The document outlines key concepts in ecology, including:
1) Organisms require food, water, shelter and space to reproduce, and habitats provide these needs through biotic and abiotic factors like water, sunlight, and temperature.
2) Population size can be determined directly by counting, indirectly through evidence, through sampling, or mark and recapture methods. Population size fluctuates based on birth, death, immigration and emigration rates.
3) Organisms interact through adaptations, competition for resources, predation relationships, and symbiotic relationships like mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
This presentation by Jonathan Ali, a PhD student at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, was presented at the Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute’s Research Forum on Thursday, May 11, 2017. Jonathan is a 2016-2017 student support grantee of the Institute.
This presentation by Jonathan Ali, a PhD student at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, was presented at the Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute’s Research Forum on Thursday, May 11, 2017. Jonathan is a 2016-2017 student support grantee of the Institute.
Wetlands mainly encompass any land which is saturated or covered with water for all or throughout the year and doesn’t fall under into grassland, cropland, or forest land (Zedler et al. 2). As in the case of any other ecosystem, the overall carbon IV oxide and methane flux are due to the balance between the release of carbon by decomposition and carbon absorption from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Both the rates of carbon absorption and decay losses are mainly influenced by nutrient, climate, water saturation, and oxygen availability (Inglett 1)
Nevertheless, aerobic conditions that are plenty in a large percentage of the upland ecosystems results to the releasing of carbon IV oxide (CO2) while methane (CH4) emissions remain prevalent in the anaerobic conditions. Furthermore, the establishment of the wetlands via flooding end up altering the pattern of the greenhouse gas production and emissions towards the greater CO2 emissions and CH4 emissions (Hong-Suk 13). Depending on the characteristics of the reservoir and the climate, both CH4 and CO2 can be released from the decaying of the submerged biomass as well as the general decomposition of the inundated of the dissolved organic materials and soil organic matter.
An Introduction to Ecology 1
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
In pollution stressed environment, change in the community structure is refl ected in the diversity pattern of the component species. These changes can be quantifi ed as diversity indices, which are useful
in water quality monitoring
The structural components of an ecosystem consist of nonliving arena and the living organisms.
They are terms as Abiotic compounds and Biotic compounds.
Presentation by President of the Cary Institute of Ecosystems Studies Joshua Ginsberg for a forum on sustainable farming practices. www.caryinstitute.org/forum-farm
Which of the following is a renewable resourceA. Minerals.docxlashandaotley
Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A.
Minerals
B.
Fossil fuels
C.
Land
D.
Wind
2.
Which of the following examples of an ecological study involves the ecosystem level of organization?
A.
The effects of competition on survival
B.
The effects of a disease on population size
C.
The effects of an invasive plant species on bird nesting sites
D.
The effects of human activities on biogeochemical cycling
3.
The nitrogen utilized by
most
plants is derived from
A.
the atmosphere.
B.
nitrogen gas.
C.
soil.
D.
decayed organic matter.
4.
Which one of the following conditions is an example of resource partitioning?
A.
A species of butterfly and a species of bee that pollinate the same flower
B.
Two species of birds that eat fruit from the same tree
C.
Two species of squirrels—one that eats acorns from the branches and one that eats acorns that have fallen to the ground
D.
Two species of mice—one that eats seeds and the other that eats insects
5.
Which one of the following phrases describes many countries within Asia and Africa?
A.
LDCs experiencing rapid population growth
B.
LDCs experiencing slow population growth
C.
MDCs experiencing rapid population growth
D.
MDCs experiencing slow population growth
6.
A source from which organisms generally take elements is called a/an
A.
reservoir.
B.
biotic community.
C.
exchange pool.
D.
food web.
7.
Which of the following was one result of the Green Revolution?
A.
An increased reliance on polyculture agriculture
B.
The protection of species diversity
C.
An increase in the yield of crops for less-developed countries
D.
The conservation of topsoil
8.
Which one of the following interspecies relationships has a negative effect on both species?
A.
Predation
B.
Parasitism
C.
Competition
D.
Commensalism
9.
Which of the following factors will have a greater impact on a population as the density of that
population increases?
A.
Natural disaster
B.
Climate
C.
Weather
D.
Predation
10.
Study the following food chain:
grass → snakes → rabbits → hawks.
From this chain, you can
correctly assume that each population
A.
is a carnivore.
B.
is always larger than the one before it.
C.
is a species of herbivore.
D.
supports the next trophic level.
11.
The life history pattern in which population growth is logistic is called
A.
biotic potential.
B.
opportunistic pattern.
C.
equilibrium pattern.
D.
population density.
12.
Modern fishing practices threaten biodiversity mainly through the
A.
accidental capture of unwanted species.
B.
chemical poisoning of the water.
C.
physical destruction of marine habitats.
D.
removal of community food supplies.
13.
In which of the following relationships do both species benefit?
End of exam
A.
Mutualism
B.
Commensalism
C.
Parasitism
D.
Competition
14.
A complex of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem is called a/an
A.
food web.
B.
ecosys.
Wetlands mainly encompass any land which is saturated or covered with water for all or throughout the year and doesn’t fall under into grassland, cropland, or forest land (Zedler et al. 2). As in the case of any other ecosystem, the overall carbon IV oxide and methane flux are due to the balance between the release of carbon by decomposition and carbon absorption from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Both the rates of carbon absorption and decay losses are mainly influenced by nutrient, climate, water saturation, and oxygen availability (Inglett 1)
Nevertheless, aerobic conditions that are plenty in a large percentage of the upland ecosystems results to the releasing of carbon IV oxide (CO2) while methane (CH4) emissions remain prevalent in the anaerobic conditions. Furthermore, the establishment of the wetlands via flooding end up altering the pattern of the greenhouse gas production and emissions towards the greater CO2 emissions and CH4 emissions (Hong-Suk 13). Depending on the characteristics of the reservoir and the climate, both CH4 and CO2 can be released from the decaying of the submerged biomass as well as the general decomposition of the inundated of the dissolved organic materials and soil organic matter.
An Introduction to Ecology 1
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
In pollution stressed environment, change in the community structure is refl ected in the diversity pattern of the component species. These changes can be quantifi ed as diversity indices, which are useful
in water quality monitoring
The structural components of an ecosystem consist of nonliving arena and the living organisms.
They are terms as Abiotic compounds and Biotic compounds.
Presentation by President of the Cary Institute of Ecosystems Studies Joshua Ginsberg for a forum on sustainable farming practices. www.caryinstitute.org/forum-farm
Which of the following is a renewable resourceA. Minerals.docxlashandaotley
Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A.
Minerals
B.
Fossil fuels
C.
Land
D.
Wind
2.
Which of the following examples of an ecological study involves the ecosystem level of organization?
A.
The effects of competition on survival
B.
The effects of a disease on population size
C.
The effects of an invasive plant species on bird nesting sites
D.
The effects of human activities on biogeochemical cycling
3.
The nitrogen utilized by
most
plants is derived from
A.
the atmosphere.
B.
nitrogen gas.
C.
soil.
D.
decayed organic matter.
4.
Which one of the following conditions is an example of resource partitioning?
A.
A species of butterfly and a species of bee that pollinate the same flower
B.
Two species of birds that eat fruit from the same tree
C.
Two species of squirrels—one that eats acorns from the branches and one that eats acorns that have fallen to the ground
D.
Two species of mice—one that eats seeds and the other that eats insects
5.
Which one of the following phrases describes many countries within Asia and Africa?
A.
LDCs experiencing rapid population growth
B.
LDCs experiencing slow population growth
C.
MDCs experiencing rapid population growth
D.
MDCs experiencing slow population growth
6.
A source from which organisms generally take elements is called a/an
A.
reservoir.
B.
biotic community.
C.
exchange pool.
D.
food web.
7.
Which of the following was one result of the Green Revolution?
A.
An increased reliance on polyculture agriculture
B.
The protection of species diversity
C.
An increase in the yield of crops for less-developed countries
D.
The conservation of topsoil
8.
Which one of the following interspecies relationships has a negative effect on both species?
A.
Predation
B.
Parasitism
C.
Competition
D.
Commensalism
9.
Which of the following factors will have a greater impact on a population as the density of that
population increases?
A.
Natural disaster
B.
Climate
C.
Weather
D.
Predation
10.
Study the following food chain:
grass → snakes → rabbits → hawks.
From this chain, you can
correctly assume that each population
A.
is a carnivore.
B.
is always larger than the one before it.
C.
is a species of herbivore.
D.
supports the next trophic level.
11.
The life history pattern in which population growth is logistic is called
A.
biotic potential.
B.
opportunistic pattern.
C.
equilibrium pattern.
D.
population density.
12.
Modern fishing practices threaten biodiversity mainly through the
A.
accidental capture of unwanted species.
B.
chemical poisoning of the water.
C.
physical destruction of marine habitats.
D.
removal of community food supplies.
13.
In which of the following relationships do both species benefit?
End of exam
A.
Mutualism
B.
Commensalism
C.
Parasitism
D.
Competition
14.
A complex of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem is called a/an
A.
food web.
B.
ecosys.
1. An example of primary productivity would beA. a wild raspsandibabcock
1. An example of primary productivity would be
A. a wild raspberry plant growing 30 grams of new leaf mass during a day of photosynthesis.
B. a young oriole growing 10 grams of muscle during a feeding trip to a raspberry bush.
C. a young hawk growing 10 more grams of body mass by killing and eating a young oriole.
D. more than one of the above.
2. Diversity refers to
A. number of different species present
B. number of ecological niches
C. amount of genetic diversity
D. all of the above
3. An ecosystem consists of
A. A physical environment within which a biological community lives
B. The species with which a biological community interacts
C. A biological community and its physical environment
D. The primary producers within a biological community
E. All the species in a biological community
4. A keystone species is a species whose presence
A. Is the main reason a community exists
B. Provides food for all other species in a community
C. Is an indicator of environmental health
D. Influences the population size of many other species in its community
E. Is always at the top of the trophic levels as a top predator
5. Biomass includes all
A. Material in an ecosystem
B. Things that are living at a given time
C. Living and nonliving things
D. Matter produced by primary producers
E. Biological material
6. No two species can occupy the same ecological niche as one species will outcompete the other one.
A. True
B. False
7. Succession can produce changes in soil, degree of shade, available moisture, and species membership of a community.
A True
B False
8. Cheetahs can run extremely fast because
A. They need to run extremely fast in order to catch their prey
B. An ancestor that was able to run fast had an advantage and passed those genes on to its offspring
C. Over time they gradually built up speed as they adapted to faster and faster prey species
D. They are competing with stronger lions and hyenas for their food so they need to be fast
E. All of these are reasons cheetahs can run extremely fast
9. Most organisms' niches are controlled by
A. Genetic determinants
B. Lessons learned from parents
C. Behavior learned from others in their social groups
D. Luck
E. The predators and competitors they encounter
10. A biological community's productivity is a measure of
A. Its number of species
B. The number of individuals in the community
C. Available solar energy that can be converted to biomass
D. The amount of biomass produced in the community
E. All of these are combined in measuring a community's productivity
11. Primary succession occurs when a community develops ____________ while secondary succession occurs when one ________.
A. Into a climax community; species replaces another
B. And replaces another; ecosystem becomes stable
C. On unoccupied ground; biological community replaces another
D. And then fails; niche changes
E. Intraspecific competition; experiences inte ...
1. An example of primary productivity would beA. a wild raspberrsandibabcock
1. An example of primary productivity would be
A. a wild raspberry plant growing 30 grams of new leaf mass during a day of photosynthesis.
B. a young oriole growing 10 grams of muscle during a feeding trip to a raspberry bush.
C. a young hawk growing 10 more grams of body mass by killing and eating a young oriole.
D. more than one of the above.
2. Diversity refers to
A. number of different species present
B. number of ecological niches
C. amount of genetic diversity
D. all of the above
3. An ecosystem consists of
A. A physical environment within which a biological community lives
B. The species with which a biological community interacts
C. A biological community and its physical environment
D. The primary producers within a biological community
E. All the species in a biological community
4. A keystone species is a species whose presence
A. Is the main reason a community exists
B. Provides food for all other species in a community
C. Is an indicator of environmental health
D. Influences the population size of many other species in its community
E. Is always at the top of the trophic levels as a top predator
5. Biomass includes all
A. Material in an ecosystem
B. Things that are living at a given time
C. Living and nonliving things
D. Matter produced by primary producers
E. Biological material
6. No two species can occupy the same ecological niche as one species will outcompete the other one.
A. True
B. False
7. Succession can produce changes in soil, degree of shade, available moisture, and species membership of a community.
A True
B False
8. Cheetahs can run extremely fast because
A. They need to run extremely fast in order to catch their prey
B. An ancestor that was able to run fast had an advantage and passed those genes on to its offspring
C. Over time they gradually built up speed as they adapted to faster and faster prey species
D. They are competing with stronger lions and hyenas for their food so they need to be fast
E. All of these are reasons cheetahs can run extremely fast
9. Most organisms' niches are controlled by
A. Genetic determinants
B. Lessons learned from parents
C. Behavior learned from others in their social groups
D. Luck
E. The predators and competitors they encounter
10. A biological community's productivity is a measure of
A. Its number of species
B. The number of individuals in the community
C. Available solar energy that can be converted to biomass
D. The amount of biomass produced in the community
E. All of these are combined in measuring a community's productivity
11. Primary succession occurs when a community develops ____________ while secondary succession occurs when one ________.
A. Into a climax community; species replaces another
B. And replaces another; ecosystem becomes stable
C. On unoccupied ground; biological community replaces another
D. And then fails; niche changes
E. Intraspecific competition; experiences interspecific competitio ...
EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE CONSIDER LECTURES UP TO 26 FEB and TEXT Bgalinagrabow44ms
EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE
CONSIDER LECTURES UP TO 26 FEB and TEXT BOOK CHAPTERS UP THOURGH MODULE 4.1 (Through HUMAN POPULATIONS)
1.
Give a basic definition of biodiversity.
2.
Which of the following accurately reflects the connection between science, decision-making, and environmental science? a. Science and environmental science rely on evidence; good decision-making only sometimes relies on evidence.
b. Science and good decision-making rely on evidence; environmental science does not always rely on evidence.
c. Science relies on good decision-making and environmental science relies on evidence.
d. Science and good decision-making relies on evidence; environmental science relies on good decision-making.
e. Science and good decision-making rely on evidence; environmental science relies on evidence.
3.
Compare the life history strategy of a deer mouse with that of a bear, and identify each as either an r- or K-selected species.
4.
Why are tertiary information sources considered less reliable than primary and secondary sources? What is a primary source?
5.
What is an environmental footprint? How is this used to measure sustainability?
6.
Scientists have studied the impact of clear cutting forests on erosion and waterways. They know that clear cutting will cause erosion and waterways will suffer the impact of sediment loading. Evaluate the situation and choose the statement that best explains how humans may perceive the risks involved.
a. Since the chance of disaster is low humans will not have biases about this situation.
b. Although the seriousness of the impact is well known people’s judgment may still vary dramatically.
c. All people understand this situation and will work together on a solution. d. Both a and c
e. None of the above
7.
Why are some people more vulnerable to toxic substances than other people, even if exposed to the same dose?
8.
Explain how a composting toilet works. Use a diagram to explain the cycling of water and organic matter.
9.
Distinguish between chronic and acute effects cuased by exposure to toxic substances.
10.
List THREE abiotic parameters and THREE biotic parameters: ABIOTIC
1
2
3
BIOTIC
1
2
3
11.
Which of the following best describes ecosystem capital? a. mineral and living resources of the earth.
b. living organisms and other renewable resources of the earth.
c. natural resources such as forests and fisheries.
d. natural resources (goods) and services provided by ecosystems
e. ecosystem services that support life on earth
12.
Refer to the figure below to determine which country has the lowest population size but the highest density?
a. Asia
b. South Africa
c. Eastern Europe
d. Western Europe
e. Oceania
13.
List three of the things you might measure to determine your ecolo ...
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
TESDA TM1 REVIEWER FOR NATIONAL ASSESSMENT WRITTEN AND ORAL QUESTIONS WITH A...
Populations
1.
2. I. Environment A. Organism Needs 1. Food 2. Water 3. Shelter 4. Reproduce B. Habitat (place to provide above) 1. Biotic Factors i. Life influences
3. 2. Abiotic Factors (non-living) i. Water ii. Sunlight iii. Oxygen iv. Temperature v. Soil
4. C. Levels of Organization 1. Species: Group that can reproduce 2. Population: All of one species in an area 3. Community: all populations in an area 4. Ecosystem: Community + Non-living surroundings i. Ecologist
5.
6. II. Population Studies A. Determining Size 1. Direct (counting) 2. Indirect: Evidence of organisms 3. Sampling: Estimation 4. Mark and Recapture
7. B. Changes 1. Key Factors i. Birth Rate ii. Death Rate iii. Immigration: Moving In iv. Emigration: Moving Out 2. Population Graphs 3. Density
8. C. Limiting Factors 1. Food and Water i. Carrying Capacity (Maximum amount) 2. Space 3. Weather
9. III. Interactions A. Adaptations 1. Natural Selection: Best survive to make next generation 2. Niche: How an animal makes its living
11. C. Predation 1. One animal kills another i. Predator = Killer ii. Prey = Animal being attacked 2. Population Size 3. Adaptations
12.
13. D. Symbiosis 1. Mutualism: Both benefit 2. Commensalism: One benefits, other not harmed 3. Parasitism i. Parasite: One Benefits ii. Host: One harmed
14. IV. Changes A. Primary Succession 1. Pioneer Species: First to reach a new area i. Break apart rock ii. Death leads to first soils ii. Brought in by wind
