POL 302 Research in Comparative Politics
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in political science research methods. It discusses asking "why" questions to understand political phenomena, comparing countries to explain differences, and analyzing cases using qualitative and quantitative methods. Key terms explained include variance, units of analysis, concepts, hypotheses testing, correlation vs. causation, and qualitative vs. quantitative research. The goals of theory, hypotheses, and the general characteristics of scientific inquiry are also outlined.
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Research in Comparative Politics
This document provides an overview of key concepts in political science research methods. It discusses asking questions, developing hypotheses to explain political phenomena, comparing countries and systems of government, conceptualizing variables, developing theories and testing hypotheses, and distinguishing between qualitative and quantitative analysis. The goal of research methods is making inferences about the political world.
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Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All right.docx
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Photo credit: Najlah Feanny/Corbis
Politics and Knowledge
Chapter One
Color scheme: Folio
Text: News Gothic MT
Slide Theme: Median
Learning Objectives
Understand various meanings of the term "politics" and provide a general definition of the field of political science.
Identify the sources of political knowledge for the individual.
Describe the merits of and problems with the different levels of authority as a source of political knowledge.
Explain how personal bias can affect political thought and how scientific analysis can mitigate this effect.
Describe the three general types of political knowledge and how they are developed.
Explain how the scientific method can be applied to a specific political question.
Understand the objections to the idea that the study of politics can be considered a science.
Describe some of the subfields of political science.
Q: What is politics?>
Towards A Definition of Politics
First step toward a better understanding of the political world is to establish what we mean by politics:
Competition among individuals and groups pursuing their own interests
Exercise of power and influence to allocate things that are valued.
Determination of who gets what, when, and how
Resolution of conflict
Overall: Politics is the process through which power and influence are used in the promotion of certain values and interests.
Domains that are subject to politics are very large.
Q: Why we study politics?>
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Why we study politics?
Because of the many relationships between what happen in politics or government and in our personal life.
It affects us in some way or another.
Therefore, we need to know politics, to form views, and to make informal decision especially in democracy where election can make change.
On Political Knowledge
Every individual’s understanding of politics is composed of three general types of knowledge:
1. Description of political facts
2. Explanations of how and why politics occurs as it does
3. Prescriptions of what should happen in the political world
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
On Political Knowledge
1. Descriptions of political facts
Focuses on what questions and is usually based on one or more “facts”
Example: The number of states in Nigeria: 36
On many questions no indisputable answers; complicated issues
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
On Political Knowledge
Attempts to specify why something happens and to provide the reason or process by which the phenomenon occurs.
Value judgment that indicates what should occur and should be done.
Answers to questions of what ought to be, not merely description or explanation of what is.
2. Explanations of how and.
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2)
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;
2) Express your thoughts on the topic
Summary should be no longer than 3 typewritten, double-spaced pages.
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The Comparative method
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Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All right.docx
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Photo credit: Najlah Feanny/Corbis
Politics and Knowledge
Chapter One
Color scheme: Folio
Text: News Gothic MT
Slide Theme: Median
Learning Objectives
Understand various meanings of the term "politics" and provide a general definition of the field of political science.
Identify the sources of political knowledge for the individual.
Describe the merits of and problems with the different levels of authority as a source of political knowledge.
Explain how personal bias can affect political thought and how scientific analysis can mitigate this effect.
Describe the three general types of political knowledge and how they are developed.
Explain how the scientific method can be applied to a specific political question.
Understand the objections to the idea that the study of politics can be considered a science.
Describe some of the subfields of political science.
Q: What is politics?>
Towards A Definition of Politics
First step toward a better understanding of the political world is to establish what we mean by politics:
Competition among individuals and groups pursuing their own interests
Exercise of power and influence to allocate things that are valued.
Determination of who gets what, when, and how
Resolution of conflict
Overall: Politics is the process through which power and influence are used in the promotion of certain values and interests.
Domains that are subject to politics are very large.
Q: Why we study politics?>
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Why we study politics?
Because of the many relationships between what happen in politics or government and in our personal life.
It affects us in some way or another.
Therefore, we need to know politics, to form views, and to make informal decision especially in democracy where election can make change.
On Political Knowledge
Every individual’s understanding of politics is composed of three general types of knowledge:
1. Description of political facts
2. Explanations of how and why politics occurs as it does
3. Prescriptions of what should happen in the political world
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
On Political Knowledge
1. Descriptions of political facts
Focuses on what questions and is usually based on one or more “facts”
Example: The number of states in Nigeria: 36
On many questions no indisputable answers; complicated issues
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
On Political Knowledge
Attempts to specify why something happens and to provide the reason or process by which the phenomenon occurs.
Value judgment that indicates what should occur and should be done.
Answers to questions of what ought to be, not merely description or explanation of what is.
2. Explanations of how and.
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2)
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;
2) Express your thoughts on the topic
Summary should be no longer than 3 typewritten, double-spaced pages.
Most social scientists who study public opinion and public policy in democratic countries agree that (1) public opinion influences public policy; (2) the more salient an issue to the public, the stronger the rela- tionship is likely to be; and (3) the relationship is threatened by the power of interest organizations,' political parties, and economic elites (see, e.g., Aldrich 1995; Dahl 1989; Mueller 1999; Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson 1995; Page and Shapiro 1983; Smith 2000). There would be much less consensus, however, on the answers to five follow-up questions widely seen as impor- tant but seldom addressed directly: 1. How much impact does public opinion have on public policy? 2. How much does the impact of opinion on policy increase as the importance of an issue to the public increases? 3. To what extent do interest groups, social movement organizations, political parties, and elites influence policy even when opposed by public opinion? 4. Has government responsiveness to public opinion changed over time? 5. How generalizable are our findings about the impact of opinion on policy?
This article distills considerable research directed at these questions. It is not, however, a literature review in the usual sense. Rather than summarizing publications in a con- ventional narrative, I use each publication as a source of data, tabulating the issues and countries studied, and the authors' predictions, variables, and findings. The analysis will provide the publications' collective answer to each question, and, at times, show how little evidence is avail- able. Highlighting how little we know on some issues will point to an agenda for future research. It turns out that public opinion influences policy most of the time, often strongly Responsiveness appears to increase with salience, and public opinion matters even in the face of activities by interest organizations, political par- ties, and political and economic elites. Claims that respon- siveness is changing over time or varies across issues rest on very little evidence. The next section describes issues that arise in attempts to answer the questions. This is followed by a description of the data, presentation of findings, and conclusion.
ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy No one believes that public opinion always determines public policy; few believe it never does. Even dedicated pro- ponents of democratic theory acknowledge that democratic governments sometimes ignore the public (e.g., Page and Shapiro 1983: 189); those whose theories attribute little power to the public concede that governments sometimes follow public opinion (e.g., Block 1987: 66; Domhoff 1998: 301; Korpi 1989: 313). What distinguishes those who believe democracy gives citizens genuine control over their governmen ...
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This document proposes and tests a model to understand how Americans form judgments about the seriousness of global warming as a national problem. The model, called the ACE model, examines how beliefs about the existence and causes of global warming, attitudes toward its consequences, and certainty about beliefs and attitudes influence assessments of global warming's seriousness. The study tests the model using data from two surveys and finds support for the relationships proposed in the model. The findings point to psychological mechanisms that may shape public opinion and policy preferences on issues like global warming.
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Public opinion refers to how people think or feel about issues, but it is difficult to measure accurately. Pollsters use random sampling and ask questions fairly to gauge public opinion on issues people can reasonably form opinions about. Factors like gender, education level, social class, race, region, and ideology can influence people's political views and opinions. While most Americans do not think ideologically, political elites try to frame issues and norms to influence public opinion within limits.
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The ProcessSelection of the research questionIdentificatio.docx
The ProcessSelection of the research questionIdentification of the methodology to answer that questionResearchDefinition, Description and AnalysisExplanation and Prediction
Good questionsAnswer a puzzleTake part in a debateAdd to the “tree of knowledge”For this class, they should have a comparative dimension“Is” versus “ought” questions
The Comparative method
(Review Ch. 1)Inductive reasoningGoing from the bottom up. Using one case to develop ideas. “Why has Country X slide toward state failure?” Still need to test theoriesDeductive reasoningGoing from the top down. Using logic to generate a number of explanations. “What explains democratization in Asia?” Still need to test theories
Finding patterns or connectionsDependent variable OutcomeIndependent variable Cause (potential)
Q. Why did protests turn violent?
Q. What makes some democracies stable?
CorrelationsCorrelations are associations or a relationship between variablesPositiveNegative
Plotting the correlation shows a relationship exists but it does not necessarily explain the cause. (The “why” question)
Correlation and causationTo show “causation” we first need to show that a correlation existsCorrelations are necessary but not sufficient to prove causationProblems with spurious correlations
Hierarchy of UnderstandingWorld views/FrameworksTheories Generalizations, explanations and predictionsConceptsFacts/Raw data
Hypothesis Assumptions to be tested against the evidenceIt’s your answer to the research question(s) you posed. Descriptive hypothesis (propose a “fact”, test to see if it exists. Need evidence to confirm)Democracy has broad support in RussiaExplanatory hypothesis (seek to explain the fact)Russians support democracy because of their past experience with communism
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Sources for finding hypotheses
or where do I get my argument?Deduction (literature, logic)Induction (observations, facts)Grounded theory generalize from cases
Both need to be tested
Methodology QuantitativeQualitative
Comparative PoliticsStructured focused comparison
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Who Governs?, Robert DahlEconomic power confers political power Tes.
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Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All right.docx
Copyright © 2013, 2011, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All right.docx
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2)
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2)
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POL 302 Research in Comparative Politics
- 5. Based on simple questions: Who? What? When? Where?
- 6. Question: Why did the Lincoln assassination occur? Possible Answers: JohnWilkes’ Booth personal hatred of Lincoln? Part of larger plot to revive Confederacy? Some other reason?
- 9. GENERAL QUESTION Why do countries go to war? SPECIFIC QUESTION Why did Britain support U.S. involvement in the IraqWar?
- 11. How do countries vary? Diversity leads to “Why?” questions Why do countries choose to allow their citizens to freely participate in elections? Why do countries have a presidential or parliamentary system of government?
- 12. Value in explaining differences Qualitative Analysis Historical or narrative accounts Quantitative Analysis Use of numbers, statistics, etc.
- 13. What is variance? What are units of analysis?
- 15. Usually looking at individual countries Civil Conflict: Hutus andTutsis in Rwanda These groups were arguing over level of “Rwandan-ness” or national identity.
- 18. #1: Description #2: Classification #3: HypothesisTesting #4: Prediction
- 20. What are concepts? Examples: Freedom, Democracy, Development Features of Good Concepts: #1: Clarity and Coherence #2: Consistency #3: Usefulness
- 23. What causes what? What effect? Variables – Change between cases Two Methods to Understand Cases: Most-Similar-Systems (MSS) Most-Different-Systems (MDS)
- 26. What varies between the cases? Your College Choice
- 34. THEORY General explanations of how and why the world works EmpiricalTheories Observation Evidence NormativeTheories Values Judgments HYPOTHESES Proposed explanations for why something occurs Testable Statement
- 35. CORRELATION Association between two variables Example: Stress Level Time of Semester How might these be related or associated with one another? CAUSATION One variable causes another Example: Study Habits Exam Grades in POL 302 Which variable causes the other?
- 36. QUALITATIVE Historical accounts QUANTITATIVE Numbers and statistics One of Anne Frank’s diary entries
- 37. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS #1: Goal is Inference #2: Procedures are Public #3: Conclusions Uncertain #4: Content is Method
- 38. #1: Many Observable Implications #3: ConcreteTheory – Precise Ideas
Editor's Notes
- These are some prominent questions that scholars studying comparative politics (I will usually refer to these folks as “comparatists” from now on) study as part of the research agendas. Study these questions for a few minutes. How might you start answering them? We will be discussing many of these topics, including democratization, institutions (e.g. executives, legislatures), and political revolutions throughout the course. My hope is that by the end of our semester together, you will have formed your own opinions on these and other critical issues.
- As the introductory videos on Canvas remind us, our world is comprised of many countries. Countries are certainly not all the same—they vary in terms of size, ideology, culture, leadership, religious background, etc. The inherent diversity amongst countries leads people to naturally question, “Why?” Why do countries choose to either allow or not allow their citizens to freely participate in elections? Why do some countries have a presidential system of government while others have a parliamentary system of government? We will discuss these issues in more detail throughout the semester, but for now, it is important to realize that these questions represent significant distinctions amongst the nations of our world.
- However, merely describing these differences is not enough. Political scientists want to systematically explain these differences through qualitative or quantitative analysis Qualitative Analysis: Comes from historical or other narrative accounts Example: Almond and Verba’s Civic Culture (1963) These scholars looked at five countries (US, UK, Italy, Germany, Mexico) and found distinct types of political culture. One of their results was that the US and the UK had similar culture based on citizen participation in politics. This make further sense if we consider the historical “Special Relationship” between these two nations. Quantitative Analysis: Employs numbers and statistics as forms of data Example: Using Freedom House scores to compare democratization levels We will discuss the related issues of democracy and later this semester.
- As I hope you are starting to see, a very useful way to compare countries is through the comparative method. This comparative method answers research questions by looking for variance, or differences, between various units of analysis. Units of analysis are simply cases that are used to make inferences about a population. For example, I might ask the following question. “Are citizens living in richer countries more satisfied with their life than those in poorer countries?” In thinking more about this question, maybe I assume that citizens in more economically prosperous countries might have more spending money for luxuries rather than just being able to afford basic necessities. I compare data from a general satisfaction survey which asks citizens, “On average, how satisfied are you with your life at this time?” In this example, the countries shown (the U.S. and Nigeria) would be my units of analysis because they are the “units” or components that I am using to “analyze,” and hopefully, find an answer to my research question.