The document discusses syllables and their structure in language. It notes that sounds flow continuously when speaking, making it difficult to segment speech into discrete units. Syllables can be defined based on their structure, with the core being a nucleus such as a vowel, diphthong or syllabic consonant. Syllables preferably follow a consonant-vowel structure and may contain an optional onset before the nucleus as well as an optional coda after it. The concept of syllables provides a structural unit for analyzing phonotactic constraints in language.
This document provides an introduction to the science of phonetics. It outlines the goals and topics that will be covered in an introductory phonetics course, including articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and clinical phonetics. It discusses key linguistic concepts like phonemes, allophones, syllables, and stress. It also introduces the International Phonetic Alphabet and provides examples to illustrate phonetic transcription and analysis.
The document discusses English supra-segmental phonemes, specifically stress. It defines stress as certain syllables being more prominent than others in many languages. It describes degrees of stress and how stressed syllables are louder, higher in pitch, and longer in duration than unstressed syllables. It also discusses word stress and how the placement of stress is sometimes unpredictable in English words with multiple syllables.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. A strong syllable has a full vowel as its nucleus, while a weak syllable typically contains the reduced vowel schwa. The most common vowel in weak syllables is schwa, represented as /ÉTM/. Other vowels found in weak syllables include a close front vowel similar to /i/ and a close back vowel similar to /u/. These vowels are difficult to distinguish from their strong counterparts /i:/ and /u:/. Spellings can provide clues as to which vowel would be present if the syllable was strong. Weak syllables tend to have shorter, less intense vowels compared to strong syllables.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a syllable and describes their structure, including onset, nucleus, coda, and rime. It states that strong syllables contain full vowels while weak syllables often contain reduced vowels like schwa. Examples are provided to demonstrate how vowels are shortened, lower in intensity, and changed in quality in weak syllables compared to strong ones. The document also notes that some weak syllables contain only consonants. It examines spelling patterns that can indicate the vowel sound in a strong pronunciation of a weak syllable. Finally, it discusses the close front and back vowels that may occur in weak syllables and problems transcribing them phonemically.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines weak syllables as those with reduced vowels, often schwa, and lists common spelling patterns that indicate weak vowels. Strong syllables are stressed and have clearer vowel sounds. The relationship between syllable stress and word forms (strong vs. weak) is also explained, with examples of how stress affects pronunciation and meaning.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as having one of four possible vowel sounds at its center: schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending spoken English.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as having one of four possible vowel sounds at its center: schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending spoken English.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending English speech due to the influence on rhythm. Teaching weak forms can help improve foreign students' pronunciation and listening skills.
This document provides an introduction to the science of phonetics. It outlines the goals and topics that will be covered in an introductory phonetics course, including articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and clinical phonetics. It discusses key linguistic concepts like phonemes, allophones, syllables, and stress. It also introduces the International Phonetic Alphabet and provides examples to illustrate phonetic transcription and analysis.
The document discusses English supra-segmental phonemes, specifically stress. It defines stress as certain syllables being more prominent than others in many languages. It describes degrees of stress and how stressed syllables are louder, higher in pitch, and longer in duration than unstressed syllables. It also discusses word stress and how the placement of stress is sometimes unpredictable in English words with multiple syllables.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. A strong syllable has a full vowel as its nucleus, while a weak syllable typically contains the reduced vowel schwa. The most common vowel in weak syllables is schwa, represented as /ÉTM/. Other vowels found in weak syllables include a close front vowel similar to /i/ and a close back vowel similar to /u/. These vowels are difficult to distinguish from their strong counterparts /i:/ and /u:/. Spellings can provide clues as to which vowel would be present if the syllable was strong. Weak syllables tend to have shorter, less intense vowels compared to strong syllables.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a syllable and describes their structure, including onset, nucleus, coda, and rime. It states that strong syllables contain full vowels while weak syllables often contain reduced vowels like schwa. Examples are provided to demonstrate how vowels are shortened, lower in intensity, and changed in quality in weak syllables compared to strong ones. The document also notes that some weak syllables contain only consonants. It examines spelling patterns that can indicate the vowel sound in a strong pronunciation of a weak syllable. Finally, it discusses the close front and back vowels that may occur in weak syllables and problems transcribing them phonemically.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines weak syllables as those with reduced vowels, often schwa, and lists common spelling patterns that indicate weak vowels. Strong syllables are stressed and have clearer vowel sounds. The relationship between syllable stress and word forms (strong vs. weak) is also explained, with examples of how stress affects pronunciation and meaning.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as having one of four possible vowel sounds at its center: schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending spoken English.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as having one of four possible vowel sounds at its center: schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending spoken English.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (ə), a close front vowel like i, a close back vowel like u, or a syllabic consonant. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables and discusses how weak forms are important for both producing and comprehending English speech due to the influence on rhythm. Teaching weak forms can help improve foreign students' pronunciation and listening skills.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (/ə/) or one of three other vowel types. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables based on their spelling patterns. The document also discusses weak forms in English, where unstressed words are pronounced differently than their stressed counterparts. Teaching weak forms is important for both improving students' English pronunciation and listening comprehension.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (/ə/) or one of three other vowel types. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables based on their spelling patterns. The document also discusses weak forms in English, where unstressed words are pronounced differently than their stressed counterparts. Teaching weak forms is important for both improving students' English pronunciation and listening comprehension.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. Weak syllables tend to be unstressed and may contain reduced vowel sounds like schwa. They often occur in function words like "the" and prefixes/suffixes. Strong syllables are stressed and have clearer vowel sounds. The types of segments that can make up syllables and examples of words with different syllable structures are provided.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines weak and strong syllables and provides examples of different types of weak syllables based on their vowel sounds or syllabic consonants. It also discusses how weak syllables are pronounced compared to strong syllables and their role in keeping the stress-timed rhythm of English speech.
The document discusses pronunciation challenges for non-native English speakers and provides tips to improve English pronunciation. It notes how pronunciation is connected to identity and discusses common challenges such as certain sounds being replaced in other languages. The document advises letting go of outdated beliefs about pronunciation and practicing with a playful attitude. Resources for practicing different sounds and tongue positions are also provided.
This document provides an overview of an introduction to phonetic science course. It includes the following key points:
1. The syllabus outlines course information, required book, grading criteria, and exam dates. Understanding phonetic transcription and linguistic terms like phonemes, allophones, and stress will be goals of the first class.
2. Phonetics is the scientific study of the sounds of speech and how they are produced and perceived. It fits into the study of language and can be compared to other fields. There are four branches of phonetics: articulatory, acoustic, auditory, and clinical.
3. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is introduced as a way to
The document discusses different types of morphemes and their functions in English word formation. It defines morphemes as the minimal units of meaning that combine to form words. There are different types of morphemes including bound morphemes (prefixes, suffixes), free morphemes, root morphemes, derivational morphemes, and inflectional morphemes. The document also discusses how words are formed by combining morphemes and provides examples to illustrate the different types of morpheme combinations.
This document discusses phonemes, syllables, and syllabification. It begins by defining a phoneme as the smallest unit of sound in speech. There are 44 phonemes in English, represented by letters or letter combinations. A syllable contains at least one phoneme and can be broken into onset, nucleus, and coda. The nucleus is the core vowel sound. Minimal pairs are word pairs that differ by one phoneme, like "fan" and "van". The document also discusses phonological processes like vowel reduction and features of consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet.
This document provides an introduction to morphology, the study of word structure. It discusses the basic units of meaning in words called morphemes, including roots, stems, prefixes, suffixes, and other affixes. It explains the difference between inflectional and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology involves changes that indicate grammatical information like number, tense, or case, while derivational morphology derives new words and can change a word's class. The document also covers topics like allomorphy, where a single morpheme can have variable phonetic forms depending on context.
This document provides guidance on editing text for clarity, conciseness, and correctness. It discusses checking text for wordiness, agreement between subjects and verbs/nouns and pronouns, parallel structure, misplaced/dangling modifiers, spelling errors, informal language, and proper punctuation including commas, semicolons, colons and apostrophes. The overall goal of editing is to polish the writing and remove unnecessary words to make the intended meaning clear for the reader.
The document discusses various components of literacy including phonological awareness, phonics, orthography, and reading comprehension. It defines key terms like phonemic awareness, phonics, vowel patterns, and describes instructional strategies and activities to teach foundational reading skills like sound-symbol relationships. Research is cited supporting the importance of explicit and systematic phonics instruction to facilitate reading development.
English has 44 phonemes or word sounds that make up the language. Phonemes include 19 consonants, 7 digraphs, 5 'r-controlled' sounds, 5 long vowels, 5 short vowels, 2 'oo' sounds, and 2 diphthongs. Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds, including how they are produced, perceived, and their physical properties. It has three branches: articulatory phonetics studies sound production, acoustic phonetics studies physical properties, and auditory phonetics studies perception. Speech sounds are organized into phonetic features, phonemes, allophones, words, utterances, and longer stretches of speech.
Phonetics and phonology are both linguistic fields that are interested in the role of sound in language. The importance of learning phonetics and phonology for someone whose first language is not English is paramount.
Learning phonetics will help a foreign speaker sound more like a native speaker by making them aware of the different sounds that English makes use of.
A presentation prepared in this regards is being shared herewith for the records and general sharing. :)
This document provides an overview of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and its use for learning the pronunciation of vowels and consonants in English. It describes each of the English consonant sounds using IPA symbols, along with examples of words that contain each sound. Key points made include that the IPA can help learners grasp English pronunciation despite its irregular spelling, and that the symbols are meant to be universal for representing sounds across different languages.
This document provides an overview of phonetics and pronunciation. It discusses key topics like:
- What phonetics is and how it describes speech sounds
- The concept of positive and negative language transfer between a first and second language
- Articulatory phonetics and the organs involved in speech production
- Consonants and their places and manners of articulation (e.g. bilabial, dental)
- Vowels and diphthongs, and how the shape of the vocal tract changes to produce them
Readers are prompted to consider sounds in their native language and English, and to complete exercises identifying sounds. The goal is to analyze the phonetic systems of readers' languages and
The document provides information about pronouncing the "th" sounds in English. It discusses the two "th" sounds, /T/ and /D/, and explains that /T/ is unvoiced while /D/ is voiced. It also notes that "th" sounds are difficult for some language learners due to not existing in their native language. Suggestions are given for practicing the sounds, such as saying words slowly and using lists of words containing "th".
This document discusses the key differences between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology examines how sounds are organized into systems within languages. It defines phonology as the description of sound patterns in a language, focusing on abstract mental representations rather than physical sounds. The document introduces important phonological concepts like phonemes, allophones, minimal pairs, phonotactics, syllables, and co-articulation effects like assimilation and elision.
This document discusses syllables and syllable structure in English. It defines a syllable and its key components - the nucleus, onset, and coda. It provides examples of different syllable types in English words. The document also covers topics like phonotactics, strong and weak syllables, word stress patterns, and weak and strong forms of common function words in English. In summary, it provides a comprehensive overview of the phonological structure of syllables in the English language.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (/ə/) or one of three other vowel types. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables based on their spelling patterns. The document also discusses weak forms in English, where unstressed words are pronounced differently than their stressed counterparts. Teaching weak forms is important for both improving students' English pronunciation and listening comprehension.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines a weak syllable as one that has a reduced vowel sound like schwa (/ə/) or one of three other vowel types. It provides many examples of words containing weak syllables based on their spelling patterns. The document also discusses weak forms in English, where unstressed words are pronounced differently than their stressed counterparts. Teaching weak forms is important for both improving students' English pronunciation and listening comprehension.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. Weak syllables tend to be unstressed and may contain reduced vowel sounds like schwa. They often occur in function words like "the" and prefixes/suffixes. Strong syllables are stressed and have clearer vowel sounds. The types of segments that can make up syllables and examples of words with different syllable structures are provided.
The document discusses weak and strong syllables in English. It defines weak and strong syllables and provides examples of different types of weak syllables based on their vowel sounds or syllabic consonants. It also discusses how weak syllables are pronounced compared to strong syllables and their role in keeping the stress-timed rhythm of English speech.
The document discusses pronunciation challenges for non-native English speakers and provides tips to improve English pronunciation. It notes how pronunciation is connected to identity and discusses common challenges such as certain sounds being replaced in other languages. The document advises letting go of outdated beliefs about pronunciation and practicing with a playful attitude. Resources for practicing different sounds and tongue positions are also provided.
This document provides an overview of an introduction to phonetic science course. It includes the following key points:
1. The syllabus outlines course information, required book, grading criteria, and exam dates. Understanding phonetic transcription and linguistic terms like phonemes, allophones, and stress will be goals of the first class.
2. Phonetics is the scientific study of the sounds of speech and how they are produced and perceived. It fits into the study of language and can be compared to other fields. There are four branches of phonetics: articulatory, acoustic, auditory, and clinical.
3. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is introduced as a way to
The document discusses different types of morphemes and their functions in English word formation. It defines morphemes as the minimal units of meaning that combine to form words. There are different types of morphemes including bound morphemes (prefixes, suffixes), free morphemes, root morphemes, derivational morphemes, and inflectional morphemes. The document also discusses how words are formed by combining morphemes and provides examples to illustrate the different types of morpheme combinations.
This document discusses phonemes, syllables, and syllabification. It begins by defining a phoneme as the smallest unit of sound in speech. There are 44 phonemes in English, represented by letters or letter combinations. A syllable contains at least one phoneme and can be broken into onset, nucleus, and coda. The nucleus is the core vowel sound. Minimal pairs are word pairs that differ by one phoneme, like "fan" and "van". The document also discusses phonological processes like vowel reduction and features of consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet.
This document provides an introduction to morphology, the study of word structure. It discusses the basic units of meaning in words called morphemes, including roots, stems, prefixes, suffixes, and other affixes. It explains the difference between inflectional and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology involves changes that indicate grammatical information like number, tense, or case, while derivational morphology derives new words and can change a word's class. The document also covers topics like allomorphy, where a single morpheme can have variable phonetic forms depending on context.
This document provides guidance on editing text for clarity, conciseness, and correctness. It discusses checking text for wordiness, agreement between subjects and verbs/nouns and pronouns, parallel structure, misplaced/dangling modifiers, spelling errors, informal language, and proper punctuation including commas, semicolons, colons and apostrophes. The overall goal of editing is to polish the writing and remove unnecessary words to make the intended meaning clear for the reader.
The document discusses various components of literacy including phonological awareness, phonics, orthography, and reading comprehension. It defines key terms like phonemic awareness, phonics, vowel patterns, and describes instructional strategies and activities to teach foundational reading skills like sound-symbol relationships. Research is cited supporting the importance of explicit and systematic phonics instruction to facilitate reading development.
English has 44 phonemes or word sounds that make up the language. Phonemes include 19 consonants, 7 digraphs, 5 'r-controlled' sounds, 5 long vowels, 5 short vowels, 2 'oo' sounds, and 2 diphthongs. Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds, including how they are produced, perceived, and their physical properties. It has three branches: articulatory phonetics studies sound production, acoustic phonetics studies physical properties, and auditory phonetics studies perception. Speech sounds are organized into phonetic features, phonemes, allophones, words, utterances, and longer stretches of speech.
Phonetics and phonology are both linguistic fields that are interested in the role of sound in language. The importance of learning phonetics and phonology for someone whose first language is not English is paramount.
Learning phonetics will help a foreign speaker sound more like a native speaker by making them aware of the different sounds that English makes use of.
A presentation prepared in this regards is being shared herewith for the records and general sharing. :)
This document provides an overview of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and its use for learning the pronunciation of vowels and consonants in English. It describes each of the English consonant sounds using IPA symbols, along with examples of words that contain each sound. Key points made include that the IPA can help learners grasp English pronunciation despite its irregular spelling, and that the symbols are meant to be universal for representing sounds across different languages.
This document provides an overview of phonetics and pronunciation. It discusses key topics like:
- What phonetics is and how it describes speech sounds
- The concept of positive and negative language transfer between a first and second language
- Articulatory phonetics and the organs involved in speech production
- Consonants and their places and manners of articulation (e.g. bilabial, dental)
- Vowels and diphthongs, and how the shape of the vocal tract changes to produce them
Readers are prompted to consider sounds in their native language and English, and to complete exercises identifying sounds. The goal is to analyze the phonetic systems of readers' languages and
The document provides information about pronouncing the "th" sounds in English. It discusses the two "th" sounds, /T/ and /D/, and explains that /T/ is unvoiced while /D/ is voiced. It also notes that "th" sounds are difficult for some language learners due to not existing in their native language. Suggestions are given for practicing the sounds, such as saying words slowly and using lists of words containing "th".
This document discusses the key differences between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology examines how sounds are organized into systems within languages. It defines phonology as the description of sound patterns in a language, focusing on abstract mental representations rather than physical sounds. The document introduces important phonological concepts like phonemes, allophones, minimal pairs, phonotactics, syllables, and co-articulation effects like assimilation and elision.
This document discusses syllables and syllable structure in English. It defines a syllable and its key components - the nucleus, onset, and coda. It provides examples of different syllable types in English words. The document also covers topics like phonotactics, strong and weak syllables, word stress patterns, and weak and strong forms of common function words in English. In summary, it provides a comprehensive overview of the phonological structure of syllables in the English language.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
3. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
3 / 138
4. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
4 / 138
5. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
5 / 138
6. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
6 / 138
7. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
7 / 138
8. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
8 / 138
9. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
9 / 138
10. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
speech errors
10 / 138
11. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
When one speaks, if you really think about it (it’s
easier to imagine you are listening to a foreign
language that you’ve never heard of or exposed to),
sounds flow continuously and parsing or segmenting
becomes very difficult. For example,
馬 (German), Elsa (艾莎 vs. 艾爾莎)
[iSkd], [tsti], [tbdg] (Barber)
These are all syllables, but they are of different
structures and sizes!
⇒ Syllables are difficult to defined phonetically.
While it is hard to prove that there exists some kind of
structure, some evidence does show some kind of
“structures” in our speech/language:
children’s (early) utterance
speech errors
language games 11 / 138
12. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
12 / 138
13. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
13 / 138
14. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
14 / 138
15. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
15 / 138
16. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
16 / 138
17. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
17 / 138
18. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
More crucially, syllable provides domains for
phonotactic constraints.
18 / 138
19. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
How many syllables are there in the English word
“Atlanta”?
Are /t/ and /l/ in the same syllable or in two different
syllables?
What about /n/ and /t/?
⇒ How do you know?
There are some kinds of restrictions on possible
combinations of sounds (i.e., phonotactics).
⇒ You wouldn’t know about this if you don’t have the
concept of “syllables.”
More crucially, syllable provides domains for
phonotactic constraints.
Are there “syllables” in sign languages? Stay tuned for
next week’s invited talk!
19 / 138
20. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
If we observe infants and toddlers’ babbling, soon we
would notice that their production follows a particular
kind of structure: Consonant-Vowel (CV) structure.
This CV structure forms a fundamental, structural
unit for languages: syllable (σ).
20 / 138
21. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
If we observe infants and toddlers’ babbling, soon we
would notice that their production follows a particular
kind of structure: Consonant-Vowel (CV) structure.
This CV structure forms a fundamental, structural
unit for languages: syllable (σ).
It shouldn’t take long for us to realize that not all
syllables are in CV structure.
21 / 138
22. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
22 / 138
23. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
23 / 138
24. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
3 If a language has CVCC, it must have CVC. (But not
the other way around.)
24 / 138
25. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
1 CV is most preferred.
2 If a language has CVC, it must have CV. (But not the
other way around.)
3 If a language has CVCC, it must have CVC. (But not
the other way around.)
⇒ If a language has a more complicated structure, it
must have a simpler structure.
25 / 138
26. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
26 / 138
27. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
A syllable may have an onset (any consonants
preceding the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
27 / 138
28. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Within a syllable, the core component is nucleus.
That is, each syllable must have a nucleus, either a
vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant.
A syllable may have an onset (any consonants
preceding the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
A syllable may have a coda (any consonants following
the nucleus). ⇒ Optional
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
28 / 138
29. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
In a lot of cases (i.e., languages), rhyme forms a
constituent, in which nucleus and coda are included
(top left).
29 / 138
30. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllables
Onset Rhyme
!
Nucleus Coda Onset
!
Nucleus
Coda
Body
In a lot of cases (i.e., languages), rhyme forms a
constituent, in which nucleus and coda are included
(top left).
Some languages, such as Arabic and Korean, on the
other hand, form a different constituent where onset
and nucleus are subordinated to the node of body (top
right).
30 / 138
31. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Your contributions!
Not to your surprise, you know English syllable
structures are more than just a CVC structure. It gets
more complicated. In fact, it can get up to:
CCCVCCC!
Post your example(s) of CCCVCCC on padlet.
31 / 138
32. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
bopomofo ㄅㄆㄇㄈ
Think again about ㄅㄆㄇㄈ. Are they consonants, or
are they syllables?
32 / 138
33. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
bopomofo ㄅㄆㄇㄈ
Think again about ㄅㄆㄇㄈ. Are they consonants, or
are they syllables?
Consonants are not easily perceived; they need vowels
to project.
33 / 138
34. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
How do we know where syllable boundaries actually
lie? ⇒ Why Atlanta is syllabified as “At.lan.ta”?
34 / 138
35. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
How do we know where syllable boundaries actually
lie? ⇒ Why Atlanta is syllabified as “At.lan.ta”?
Universally, syllable structures are arranged in an
order of rising and falling sonority (i.e., the overall
energy of segments, or how free airflow is during
articulation) around the nucleus vowel.
⇒ So-called “Sonority Profile” (a.k.a. Sonority Principle or
the Sonority Sequencing Generalization).
35 / 138
36. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
Based on sonority , a universal ranking of segment
class has been proposed:
36 / 138
37. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
Based on sonority , a universal ranking of segment
class has been proposed:
(Non-high)Vowels > High Vowels (Glides) >
Liquids > Nasals > Fricatives > Stops
37 / 138
38. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
38 / 138
39. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
39 / 138
40. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
40 / 138
41. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
41 / 138
42. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
42 / 138
43. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
What about “explicit” /EksplIsIt/? Where do you draw
the syllable boundary?
43 / 138
44. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
In fact, the sonority profile largely determines a
language’s phonotactic constraints.
For example, English allows CCVC.
/pl/ onsets are ok (as in plate), but not /lp/ onsets
(*lpate)
/kr/ onsets are ok (as in Chris), but not /rk/ onsets
(*Rkis)
⇒ Sonority sequencing principle: Segments’
sonority increases as they move more into a syllable
(i.e., closer to the rhyme).
What about “explicit” /EksplIsIt/? Where do you draw
the syllable boundary?
[s] is very special! English allows [s] to occur at the
most peripheral onset position, regardless of the
sonority profile.
44 / 138
45. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
45 / 138
46. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
46 / 138
47. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
47 / 138
48. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
48 / 138
49. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
49 / 138
50. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
⇒ “in an hour” /in.En.aUô/ → [ĩ.nẼ.nãŨô]
50 / 138
51. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Syllabification
The VCV sequence syllabified as V.CV has to do with
a principle: Onset Principle.
Onset Principle requires all syllables to have an onset.
German and Mandarin obey Onset by inserting a
default consonant (often [P]).
⇒ “晚安” /wan.an/ → [wãn.Pãn]
Some languages (e.g., English) obey Onset through
“resyllabification.”
⇒ “in an hour” /in.En.aUô/ → [ĩ.nẼ.nãŨô]
NOTE: The Onset Principle is only a principle (i.e., a
tendency). It is not obligatorily enforced.
51 / 138
53. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
II. Phonemes and allophones
53 / 138
54. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎
54 / 138
55. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
55 / 138
56. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1]
56 / 138
57. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
57 / 138
58. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒
58 / 138
59. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
59 / 138
60. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
60 / 138
61. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
61 / 138
62. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
How do these rules emerge? How are they generalized?
62 / 138
63. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Sound rules
Read the following words/phrases
老虎 vs. 牢虎 網美 vs. 亡美
老師 [lao.ù1] → [lao.1]
老李買好酒; 語言所有東西
cats – dogs – watches
electric vs. electricity
As a language user, we learn sound rules either
explicitly or implicitly.
Mandarin tone 3: (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
English plural: [s] – [z] – [@z]
... and many more!
How do these rules emerge? How are they generalized?
⇒ Phonology
63 / 138
64. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological relationships
Determine the [ph
] – [b] disctinction
64 / 138
67. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
67 / 138
68. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
68 / 138
69. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
⇒ In other words, these sounds are in contrastive
categories!
69 / 138
70. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
In the previous slide, we see the Taiwanese has a
three-way contrasts for bilabial oral stops: [b - p - ph
].
Note that these three sounds, when followed by the
vowel [a], form three different word meanings!
⇒ In other words, these sounds are in contrastive
categories!
⇒⇒ Like we we define morpheme, we term these
sounds that contrast different word meanings when in
the same occurring environments phoneme.
70 / 138
71. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
71 / 138
72. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
72 / 138
73. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
73 / 138
74. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
74 / 138
75. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
75 / 138
76. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
One way of testing (or determining) if two sounds are
phonemes is to find a minimal pair for them.
76 / 138
77. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes
We term these sounds that (1) contrast different word
meanings (2) when in the same occurring environments
phoneme.
1 [ba] 肉 - [pa] 爸 - [pha] 打
2 [ba] - [pa] - [pha].
⇒ minimal pairs
Minimal pair: two words (with different meanings)
whose pronunciations differ by exactly one sound.
One way of testing (or determining) if two sounds are
phonemes is to find a minimal pair for them.
Linguists use slashes // to enclose “phonemes” (e.g.,
/b/, /p/) and use square brackets [ ] to represent
“phonetic sounds” (e.g., [p], [ph
]).
77 / 138
78. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
78 / 138
79. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
79 / 138
80. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
80 / 138
81. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
81 / 138
82. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
82 / 138
83. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
These variants of a phoneme are called allophones.
83 / 138
84. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take one step further. In the previous slides, we
can identify phonemes via minimal pairs.
For example, top [th
a p] vs. cop [kh
ap]
But for the same phoneme /t/ may be pronounced in
various ways. Consider the following examples:
top stop city kitten tree pot
[th
] [t] [R] [P] [Ù] [tq
]
These sounds are actually variants of the phoneme /t/.
These variants of a phoneme are called allophones.
Crucially, the alternation between allophones does not
yield any meaning contrasts.
(If you pronounce the word stop as [sthap], that still means “stop.”)
84 / 138
85. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
These allophones occur at different environments!
85 / 138
86. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
These allophones occur at different environments!
⇒ Each allophone has its own distributional condition.
When one occurs, the other one doesn’t.
86 / 138
87. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Let’s take a closer look:
top [th
] At the beginning of a stressed syllable.
stop [t] After [s].
city [R] Between two vowels and the first syllable is stressed.
kitten [P] Followed by [@n] and the previous syllable is stressed.
tree [Ù] Before [ô]
pot [tq
] At the end of a syllable.
⇒⇒ Allophones are in complementary
distribution.
NOTE: Sounds that are NOT in complementary
distribution are not necessarily phonemes. In English
[h] only occurs in onset, but [N] only occurs in coda.
That doesn’t mean that [h] and [N] are two phonemes.
87 / 138
88. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Phonemes
Contrastive categories
Forms minimal pairs
⇒ Overlapped distribution
⇒ Unpredictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by slashes //.
88 / 138
89. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonemes vs. allophones
Phonemes
Contrastive categories
Forms minimal pairs
⇒ Overlapped distribution
⇒ Unpredictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by slashes //.
Allophones
Non-contrastive categories
In complementary distribution
⇒ Predictable distribution
IPA symbols enclosed by square brackets [ ].
89 / 138
90. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Your contributions
When 柯南 shows up, 工藤新一 doesn’t (can’t) show
up. ⇒ 柯南 and 工藤新一 are in complementary
distribution.
Please come up with one live (non-linguistic) example
or two of “complementary distribution” and post
your answer(s) on padlet.
90 / 138
91. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
91 / 138
92. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
92 / 138
93. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
93 / 138
94. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
They are allophones of the same phoneme.
94 / 138
95. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Free variation
In some contexts, more than one pronunciation of a
given sound may be possible while the meaning of the
word remains unaffected.
stop: [stap] and [stapq
] are both fine.
These variants are termed free variations.
They are allophones of the same phoneme.
Overlapping distribution with no difference in
meaning.
95 / 138
96. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [ ]
dogs [ ]
buses [ ]
tubs [ ]
watches [ ]
cakes [ ]
sibilngs [ ]
ashes [ ]
pipes [ ]
96 / 138
97. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [s]
dogs [z]
buses [@z]
tubs [z]
watches [@z]
cakes [s]
siblings [z]
ashes [@z]
pipes [s]
97 / 138
98. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s now take a look at the (regular) plural formation in
English. Please write down the plural marker for each word.
cats [s]
dogs [z]
buses [@z]
tubs [z]
watches [@z]
cakes [s]
siblings [z]
ashes [@z]
pipes [s]
English plural marker has three allomorphs: [s], [z],
and [@z]
98 / 138
99. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Each allomorph occurs with a class of sounds:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù]
99 / 138
100. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Each allomorph occurs with a class of sounds:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù]
Very quickly, you should notice:
[s] attaches to words ending with [p, t, k, f]
[z] attaches to words ending with [b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l]
[@z] attaches to words ending with [s, S, Ù, z, Ã]
100 / 138
101. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f]
101 / 138
102. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
102 / 138
103. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l]
103 / 138
104. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
104 / 138
105. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã]
105 / 138
106. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
106 / 138
107. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Really, we need to ask: Do (native) speakers really
memorize these lists just to make the correct plural
forms?
If the listed sounds share some properties, we can
“group” them in the same class:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
These phonetic properties are termed features.
107 / 138
108. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s look closer:
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] are ⇒ all [+sibilant], but some of them
are [+voice] while others are [-voice].
If we claim that all words ending with an [-voice]
sound should be followed by [s], we would wrongly get
bus [*b2ss].
Our generalizations should be modified:
108 / 138
109. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Natural classes
Let’s look closer:
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] are ⇒ all [+sibilant], but some of them
are [+voice] while others are [-voice].
If we claim that all words ending with an [-voice]
sound should be followed by [s], we would wrongly get
bus [*b2ss].
Our generalizations should be modified:
[p, t, k, f] ⇒ all [-voice, -sibilant]
[b, g, N, d, m, n, v, ô, l] ⇒ all [+voice, -sibilant]
[s, S, Ù, z, Ã] ⇒ all [+sibilant]
109 / 138
110. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
For consonants, linguists have posited a number of
features.
110 / 138
111. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
Unsurprisingly, (English) vowels can be evaluated by
different distinctive features:
111 / 138
112. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Distinctive features
Unsurprisingly, (English) vowels can be evaluated by
different distinctive features:
Question: /i/, /I/, /u/, and /U/ form a group. What
feature(s) is the defining feature?
⇒ [+high]
112 / 138
114. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Phonological rules often apply to natural classes or are
structure-dependent. Now let’s look at some (common)
phonological rules.
Let’s take a look at the following German examples:
What’s the phonological process here?
114 / 138
115. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s look back at today’s in-class exercise:
1 What are the rules to make plural forms?
2 Apart from the rule for plural forms, what other rules
do you observe?
3 Can you give the “underlying” forms (i.e., the basic
structure before any rules applied) for each word?
4 Following the previous question, can you justify your
answers?
115 / 138
116. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
116 / 138
118. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
118 / 138
119. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
Can you generalize the rule at work here?
119 / 138
120. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Consider following examples:
1 unbelievable [2mb@liv@bl
"
], unstable [2nsteIbl
"
],
unclear[2Nkliô]
2
Latin Italian gloss
octo otto eight
septem sette seven
damnum danno damage
Can you generalize the rule at work here?
⇒ Assimilation: Rules of assimilation cause a sound
(or gesture) to become more like a neighboring sound
(or gesture) with respect to some phonetic property.
120 / 138
121. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
121 / 138
122. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
122 / 138
123. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
123 / 138
124. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
Unlike assimilation, this kind of phonological rule
makes two close or adjacent sounds to become less
similar with respect to some property.
124 / 138
125. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Let’s consider another type of phonological rule.
1 Greek
Enunciated Fast speech gloss
/epta/ [efta] seven
/ktizma/ [xtizma] building
2 Mandarin: 老虎 (ˇˇ → ˊˇ)
⇒ also known as tone sandhi rule.
⇒⇒ Tone sandhi rule also occurs in Taiwan Southern
Min (almost everywhere!).
Unlike assimilation, this kind of phonological rule
makes two close or adjacent sounds to become less
similar with respect to some property.
⇒ This is termed dissimilation.
125 / 138
126. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
126 / 138
127. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
127 / 138
128. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
128 / 138
129. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
Deletion: A sound that was present at the phonemic
level gets eliminated in the phonetic output.
129 / 138
130. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Insertion: A segment not present at the phonemic
level is added to the phonetic form of a word.
1 For example, German pferd ’horse’ /pfEôd/ → [p@fE5t]
by L2 learners.
2 Insertion can also occur in perception! [ebzo] to
[ebuzo] continuum by Japanese and French speakers
(Dupoux et al. 1999).
Deletion: A sound that was present at the phonemic
level gets eliminated in the phonetic output.
1 mystery /mIst@ôi/ → [mIstôi]
130 / 138
131. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
131 / 138
132. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
132 / 138
133. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
133 / 138
134. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
134 / 138
135. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
135 / 138
136. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
2 In Leti, VC#CC → CV#CC. For example,
136 / 138
137. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
Phonological rules
Other phonological rules:
Palatalization: Sounds are “palatalized.” (i.e., the
place of articulation moves to the palatal area.)
1 劍 in Southern Min: [kiam]; in Mandarin: [tCian]
2 叫 in Southern Min: [kio]; in Mandarin: [tCiaU]
Metathesis: The order of sounds (segments) is
changed (or reversed).
1 ask him [æsk#hIm] vs. [æks#hIm] (*axe him!)
2 In Leti, VC#CC → CV#CC. For example,
“index finger” /ukar + ppalu/ → [ukrappalu].
137 / 138
138. Syllables Phonemes and allophones Phonological rules
演講語言
調查: Medium language of the invited talks
138 / 138