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Curriculum Development

The document discusses the concept and development of curriculum, emphasizing its role as a structured learning experience that connects educational content with societal and cultural values. It explores various philosophical foundations of curriculum, including idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism, each prescribing different educational approaches and teaching strategies. Additionally, it outlines curriculum development models, such as the technical-scientific and grassroots approaches, highlighting the importance of tailoring education to societal needs and learner experiences.

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Submitted By : Ayushi Gupta
CURRICULUM Curriculum is a total guided learning experience designed to facilitate learner's learning for establishing quality relationship between what is learnt and what operates outside the school. The curriculum includes the aims, objectives, teaching content, teaching strategies, assessment methods and other components of learning and teaching in classrooms. Curriculum is a comprehensive overview of what students should learn, how they will learn it, what role the instructor is playing and the framework in which learning and teaching will take place.
Curriculum Development is defined as planned, purposeful, progressive and systematic process in order to create positive improvements in the educational system.
The development of an effective curriculum is a • Multi-step • Ongoing • Cyclical Process. The process progresses from evaluating the existing program, to implementing a new program and back to evaluating the revised program.
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of the curriculum developers. It affects the content and structure of the curriculum. The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and it is the desire of a society that their children should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational institutions are the proper way to impart these skills. The duty of teacher and school is to discipline the young children of the society and provide them with a set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs, knowledge and information of the society provides foundation in the formation of curriculum
Major Foundations of Curriculum Philosoph ical Foundatio n Psychologi cal Foundatio n Sociologic al Foundatio n
Educators, curriculum makers and teachers have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated. Philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners, and teachers make sound decisions. A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background, common beliefs, and education.
Four Educational Philosophies Idealism Realism Pragmatism Existentialism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that gives importance to the "ideas". According to Idealism, ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. Plato, father of Idealism believed that there are two worlds (knowledge). The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal, (Aprioric Knowledge). There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly, (Postprioric Knowledge. In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society.
While developing curriculum, idealists give more importance to thoughts, feelings, ideas and values rather than to the child and his activities. They firmly hold that curriculum should be concerned with the whole humanity and its experiences. Since the main aim of education according to the philosophy of idealism is to preserve and advance the culture of human race, so subjects like Religion, Ethics, philosophy, History, Literature etc should be provided in the curriculum. Healthy mind is found in healthy body only. So health, hygiene, games and sports should also find an important place in the curriculum. • Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as a spiritual guide for the child. He sets the environment in which education takes place. He carries the child from darkness to light. He is to guide the student towards utmost possible perfection. An idealist teacher is a philosopher, friend and guide. According to Froebel, the school is a garden, the teacher is a cautious gardener and the child is a tender plant. The plant can grow, no doubt, without help but the good gardener sees that the plant grows to the finest possible perfection. Through teacher’s guidance the child can make his natural development into a process leading to perfection and beauty.
Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through • lecture • discussion • Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge) • Introspection • Intuition and Insight These methods are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind of the child.
Aristotle is credited with the development of realism. Realism is about viewing the world in terms of what a person experiences through their senses. This is almost the opposite of idealism and it focuses on the mind. Realist focus on experiencing things through experiences. Realism is not based upon perception of the individuals but is an objective reality based on reason and science. Realism represents a theory that particular things exist independently of our perception.
Aims of Realist Education: • Preparation for a Good life. • Preparation for a Real Life of the Material World. • Development of Physical and Mental Powers. • Development of Senses. • Imparting Vocational Knowledge and Skill. • Development of Character. • Enabling the Child to Adjust with the Environment. Realist Curriculum: Realists wanted to include those subjects and activities which would prepare the children for actual day to day living. They gave primary place to nature, science and vocational subjects whereas secondary place to Arts, literature, biography, philosophy, psychology and morality. They also laid stress upon the teaching of mother- tongue as the foundation of all development, which is necessary for reading, writing and social interaction but not for literary purposes.
Realist Method of Teaching: • Emphasis on critical reasoning through observation. • Mastery of facts: Recitation, experimentation, demonstration, drills, exercises. • Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. • Enhanced learning through direct and indirect experiences: field trips, lectures, films, tv, audio-visual aids, computer technology and library. • Children should be given positive rewards. Role of a Teacher: Under the realistic school, the teacher must be a scholar and his duty is to guide the children towards the hard core realities of life. He must expose them to the problems of life and the world around. The teacher should have full knowledge of the content and needs of the children. The teacher should also inspire the child to undertake close observation and experimentation for finding out new facts and principles .
The term Pragmatism derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to make, to accomplish. For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. The focus of pragmatism is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise.
• To pragmatism the aim of education is to provide dynamic direction and guidance to the child according to his natural interests, aptitudes and capacities in the field of academic activities that he grows up and develops more and is endowed with capacities to confront the ever changing problems and challenges of modern life successfully achieving a happier, a better and a richer life. For this education should develop such a dynamic, flexible and adaptable mind which is always resourceful and enterprising and is able to create new values for an unknown future. • The curriculum must grow out of child’s interests, experiences, impulses and needs. The curriculum must be child-centred. Pragmatists stressed that school subjects should be woven around the child’s activities. The curriculum should be flexible, useful, experimental and life related.
Methods of Teaching: • Learning by doing • Collective approach • Integrated approach • Individual approach Role of Teacher: • The teacher works as friend, philosopher and guide to the students • He should have the capacity to know the interests of the students. • He should understand the conditions and situation of changing society. • He puts forth problems for the students to be solved according to their interests. • He also creates situations to develop social interests, attitudes and habits for welfare of the society.
Existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding self and the meaning of life through free will, choice, and personal responsibility. The belief is that people are searching to find out who and what they are throughout life as they make choices based on their experiences, beliefs, and outlook. It emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe. The main identifiable common proposition is that existence precedes essence. By this, existentialism states that man exists and in that existence man defines himself and the world in his own subjectivity, and wanders between choice, freedom, and existential angst.
Methods of Education: Progressive schools are what existentialists espouse. Children are individuals. No two children are alike, therefore they are going to learn differently. Education should accommodate these needs and students should be encouraged to do things because they want to do them. According to Cramer and Ozman "There should be freedom of choice, spontaneous play, open expression of feelings, and student participation in the democratic control over community life in the school." There should be diversity in the curriculum and in the manner in which things are taught. Teachers should treat students humanely, as people, not objects. A relationship should be developed between the student and the teacher in order to promote the goals of education. Existentialist believe that the authority/control method of teaching tends to prohibit the attainment of knowledge. Role of Learners: • The role of the learner is to feely choose what subject/s they want to study as long as they are interested in it. • To define their own essence or meaning of life.
Curriculum: • An Existentialist curriculum will consist of experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making, because the choice is personal and subjective. • Composed of fine arts, drama, creative expression, literature and philosophy. • Vocational education is seen more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potentials than that of earning a livelihood. • The curriculum should include self-expressing activities, experimentation and methods and media that illustrate emotional feelings and insight.
Students Parents Educators Research Community Community Members Business Community Government Officials Pressure Groups Professional Organizations Governing Bodies
"No two persons are exactly alike" Major Theories of Learning BEHAVIORISM Which deals with various aspects of stimulus- response and reinforcement scheme COGNITIVISM Which views the learners in relationship with the total environment
BEHAVIORISM • Behaviorism gives importance to the explicit behavior by conditioning the mind. • Studies conditioning, modifying or shaping behavior through reinforcement and rewards. • Behaviorism in curriculum includes careful analyzing and sequencing of the learners' needs and behaviors. • Rely on step-by-step structured methods for learning. • Curriculum should be organized so students master the subject matter. • Key Theorists : Thorndike, Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Bandura.
COGNITIVISM • Cognitivism gives importance to the Brain, with the help of reflection and logical reasoning • Focuses on how individuals process information • Emphasis on Memory and on how to enhance learning. • Learner is the key player. • Cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. • Students should not be afraid to ask, not be afraid of being wrong, not afraid of not pleasing the teacher, and not afraid of taking risk and playing with ideas. • Key Theorists : Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Bloom's Taxanomy
Role of the Teacher in Behaviorism and Cognitivism The teacher should teach keeping in mind the nature of the learners, pace of the learners and their background and perspectives. Teacher has to promote the learner's intrinsic motivation so that the actual learning occurs.
Neary (2003) describes the technical-scientific model as the Product Model which emphasises plans and intentions. The curriculum developer prioritizes what the students will be learning from a specific subject matter and the explicit goals and objectives the students must achieve. The focus is on knowledge acquisition and what knowledge is most important for the students to gain. The curriculum is structured in a step by step manner to optimize students’ learning and to allow them to increase their output. The curriculum is designed with a time frame when these goals and objectives are to be achieved. It is very teacher centric and focuses on content structured assessment tools. Two of the early leading proponents of the technical-scientific approach to curriculum development were Ralph Tyler and Hilda Tabaf
The Tyler Model Ralph Tyler, a well-known proponent of the technical-scientific approach discussed four basic principles in curriculum development in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler stated his curriculum rationale in terms of four questions that, he argued, must be answered in developing any curriculum and plan of instructions.
Educational objectives originate from three sources : These tentative objectives from the three sources are filtered through two screens : This results in a final set of educational objectives. 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? Philosophy of the School Psychology of Learning Societ y Learne rs Subjec t- maker s
Learning Experiences ➕ The experiences were to be selected in the light of what educators know about learning and development. 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? Previous Experiences Learner's Perception
• Tyler emphasized that the ordering of experiences had to be somewhat systematic so as to produce a maximum cumulative effect. • Organising elements such as ideas, concepts, values and skills should be woven threads into the curriculum fabric. • With the help of these key elements, the students could relate different learning experiences among different subjects. • Generally, we arrange educational experiences from the most general to specific i.e., from the easiest to the hardest. 3. How can the educational experiences be organized?
Evaluation is the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are being realized by the curriculum. Thus, according to Tyler, curriculum evaluation is the process of matching initial expectations in the form of behavioural objectives with outcomes achieved by the learner. 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
The Taba Model • Hilda Taba promotes the “Down-Top Model” or Grass-Roots Approach. • She believed that the curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme i.e., the Teachers. • She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development-starting with the specifics and building to a general curriculum design.
Taba noted 7 major steps to her Grass-Root Model, in which teachers would have major input : 1. Diagnosis of Needs 2. Formulation of Objectives 3. Selection of Content 4. Organisation of Content 5. Selection of learning experiences 6. Organisation of learning activities 7. Evaluation and means of evaluation
Curriculum Development is : Subjective Personal Aesthetic Heuristic Transactio- nal Logical
This approach is student centered with the emphasis on the learners rather than the output. It has a holistic view of learning. It takes the view that the formal assessments do not measure the accomplishments of curriculum. This approach considers that “not all the educational goals can be known and the curriculum should evolve rather than be precisely planned”. It emphasizes on active rather than passive approach to learning. Non-technical Non-scientific approach to curriculum development is a process model that concentrates on activities and the effects of the activities. There is also a weighting on student choice and life and social skills.
It is based on the "Activity Curriculum" It did not supported the formal preparation of plans before the learners arrival. Teachers are actively engaged whereas the learners are passive. Herbert Kohl said that "pupils can make choices and pursue what interests them". The best thing that works for the students are the unplanned and spontaneous ones because of their sudden perceptions.
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