The document discusses various political reasons why governments intervene in trade, supported by examples. Governments intervene to protect jobs and industries through subsidies or tariffs. They also intervene for retaliation, protecting consumers, national security reasons, and humanitarian concerns. However, government interventions can have both positive and negative outcomes, so consideration of pros and cons is important. International managers must understand the political environment and trade barriers of different countries.
Environmental influences on pricing decisions are discussed like currency fluctuations, exchange rat clauses, effect of inflation , government policies, competition etc.
Presentation on international business( differences in culture)Md. Sourav Hossain
This assignment will help every student for making their assignment and presentation better and effective. From it every student will understand the cultural differences in the world.
1. Introduction to International Business, Globalization and Trading Environm...Charu Rastogi
This presentation explores meaning and features of International Business Management, meaning of Globalization, dimensions of globalization, stages of globalization and advantages and disadvantages of globalization. It also talks about the trading environment of International Trade
Environmental influences on pricing decisions are discussed like currency fluctuations, exchange rat clauses, effect of inflation , government policies, competition etc.
Presentation on international business( differences in culture)Md. Sourav Hossain
This assignment will help every student for making their assignment and presentation better and effective. From it every student will understand the cultural differences in the world.
1. Introduction to International Business, Globalization and Trading Environm...Charu Rastogi
This presentation explores meaning and features of International Business Management, meaning of Globalization, dimensions of globalization, stages of globalization and advantages and disadvantages of globalization. It also talks about the trading environment of International Trade
6 Business–Government Trade Relations
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
1Describe the political, economic, and cultural motives behind governmental intervention in trade.
2List and explain the methods governments use to promote international trade.
3List and explain the methods governments use to restrict international trade.
4Discuss the importance of the World Trade Organization in promoting free trade.
A LOOKBACK
Chapter 5 explored theories that have been developed to explain the pattern that international trade should take. We examined the important concept of comparative advantage and the conceptual basis for how international trade benefits nations.
A LOOKAT THIS CHAPTER
This chapter discusses the active role of national governments in international trade. We examine the motives for government intervention and the tools that nations use to accomplish their goals. We then explore the global trading system and show how it promotes free trade.
A LOOKAHEAD
Chapter 7 continues our discussion of the international business environment. We explore recent patterns of foreign direct investment, theories that try to explain why it occurs, and the role of governments in influencing investment flows.
Lord of the Media
Hollywood, California — Time Warner (www.timewarner.com) is the world’s leading media and entertainment company and earns around $46 billion annually. Its businesses include television networks (HBO, Turner Broadcasting), publishing (Time, Sports Illustrated), and film entertainment (New Line Cinema, Warner Bros.). As Time Warner marches across the globe, people in almost every nation on the planet view its media creations.
New Line Cinema’s The Lord of the Rings trilogy (based on the tale by J.R.R. Tolkien) is the most successful film franchise in history. The final installment in the trilogy, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, earned more than $1 billion at the worldwide box office. The entire trilogy earned nearly $3 billion worldwide and won 17 Academy Awards. New Line is now producing the prequel to The Lord of the Rings series, The Hobbit.
Source: David James/Warner Bros/Courtesy of Warner Bros./Bureau L.A. Co./CORBIS-NY.
Warner Bros.’s ongoing Harry Potter films, based on the novels of former British schoolteacher J.K. Rowling, have been magically successful. Kids worldwide snatched up Harry Potter books in every major language and now pour into cinemas to watch young Harry on the silver screen. Warner Bros. also hit it big in 2008 with the Batman film, The Dark Knight—one of the highest-grossing films ever. The company also produces mini-movies and games exclusively for its Web site.
Yet Time Warner must tread carefully as it expands its reach. Some governments fear that their own nations’ writers, actors, directors, and producers will be drowned out by big-budget Hollywood productions such as The Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter. Others fear the replacement of their tradition.
What perspective on diplomacy best defines the character of trade diplomacy i...Amougou Aristide Agbor
This paper argues that the character of trade diplomacy in the 21st century, consisting of multiple actors interacting on multiple agendas in multiple arenas, is better framed by the post-globalist perspective. Contrary to statist narratives, governments have been compelled to “share their space” on trade governance with other actors such as civil society and economic agendas have gained as much importance as political issues. However, the globalist argument depicting the demise of the state is inconsistent with the prevailing situation characterised by governments being the sole legitimate signatories of international trade agreements as well as the principal authorities within the geographical delimitations of trade regimes.
6 The Political Environment A CRITICAL CONCERNCHAPTER OUTLINE.docxevonnehoggarth79783
6: The Political Environment: A CRITICAL CONCERN
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Global Perspective: World Trade Goes Bananas
The Sovereignty of Nations
Stability of Government Policies
Forms of Government
Political Parties
Nationalism
Targeted Fear and/or Animosity
Trade Disputes
Political Risks of Global Business
Confiscation, Expropriation, and Domestication
Economic Risks
Political Sanctions
Political and Social Activists and Nongovernmental Organizations
Violence, Terrorism, and War
Cyberterrorism and Cybercrime
Assessing Political Vulnerability
Politically Sensitive Products and Issues
Forecasting Political Risk
Lessening Political Vulnerability
Joint Ventures
Expanding the Investment Base
Licensing
Planned Domestication
Political Bargaining
Political Payoffs
Government Encouragement
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
What you should learn from Chapter 6:
•What the sovereignty of nations means and how it can affect the stability of government policies
•How different governmental types, political parties, nationalism, targeted fear/animosity, and trade disputes can affect the environment for marketing in foreign countries
•The political risks of global business and the factors that affect stability
•The importance of the political system to international marketing and its effect on foreign investments
•The impact of political and social activists, violence, and terrorism on international business
•How to assess and reduce the effect of political vulnerabililty
•How and why governments encourage foreign investment
Global Perspective: WORLD TRADE GOES BANANAS
Rather than bruising Chiquita Bananas, the wrath of politics instead has hammered Prosciutto di Parma ham from Italy, handbags from France, and bath oils and soaps from Germany. These and a host of other imported products from Europe were all slapped with a 100 percent import tariff as retaliation by the U.S. government against European Union banana-import rules that favor Caribbean bananas over Latin American bananas. Keep in mind that no bananas are exported from the United States, yet the United States has been engaged in a trade war over the past seven years that has cost numerous small businesses on both sides of the Atlantic millions of dollars. But how can this be, you ask? Politics, that’s how!
One small business, Reha Enterprises, for example, sells bath oil, soaps, and other supplies imported from Germany. The tariff on its most popular product, an herbal foam bath, was raised from 5 percent to 100 percent. The customs bill for six months spiraled to $37,783 from just $1,851—a 1,941 percent tax increase. For a small business whose gross sales are less than $1 million annually, it was crippling. When Reha heard of the impending “banana war,” he called everyone—his congressperson, his senator, the United States Trade Representative (USTR). When he described his plight to the USTR, an official there expressed amazement. “They were surprised I was still importing,” because they thought the tariff woul.
Essay on Teacher in English for Kids and Students | 500 Words Essay on .... ESSAY - Qualities of a Good Teacher | Teachers | Action (Philosophy .... Essay on Teacher | Teachers | Classroom.
Prompted initially by the economic success of the North American Free Trade Agreement, trade cooperation around the world is on the rise, leading to a flurry of new Free Trade Agreements. While economies in developed countries such as the US have achieved growth due to the lowering of trade barriers that follow completed FTA's, coinciding tensions have escalated from factions within the industrial sectors of the economy who claim that overall imports increase but at the expense of overall domestic output and export growth.The Asia-Pacific region, particularly China, has concurrently seen unprecedented economic success with their own successfully negotiated FTA's, driven by the access to new markets which allow for the export of their manufactured goods. As a result of the economic success of this phenomenon, races to pursue new FTA's have emerged, along with resistance from a variety of international actors. For example, the proposed Trans-Pacific
Partnership, a FTA linking the US to East Asian countries specifically not including China, has escalated tensions from labor groups within the US who claim that FTA's hurt US manufacturing growth. This study assesses trends in trade with recently completed US FTA partners in order to determine the merits of domestic industrial factions in their claims that FTA's hurt overall US exports.
The Impact of International Businesses in a Global Economy: An Interdisciplin...IOSR Journals
This study is an analysis of the impact of international businesses in the world economy. It examined the effect of globalization in the economic growth of international businesses and the world economy; and the organizations that act as alliances in international business, such as the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund. The study observed that while some countries may be favoured by particular changes in international business, others may be adversely affected. This does not mean that international business does not have unfavorable effects. Major changes in international business will also produce major adjustments. The process of adjustments may be a gainful one. The study concludes that in spite of the national economic policies of each country, politics and law play important role in international business, which does not tend to restrict its views to the interest of one country, but it tries to analyze the different national interests which are relevant to the national level of decision-making.
9 International Trade and Immigration Elite–Mass ConflictThe eli.docxevonnehoggarth79783
9 International Trade and Immigration Elite–Mass Conflict
The elite model portrays public policy as a reflection of the interests and values of elites. The model does not necessarily require that elites and masses be locked in conflict—conflict in which elites inevitably prevail at the expense of masses. Rather, the model envisions elites determining the direction of public policy, with the masses largely apathetic and poorly informed and/or heavily influenced by elite views. The model also acknowledges that elites may choose to pursue “public regarding” policies that benefit masses. Nonetheless, critics of the elite model often demand proof of elite–mass conflict over public policy and the subsequent shaping of policy to reflect elite preferences over mass well-being. Indeed, critics often demand proof that elites knowingly pursue policies that benefit themselves while hurting a majority of Americans. While this is not a fair test of elite theory, there is ample evidence that on occasion elites do pursue narrow self-serving interests.
In describing immigration and international trade policy, we rely on the elite model. Arguably, U.S. policy, especially in international trade, serves the interests of the nation’s largest multinational corporations at the expense of average American workers. We will argue that global trade policies have lowered average earnings and increased inequality in America. We will also argue that masses and elites have very different policy preferences regarding immigration.
The Global Economy
International trade—the buying and selling of goods and services between individuals and firms located in different countries—has expanded very rapidly in recent decades. Today, almost one-quarter of the world’s total output is sold in a country other than the one in which it was produced. Today the United States exports about 12 percent of the value of its gross domestic product (GDP) and imports about 17 percent.1 Exports and imports were only about 10 percent of GDP in 1980 (see Figure 9–1). Global competition heavily impacts the American economy.
FIGURE 9–1 U.S. World Trade
The “trade deficit”—the difference between what Americans import from abroad and what they export—has become wider over the years.
SOURCE: Bureau of Economic Analysis, www.bea.gov.
Currently, America’s leading trading partners are Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Great Britain, South Korea, France, and Italy (see Figure 9–2). Note that some of these nations (Canada, Japan, Germany, for example) are advanced industrialized economies not unlike our own. But trade with developing countries (Mexico, China, Taiwan, South Korea, for example) is growing rapidly. And, as we shall see, it is trade with these nations that raises the most serious problems for America’s labor force.
Years ago America’s principal imports were oil and agricultural products not grown in the United States, for example, coffee. Today, however, our largest dollar-value import.
Business Law Presentation for The Rules of interpretation and various cases connected to it .
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Advanatges and Problems of the Golden Rule
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Development of a 3 month student-specific communications plan using Smith and Taylor’s SOSTAC planning system to get the campus users – the people, helping to make the University of Bradford as environmentally friendly as possible. The brand name discussed in this assignment is the 'Ecoversity' Brand.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Global Business
Environment-
Individual
Assignment
2014
POLITICAL REASONS FOR GOVERNMENT
INTERVENTIONS
BY: AANCHAL SAXENA
UOB: 12032303|
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Government intervention can be defined as an authoritarian action, which is regulatory in nature,
with the purpose of affecting or interfering with the decisions made by certain individuals,
groups or business organizations on social and economic matters. As of today, there is no
country in the world where its government of the land does not interfere, in some form or the
other in its economic or social activities. State Intervention in business is as old as the business
itself. State Intervention became a historical necessity chiefly since the era of industrial
revolution of late 18th and early 19th Century. Prosperity and poverty, suffering and comfort,
and helplessness and exploitation became so collocated that the need for state intervention began
to be felt. In today's world, political strength can be regarded as one of the key factors for trade
between two nations. Generally, the government intervenes in trade in order to provide support
to a range of activities such as domestic or exports and also during tough economic situations
(insidebusiness360, 2014). There are various reasons for which government intervenes in trade.
These are classified as political, cultural and economic. In the following essay, the various
arguments for government intervention for political reasons will be discussed supported with
examples. Furthermore, it will also discuss whether these interventions are justifiable or not and
what implications these policies can have on the managers of an international company.
Government interventions in trade can be usually carried out by creating various rules and
regulations such as administrative policies, subsidies, tariffs, subsidies, important quotas,
currency controls etc. One of the main arguments put forward for government intervention by
various analysts is the protection of jobs and industries. It refers to saving jobs and boosting local
industries by imposing subsidies or tariffs. For example, the Omani government has decided to
cut down 100,000 expat jobs in order to provide for the nationals under its 'Omanisation'
Scheme. This move was adopted due to the growing unemployment rate with the Omani youth
and the increasing number of expats in the private sector jobs with the ratio being 1:6 between
the expats and the nationals in private sector jobs.(Oman, T. 2014).Another example could be the
U.S, where following a push from the U.S Senator, Sherrod brown, the International Trade
Commission (ITC) had voted on 16th November 2014, to extend the anti-dumping duties on
nitrogen fertilizers imported from Ukraine and Russia. This move was done in order to prevent
nearly 240 jobs mainly agriculture related in Lima and in order to safeguard PCS Nitrogen
Ohio,L.P firm which is one of the few remaining American producers of solid urea and operates
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University of Bradford
a plant in Lima. Had these duties been revoked, it would have led to renewed flood of unfairly
traded Ukrainian and Russian urea imports. (Brown.senate.gov, 2011).
Another argument put forward for government intervention is the retaliation argument. This
refers to how government of certain nations use intimidations or threats as a bargaining tool in
trade policies to further open foreign markets or force other nations to play by their game. For
example, in the year 2013, the Ukraine government had to suspend its plans of signing far-
reaching political trade agreements with the EU. This was due to the threat of crippling trade
sanctions by Russia. Had the deal been signed, it would have been a serious threat and an
economic version of the West's efforts to building a military power by the eastward expansion of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Similar pressure by Russia, forced Armenia to
abandon its talks with the EU as well. (HERSZENHORN, D. (2014).An example of retaliation
can be understood with the help using two major trading giants the America and China. The two
have been known for imposing tariffs on each other since years. In the year 2011, Chinese
government retaliated against the American government imposing additional duties on all cars
imported from the US. This move was in response to the dumping and subsidizing policy of the
American Car makers which had substantially affected the Chinese car makers. (Wearden, G.
2011).
Governments are also known to intervene in trade for protecting its consumers. This is called the
protecting consumers argument. For example, the Federal Consumer Protection Service for
Russia, issued a statement where it suspended a range beef imports from Germany as well as 10
other EU countries over the fear of anthrax, a bacterial disease, which when transmitted can be
harmful for the human body.(The Moscow Times, 2014) Also, The Indian government decided to
ban the Taxi App 'Uber' when one of its driver's was held responsible on Rape charges against a
passenger in the country's capital. The government has also decided to ban other such taxi apps
from operating within the country. Uber was also banned from Thailand this week and the
Spanish judge had ordered for a temporary halt to the company's operations in the country. It
also faces lawsuit in its home country, where the Californian courts sued the company as they
were falsely claiming to have screened out their driver who had offences on their names.
(Sugden, J., Malhotra, A. and MacMillan, D. 2014).
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National Security argument, is another reason why government of the land might intervene in
trade. Some industries in the country are protected due to national security reasons. Industries
like defense, aerospace etc. are often controlled by the government as it is believed that the
government should always be self-reliant. Humanitarian reasons can also be argued as a point
due to which the governments intervene. Since the establishment of Israel, The Arab has league
boycotted any trade with the country. Companies that were having a branch, agency or factory in
Israel are put on the blacklist. This was another reason due to which for many years, Coca Cola
was banned in the Arab states and only Pepsi was available as Coca Cola Company was known
to provide aid to the Israel.(The Independent, 1993).
Governments sometimes also intervene in order to gain influence over other nations. The
dominant nations through trade relations often take advantage of smaller nations. For years the
US has enjoyed strong trading relations with the Latin American countries and has a strong hold
over them through agreements like NAFTA. These small countries rely heavily on America for
their business and since America is a super power it has tried to take advantage of these nations.
A small disruption in trade can be a heavy cost to most of these nations.(Daily Reckoning, 2009).
Since Commerce being an important tool to achieve foreign policy goals, preferential treatments
are sometimes awarded to certain countries with which strong relations are built. The US shares
a close tie with Kuwait due to common strategic interests in mainly defense,trade, technology
and energy. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in the year 1990, the American military backed the
Kuwaiti Army, also America imposed sanctions on Iraq as a consequence of the
war.(Kuna.net.kw, 2014)
Cases cited above reflect only the positive reasons and outcomes of the government
interventions. Just like a coin, government interventions too have a double side to it. Researchers
have often questioned whether how justifiable certain government actions can be. For example,
the Malaysian government imposes heavy tax duties as high as 30% on cars imported from
America Europe and Japan. This is done in order to protect the home car manufacturer "Proton",
which without government help and subsidies would collapse in the international market. Thus,
the Malaysian nationals pay RM140, 000 for 2013 Toyota Prius which is only for RM80, 000 in
US or Japan. Thus the protecting industry argument clashes with protecting consumer arguments
as the government is forcing a poor home-made brand on its citizens and depriving them off
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better quality imported cars. (Livelifedrive.com, 2014). Signing of the NAFTA agreement was
done to have a free trade relation between all the signing countries and it was expected that it
would boost jobs for the Americans. However, according to a report by Economist Robert Scott
of the Economic Policy Institute, around 682,900 jobs in the US have been lost as a result of the
treaty.(The Huffington Post, 2014). American government had denied China Most Favored
Nation (MFN) due to humanitarian reasons, however the US government led invasion in Iraq
was on variety of grounds except for humanitarian. (Coalition, S. 2014).In 2009, China
unexpectedly took a step to impose tariff on American auto motives imported and chicken meat
as a retaliation in response to Obama levying tariffs on tires from America. This proves that
retaliation technique adopted does not always work and sometimes leads to conflicts where the
sufferers are the businessmen and the consumers. (Nytimes.com, 2014)
Hence a Manager of a global firm needs to understand that trade barriers hold severe importance
and need to be discussed upon before formulating a strategy. A sound knowledge of the global
environment be it political or economical is crucial for continued success of the business.
In conclusion, government interventions in trade are done one various arguments. Namely,
protection of jobs and industries, consumers, retaliation and gaining influence over other nations.
And lastly for the foreign policies and humanitarian reasons. It can be seen from the situations
discussed above, that government interventions can be good or bad. They differ from situation to
situation. However, before an intervention is carried out, it would be better if the government sits
and ponders over all the possible pros and cons of adopting a certain technique as this would
help prevent in the adopted policies having a negative result.
(Word count: 1564 words)
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References
1. Brown.senate.gov, (2011). Following Brown Push to Defend Nearly 240 Lima Jobs,
International Trade Commission Votes to Protect Key Agricultural Industry
Manufacturers | Press Releases | United States Senator Sherrod Brown. [Online]
Available at: http://www.brown.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/following-brown-
push-to-defend-nearly-240-lima-jobs-international-trade-commission-votes-to-protect-
key-agricultural-industry-manufacturers. [Accessed 2 Dec. 2014].
2. Coalition, S. (2014). US intervention is not humanitarian and will not protect the people
of Iraq - Stop the War Coalition. [Online] Stopwar.org.uk. Available at:
http://stopwar.org.uk/news/us-intervention-is-not-humanitarian-and-will-not-protect-the-
people-of-iraq [Accessed 1 Dec. 2014].
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America. [Online] Available at: http://dailyreckoning.com/the-decline-of-the-
us%E2%80%99-imperial-influence-in-latin-america [Accessed 1 Dec. 2014].
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E.U.[online] Nytimes.com. Available at:
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raising-concerns-over-eu-talks.html?pagewanted=all [Accessed 1 Dec. 2014].
5. Kuna.net.kw, (2014). KUNA: US, Kuwait share "strong" friendship that reflects
"common strategic interests" - Politics - 07/09/2013. [Online] Available at:
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Dec. 2014].
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6. Livelifedrive.com, (2014). [Online] Available at:
http://www.livelifedrive.com/malaysia/news/view/3802/explaining-the-mystery-behind-
high-car-prices-in-malaysia---part-1 [Accessed 1 Dec. 2014].
7. Nytimes.com, (2014). China Moves to Retaliate Against U.S. Tire Tariff -
NYTimes.com. [Online] Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/14/business/global/14trade.html [Accessed 2 Dec.
2014].
8. Oman, T. (2014). Minister of Manpower Sheikh Abdullah bin Nasser Al Bakri said the
ministry plans to reduce the number of expatriates working in the private sector from
current 39% to 33%. [Online] Timesofoman.com. Available at:
http://www.timesofoman.com/News/29950/Article-100-000-expats-to-lose-jobs-in-
Omanisation [Accessed 5 Dec. 2014].
9. Sugden, J., Malhotra, A. and MacMillan, D. (2014). Uber under Attack around the Globe.
[Online] WSJ. Available at: http://www.wsj.com/articles/india-advises-all-states-to-ban-
uber-and-other-car-hailing-services-1418119647 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014].
10. The Huffington Post, (2014). NAFTA Cost U.S. 700k Jobs, Report Says. [Online]
Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/05/12/nafta-job-loss-trade-deficit-
epi_n_859983.html [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014].
11. The Independent, (1993). Arab states still clinging to Israel boycott: The 45-year-old
trade embargo of the 'Zionist state' persists despite the recent peace accord, writes
Charles Richards. [Online] Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/arab-
states-still-clinging-to-israel-boycott-the-45yearold-trade-embargo-of-the-zionist-state-
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persists-despite-the-recent-peace-accord-writes-charles-richards-1465211.html [Accessed
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