enterprises. London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington.
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37. Reference Cont.
 Mendis, G. C. (1951). The Early History of Ceylon Or The Indian Period of Ceylon. Culcutta: Y.M.C.A
Publishing.
 Mills, L. A. (1964). Ceylon under British rule, 1795-1932: With an Account of the East India Company's
Embassies to Kandy 1762-1795. Oxon: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd.
 Pinkham, M. A. (1996). The Return of the Serpents of Wisdom. Kempton: Adventures Unlimited
Publications.
 Reddy, L. R. (2003). Sri Lanka: Past and Present. New Delhi: A.P.H Publishing Corporation.
 Schrikker, A. (2007). Dutch and British colonial intervention in Sri Lanka, 1780-1815: Expansion and
Reform. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV.
 Senanayake, D. R. (2001). Dysfunctional Democracy and the Dirty War in Sri Lanka. East West Center
Analysis on Asia Pacific Issues , 1-8.
 Strong, J. (2004). Relics of the Buddha. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
 Tambiah, J. S. (1986). Sri Lanka: ethnic fratricide and the dismantling of democracy. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
 Upinder, S. (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th
Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
 Wenzlhuemer, R. (2008). From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880-1900: An Economic and
Social. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV.
 Wijewardene, W. A. (2009, February 10). Lanka Business Online. Retrieved May 14, 2010, from
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