The document discusses various perspectives on codifying the orthography of Nigerian Pidgin English. It examines views that Nigerian Pidgin English should develop its own orthography based on Nigerian languages rather than English spelling. It also considers perspectives that support using English spelling for Nigerian Pidgin English due to its roots in English and the advantages this could provide. Overall, the document explores the ongoing debate around establishing a standardized orthography for Nigerian Pidgin English and considers arguments for both indigenous and English-based approaches.
The document discusses the nativization of the English language in Nigeria through an analysis of two novels: Elechi Amadi's The Concubine and Chimamanda Adichie's Purple Hibiscus. It explores how the authors used Nigerian English expressions like semantic shift, collocation, and coinage to portray Nigerian culture, traditions, and the local sensibilities of Nigerians. The document also examines the different varieties of Nigerian English that have developed and the areas in which the English language has been nativized in Nigeria, including the political, educational, and sociocultural domains.
Nigerian english syntax and usage between deviance and deviationAlexander Decker
This document discusses the distinction between deviance and deviation in Nigerian English. It defines deviance as sentences or units that do not conform to grammar rules and are ill-formed, while deviation refers to usage forms that do not disrupt communication or international intelligibility, and reflect the multilingual Nigerian environment. Examples of deviant Nigerian English are provided that depart significantly from Standard British English. The document aims to differentiate between deviance and deviation, exemplify deviations, and discuss implications for English students and linguists in Nigeria.
Verbal ‘intraference’ in educated nigerian english (ene)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on verbal "intraference" in Educated Nigerian English (ENE). The study found that educated Nigerians creatively form new verbs through affixation and conversion processes not found in standard dictionaries. Examples are provided and analyzed to understand how verbal intraference distinguishes Nigerian English morphology from standard British English. The research methodology, theoretical framework, and concept of Nigerian English are also briefly discussed.
The Use of Pidgin English Vocabulary in The Music IndustryGabriel Ken
This document discusses the use of Pidgin English vocabulary in the Nigerian music industry. It begins with an introduction to Pidgin English as the second most spoken language in Nigeria. It then discusses how the spread of Nigerian music has contributed to the increasing popularity and use of Pidgin English vocabulary. The document presents the objectives as examining how Nigerian music penetrates and affects the use of Pidgin English through an analysis of vocabulary in music tracks. It reviews related literature and outlines the research methodology of analyzing selected music lyrics to evaluate Pidgin English expressions, grammar and lexical items used.
This study examined writing difficulties faced by Bengali students learning English as a second language. Essays written by 7 Bengali students were analyzed to identify errors in use of articles and verbs. Most students made mistakes with articles, especially recurring errors and errors of article. Analysis of individual students found they struggled most with specific areas, such as recurring mistakes for one student and missing articles for another. The study aims to help address weaknesses in students' English writing skills.
The document provides an overview of the Japanese language, including its origins and influences, phonology, grammar, writing system, loanwords, honorific language, names, and typing in Japanese. It notes that while Japanese syntax comes from Altaic languages, its vocabulary was influenced by Chinese and other languages, and it uses Chinese characters (kanji) along with two phonetic scripts (hiragana and katakana). Key aspects of Japanese include its subject-object-verb structure, use of particles instead of inflections, complex honorific language system, and vertical writing direction.
Domestication of the English Language in Nigeria: An Examination of Morpho-Sy...Premier Publishers
This paper examined certain developmental patterns Nigerian English (NigE) demonstrates in recent times, particularly at the linguistic levels of morphology and syntax. While studying these current trends, a sociolinguistic approach, as enunciated and popularized by Labov (1966), was adopted. The principal source of data for the corpus was the use of 100 questionnaires containing 11 objective tests administered to the respondents. The first part of the work provided an overview of the place of NigE as one of the World Englishes, today, while the second part which is the core of the work is an examination of the nature of foray the typology has made on the construction and use of English by Nigerians of a broad social spectrum. The study established that the uniqueness of NigE is considerably realized in such linguistic features as conversion, acronym, composition, redundancy, coinage and reduplication. It was, as well, observed that some NigE forms exhibit the same morphological and syntactic patterns as those of Standard English (SE) while some exhibit significant variations.
this is my dissertation presented to the Language Studies Department Linguistic Unit, Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. Melvin Bunton Nicol
The document discusses the nativization of the English language in Nigeria through an analysis of two novels: Elechi Amadi's The Concubine and Chimamanda Adichie's Purple Hibiscus. It explores how the authors used Nigerian English expressions like semantic shift, collocation, and coinage to portray Nigerian culture, traditions, and the local sensibilities of Nigerians. The document also examines the different varieties of Nigerian English that have developed and the areas in which the English language has been nativized in Nigeria, including the political, educational, and sociocultural domains.
Nigerian english syntax and usage between deviance and deviationAlexander Decker
This document discusses the distinction between deviance and deviation in Nigerian English. It defines deviance as sentences or units that do not conform to grammar rules and are ill-formed, while deviation refers to usage forms that do not disrupt communication or international intelligibility, and reflect the multilingual Nigerian environment. Examples of deviant Nigerian English are provided that depart significantly from Standard British English. The document aims to differentiate between deviance and deviation, exemplify deviations, and discuss implications for English students and linguists in Nigeria.
Verbal ‘intraference’ in educated nigerian english (ene)Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on verbal "intraference" in Educated Nigerian English (ENE). The study found that educated Nigerians creatively form new verbs through affixation and conversion processes not found in standard dictionaries. Examples are provided and analyzed to understand how verbal intraference distinguishes Nigerian English morphology from standard British English. The research methodology, theoretical framework, and concept of Nigerian English are also briefly discussed.
The Use of Pidgin English Vocabulary in The Music IndustryGabriel Ken
This document discusses the use of Pidgin English vocabulary in the Nigerian music industry. It begins with an introduction to Pidgin English as the second most spoken language in Nigeria. It then discusses how the spread of Nigerian music has contributed to the increasing popularity and use of Pidgin English vocabulary. The document presents the objectives as examining how Nigerian music penetrates and affects the use of Pidgin English through an analysis of vocabulary in music tracks. It reviews related literature and outlines the research methodology of analyzing selected music lyrics to evaluate Pidgin English expressions, grammar and lexical items used.
This study examined writing difficulties faced by Bengali students learning English as a second language. Essays written by 7 Bengali students were analyzed to identify errors in use of articles and verbs. Most students made mistakes with articles, especially recurring errors and errors of article. Analysis of individual students found they struggled most with specific areas, such as recurring mistakes for one student and missing articles for another. The study aims to help address weaknesses in students' English writing skills.
The document provides an overview of the Japanese language, including its origins and influences, phonology, grammar, writing system, loanwords, honorific language, names, and typing in Japanese. It notes that while Japanese syntax comes from Altaic languages, its vocabulary was influenced by Chinese and other languages, and it uses Chinese characters (kanji) along with two phonetic scripts (hiragana and katakana). Key aspects of Japanese include its subject-object-verb structure, use of particles instead of inflections, complex honorific language system, and vertical writing direction.
Domestication of the English Language in Nigeria: An Examination of Morpho-Sy...Premier Publishers
This paper examined certain developmental patterns Nigerian English (NigE) demonstrates in recent times, particularly at the linguistic levels of morphology and syntax. While studying these current trends, a sociolinguistic approach, as enunciated and popularized by Labov (1966), was adopted. The principal source of data for the corpus was the use of 100 questionnaires containing 11 objective tests administered to the respondents. The first part of the work provided an overview of the place of NigE as one of the World Englishes, today, while the second part which is the core of the work is an examination of the nature of foray the typology has made on the construction and use of English by Nigerians of a broad social spectrum. The study established that the uniqueness of NigE is considerably realized in such linguistic features as conversion, acronym, composition, redundancy, coinage and reduplication. It was, as well, observed that some NigE forms exhibit the same morphological and syntactic patterns as those of Standard English (SE) while some exhibit significant variations.
this is my dissertation presented to the Language Studies Department Linguistic Unit, Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone. Melvin Bunton Nicol
This document discusses lingua francas, which are common languages used for communication between groups that do not share a native language. It provides examples of historical and current lingua francas, including English, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic. English has become the most widely spoken lingua franca due to factors like British colonialism, the world wars, and its use in domains such as business, media, and science. Other languages have served as lingua francas in different regions and eras depending on geographical, historical, political and commercial influences. The choice of lingua franca depends on the linguistic backgrounds and needs of the communicating groups.
This document discusses English as a lingua franca and the role of pronunciation, culture, and first language interference in second language acquisition. It addresses several questions:
1) Why pronunciation can cause intelligibility problems in English as a lingua franca. The document notes that one's first language and culture can influence pronunciation in a second language.
2) How teachers can help students understand varieties of English, like Philippine English, and promote cultural awareness, which is important for comprehension. Accuracy alone is less important than effective communication.
3) Whether we should value intelligibility or accuracy more as English teachers, and how to evaluate multilingual students' proficiency based on communication ability rather than adherence to native speaker norms
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) (repaired)Mel bliss
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on the lexical items of the Mandingo language. It discusses the Mandingo people and their migration to Sierra Leone between 1840-1900. It also outlines the objectives and hypothesis of the study, which is to analyze and classify the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs that make up the Mandingo lexicon. The chapter then discusses the sources of data collection, which include interviews with L1 Mandingo speakers, as well as textbooks and published materials. It acknowledges limitations such as difficulty communicating technical linguistic concepts to non-educated interviewees. Finally, it provides historical context on the Mandingo and an overview of their culture, religious practices, and the phonology of
English as a Lingua Franca pre-sessional EnglishGreg Wells
The document discusses English as a lingua franca (ELF) in global academic contexts. It explores the use of English in university instruction and debates around accepting non-standard varieties of English. Some key points discussed include: the definition of ELF as communication between speakers with different first languages; the growth of English medium instruction globally but especially in Europe; and surveys finding most academics prioritize communication over correctness or conformity to native standards when grading students' English. It also presents opposing views, with some arguing only standard English should be accepted and others believing there is no single native standard and intelligibility is most important.
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) new1Mel bliss
The document provides background information on the Mandingo language and people. It discusses how Mandingo is spoken widely in West Africa but is a minority language in Sierra Leone. It then outlines the objectives, hypothesis, motivation and scope of the research being conducted, which focuses on analyzing lexical items in Mandingo such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The document also provides historical context on the Mandingo people and their migration to Sierra Leone, in addition to describing their culture, religion, and way of life. Finally, it examines the sound system of the Mandingo language.
1) The term "lingua franca" originated from Italian and refers to a language used for communication between people who do not share a common language, such as the mixture of Italian and Occitan used in medieval times.
2) A lingua franca serves as a common language for trade and other important communications, as Portuguese did in Africa and Malay did in Southeast Asia during the Age of Exploration.
3) Today, English serves as a global lingua franca for international business, science, and aviation, while other unofficial lingua francas facilitate communication between ethnic groups in multilingual regions.
This document discusses English as a lingua franca. It begins by defining lingua franca as a common language used for communication between speakers of different native languages. It then discusses how English has become the main global lingua franca due to factors like globalization and the internet. The document covers attitudes towards English as a lingua franca, how it is taught, and issues related to its use replacing native languages in some countries like difficulties becoming literate in either the native language or English. It concludes that the use of English as a lingua franca will likely continue increasing as a tool for global communication.
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) (repaired) new1Mel bliss
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on the lexical items of the Mandingo language. It discusses the Mandingo people and their language, stating that while Mandingo has significantly impacted the region, little research has been conducted on its lexicon. The document outlines the objectives, hypothesis, motivation, scope, sources of data/methodology, limitations, and provides historical background on the Mandingo people and their language. It also describes Mandingo society, orthography, vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
The document discusses the history and importance of teaching pronunciation in the English language. It begins with a brief overview of the origins and development of English from Old English to Middle English to Modern English. It then focuses on pronunciation, noting that pronunciation is an integral part of language learning and communication. However, teaching pronunciation is often overlooked or not prioritized. The document advocates for the importance of teaching pronunciation in language classrooms and provides references that discuss strategies and techniques for doing so effectively.
English has become the dominant lingua franca globally due to factors like globalization and advances in technology. A lingua franca is a language commonly used for communication between people who do not share a native language. Historically, lingua francas developed through interactions like trade between different language groups. Today, English serves as the primary lingua franca for international communication in domains like aviation, business, academia and online interactions due to its widespread use and status as the dominant global language.
Kohn 2013 Intercultural communicative competence: an English as a lingua fran...Kurt Kohn
In my presentation, I focus on the roots of intercultural communicative competence in ordinary everyday communication. I first trace the development of models of communicative competence from Hymes (1972) to Canale & Swain (1980) and Leung (2004). Against this background, I introduce the social-constructivist "My English" condition (Kohn 2011) according to which learners acquire English by developing their own versions of it in processes of individual and collaborative creative construction. I then discuss the nature of non-native speaker English from the perspective of ownership in a globalized world of communication seemingly torn between foreign language learners’ orientation towards Standard English and the requirements of communication in English as a lingua franca (ELF). In their attempt to establish a ‘third space’ of intercultural communication, lingua franca users of English are faced with the challenge of learning to explore and trust their own non-native speaker creativity in collaborative processes of accommodation and meaning negotiation. As an illustration I use examples from an ELF corpus of critical incident discussions.
Hi There, please kindly use my PPT for powering your learning, please let me know if you want to discuss more.
Email : silviananda.putrierito@gmail.com
Slide strategies and genres in the english classesMACERC
The document discusses reading strategies for different genres in English classes. It provides a checklist of concepts of reading and examines reading as either an easy or complex process depending on one's role in interpreting a text. It then outlines various reading strategies such as having a purpose, skimming, scanning, using prior knowledge, comprehending verbal and non-verbal information, identifying cognates, cohesive links, and making inferences. Examples provided include analyzing magazine covers and reflecting on ideas from a researcher about digital natives and immigrants.
I'm a Primary Language Teacher - help me out here!Lisa Stevens
This document provides guidance and resources for primary language teachers. It discusses delivering the primary language curriculum through engaging activities focused on listening, speaking, reading and writing. Suggestions are given for how to approach vocabulary, grammar and culture in age-appropriate ways. The importance of building confidence and enjoyment in language learning is emphasized. A variety of online resources and blogs are recommended for teachers seeking support.
As the topic suggests, the research paper presents Study of Consonant Pronunciations Errors Committed by EFL Learners. Error analysis always tries to resolve language learners’ problems in acquiring second or foreign language setting. Learning to English pronunciation is perhaps as important as learning listening skill, speaking, and spelling. Errors in English pronunciation create several problems for English language learners in their works. In other words, most of the English language errors of pronunciation are due to the lack of knowledge of language learners. However, all the students in our sample are of age group (16-25) at Bushehr language institute and they are all Iranian nationals. In addition, all of them were female learners. An English pronunciation (consonant) test was used to get information about the knowledge of the learners in English pronunciation. Findings of this article indicated that the first and second hypotheses of this article were accepted, but the third hypothesis was rejected. However, the findings of this paper showed that the Iranian EFL students have problem to pronounce English sounds correctly.
This document discusses pidgin and creole languages. It defines pidgin as a reduced language that develops for communication between groups without a shared language, while a creole is a pidgin that becomes a community's native language. The document outlines the key differences between pidgins and creoles, such as pidgins having no native speakers and simpler structure, while creoles are fully developed languages. Several examples of pidgin and creole languages are provided.
Nigerian Pidgin developed from contact between English and Nigerian languages, and is spoken as a native language by 3-5 million people and as a second language by 75 million more. It originated as a way for different ethnic groups in Nigeria to communicate across language barriers, and is influenced by British colonization. While there are variations across Nigeria's 250+ ethnic groups, Nigerian Pidgin is most widely spoken in the Niger Delta region.
3rd material lingua-franca,pidgin,creoleAyu Juwita
Here are some potential functions for the utterances:
1. Invitation, command, request
2. Greeting
3. Comparison, information
4. Information
5. Information, transmission of culture
6. Instruction, advice, warning
7. Warning
8. Expression of feeling
9. Information, transmission of culture
10. Persuasion, promotion
This document discusses lingua francas, which are common languages used for communication between groups that do not share a native language. It provides examples of historical and current lingua francas, including English, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic. English has become the most widely spoken lingua franca due to factors like British colonialism, the world wars, and its use in domains such as business, media, and science. Other languages have served as lingua francas in different regions and eras depending on geographical, historical, political and commercial influences. The choice of lingua franca depends on the linguistic backgrounds and needs of the communicating groups.
This document discusses English as a lingua franca and the role of pronunciation, culture, and first language interference in second language acquisition. It addresses several questions:
1) Why pronunciation can cause intelligibility problems in English as a lingua franca. The document notes that one's first language and culture can influence pronunciation in a second language.
2) How teachers can help students understand varieties of English, like Philippine English, and promote cultural awareness, which is important for comprehension. Accuracy alone is less important than effective communication.
3) Whether we should value intelligibility or accuracy more as English teachers, and how to evaluate multilingual students' proficiency based on communication ability rather than adherence to native speaker norms
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) (repaired)Mel bliss
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on the lexical items of the Mandingo language. It discusses the Mandingo people and their migration to Sierra Leone between 1840-1900. It also outlines the objectives and hypothesis of the study, which is to analyze and classify the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs that make up the Mandingo lexicon. The chapter then discusses the sources of data collection, which include interviews with L1 Mandingo speakers, as well as textbooks and published materials. It acknowledges limitations such as difficulty communicating technical linguistic concepts to non-educated interviewees. Finally, it provides historical context on the Mandingo and an overview of their culture, religious practices, and the phonology of
English as a Lingua Franca pre-sessional EnglishGreg Wells
The document discusses English as a lingua franca (ELF) in global academic contexts. It explores the use of English in university instruction and debates around accepting non-standard varieties of English. Some key points discussed include: the definition of ELF as communication between speakers with different first languages; the growth of English medium instruction globally but especially in Europe; and surveys finding most academics prioritize communication over correctness or conformity to native standards when grading students' English. It also presents opposing views, with some arguing only standard English should be accepted and others believing there is no single native standard and intelligibility is most important.
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) new1Mel bliss
The document provides background information on the Mandingo language and people. It discusses how Mandingo is spoken widely in West Africa but is a minority language in Sierra Leone. It then outlines the objectives, hypothesis, motivation and scope of the research being conducted, which focuses on analyzing lexical items in Mandingo such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The document also provides historical context on the Mandingo people and their migration to Sierra Leone, in addition to describing their culture, religion, and way of life. Finally, it examines the sound system of the Mandingo language.
1) The term "lingua franca" originated from Italian and refers to a language used for communication between people who do not share a common language, such as the mixture of Italian and Occitan used in medieval times.
2) A lingua franca serves as a common language for trade and other important communications, as Portuguese did in Africa and Malay did in Southeast Asia during the Age of Exploration.
3) Today, English serves as a global lingua franca for international business, science, and aviation, while other unofficial lingua francas facilitate communication between ethnic groups in multilingual regions.
This document discusses English as a lingua franca. It begins by defining lingua franca as a common language used for communication between speakers of different native languages. It then discusses how English has become the main global lingua franca due to factors like globalization and the internet. The document covers attitudes towards English as a lingua franca, how it is taught, and issues related to its use replacing native languages in some countries like difficulties becoming literate in either the native language or English. It concludes that the use of English as a lingua franca will likely continue increasing as a tool for global communication.
Lexical items in mandingo (dissertation) (repaired) new1Mel bliss
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on the lexical items of the Mandingo language. It discusses the Mandingo people and their language, stating that while Mandingo has significantly impacted the region, little research has been conducted on its lexicon. The document outlines the objectives, hypothesis, motivation, scope, sources of data/methodology, limitations, and provides historical background on the Mandingo people and their language. It also describes Mandingo society, orthography, vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
The document discusses the history and importance of teaching pronunciation in the English language. It begins with a brief overview of the origins and development of English from Old English to Middle English to Modern English. It then focuses on pronunciation, noting that pronunciation is an integral part of language learning and communication. However, teaching pronunciation is often overlooked or not prioritized. The document advocates for the importance of teaching pronunciation in language classrooms and provides references that discuss strategies and techniques for doing so effectively.
English has become the dominant lingua franca globally due to factors like globalization and advances in technology. A lingua franca is a language commonly used for communication between people who do not share a native language. Historically, lingua francas developed through interactions like trade between different language groups. Today, English serves as the primary lingua franca for international communication in domains like aviation, business, academia and online interactions due to its widespread use and status as the dominant global language.
Kohn 2013 Intercultural communicative competence: an English as a lingua fran...Kurt Kohn
In my presentation, I focus on the roots of intercultural communicative competence in ordinary everyday communication. I first trace the development of models of communicative competence from Hymes (1972) to Canale & Swain (1980) and Leung (2004). Against this background, I introduce the social-constructivist "My English" condition (Kohn 2011) according to which learners acquire English by developing their own versions of it in processes of individual and collaborative creative construction. I then discuss the nature of non-native speaker English from the perspective of ownership in a globalized world of communication seemingly torn between foreign language learners’ orientation towards Standard English and the requirements of communication in English as a lingua franca (ELF). In their attempt to establish a ‘third space’ of intercultural communication, lingua franca users of English are faced with the challenge of learning to explore and trust their own non-native speaker creativity in collaborative processes of accommodation and meaning negotiation. As an illustration I use examples from an ELF corpus of critical incident discussions.
Hi There, please kindly use my PPT for powering your learning, please let me know if you want to discuss more.
Email : silviananda.putrierito@gmail.com
Slide strategies and genres in the english classesMACERC
The document discusses reading strategies for different genres in English classes. It provides a checklist of concepts of reading and examines reading as either an easy or complex process depending on one's role in interpreting a text. It then outlines various reading strategies such as having a purpose, skimming, scanning, using prior knowledge, comprehending verbal and non-verbal information, identifying cognates, cohesive links, and making inferences. Examples provided include analyzing magazine covers and reflecting on ideas from a researcher about digital natives and immigrants.
I'm a Primary Language Teacher - help me out here!Lisa Stevens
This document provides guidance and resources for primary language teachers. It discusses delivering the primary language curriculum through engaging activities focused on listening, speaking, reading and writing. Suggestions are given for how to approach vocabulary, grammar and culture in age-appropriate ways. The importance of building confidence and enjoyment in language learning is emphasized. A variety of online resources and blogs are recommended for teachers seeking support.
As the topic suggests, the research paper presents Study of Consonant Pronunciations Errors Committed by EFL Learners. Error analysis always tries to resolve language learners’ problems in acquiring second or foreign language setting. Learning to English pronunciation is perhaps as important as learning listening skill, speaking, and spelling. Errors in English pronunciation create several problems for English language learners in their works. In other words, most of the English language errors of pronunciation are due to the lack of knowledge of language learners. However, all the students in our sample are of age group (16-25) at Bushehr language institute and they are all Iranian nationals. In addition, all of them were female learners. An English pronunciation (consonant) test was used to get information about the knowledge of the learners in English pronunciation. Findings of this article indicated that the first and second hypotheses of this article were accepted, but the third hypothesis was rejected. However, the findings of this paper showed that the Iranian EFL students have problem to pronounce English sounds correctly.
This document discusses pidgin and creole languages. It defines pidgin as a reduced language that develops for communication between groups without a shared language, while a creole is a pidgin that becomes a community's native language. The document outlines the key differences between pidgins and creoles, such as pidgins having no native speakers and simpler structure, while creoles are fully developed languages. Several examples of pidgin and creole languages are provided.
Nigerian Pidgin developed from contact between English and Nigerian languages, and is spoken as a native language by 3-5 million people and as a second language by 75 million more. It originated as a way for different ethnic groups in Nigeria to communicate across language barriers, and is influenced by British colonization. While there are variations across Nigeria's 250+ ethnic groups, Nigerian Pidgin is most widely spoken in the Niger Delta region.
3rd material lingua-franca,pidgin,creoleAyu Juwita
Here are some potential functions for the utterances:
1. Invitation, command, request
2. Greeting
3. Comparison, information
4. Information
5. Information, transmission of culture
6. Instruction, advice, warning
7. Warning
8. Expression of feeling
9. Information, transmission of culture
10. Persuasion, promotion
Pidgin languages are simplified languages created for communication between groups that speak different native languages. They have no native speakers and borrow parts of multiple languages, especially syntax, phonology, and vocabulary. Creole languages develop from pidgins but become the primary language for a community, with their own native speakers. Creoles are more complex than pidgins and have variations distinct from their source languages. Examples of pidgins include Tok Pisin and Hawai'i Creole English, while creoles include Sranan Tongo and varieties of English spoken by communities in the Caribbean and United States.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
Towards Revitalization of the Urhobo Language: A Return to OralityPremier Publishers
This document summarizes a paper that discusses efforts to revitalize the Urhobo language in Nigeria. It describes how the Urhobo language has become endangered as younger generations have shifted to speaking other languages. The author examines returning to oral traditions and using information communication technologies as ways to revive the Urhobo language. The study used interviews and a review of literature related to the Urhobo people and their language. It is based on Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which proposes that humans are born with an innate understanding of language.
Teaching Urhobo as a Second Language through Poetry to Pupils in the Immediat...Premier Publishers
The Urhobo people who are found in the southern part of Nigeria have nurtured and promoted other languages and left their own language to perish. Urhobo has done this to the extent that even in Urhoboland, a great number of Urhobo people do not understand the language, and even if they do understand it, they are not able to speak it because it had not been their practice to respond in Urhobo language when they are spoken to or to speak it to people. As the Proprietors of this language realise that the language is being lost, there is a bid to resuscitate it. How can this be done since the Urhobo language has gradually lost its status of first language? In this work, the possibility of teaching Urhobo as a second language was discussed. Various methods of second language teaching were examined. The nature of poetry was also discussed and the means of teaching Urhobo through poetry was examined. The method of research applied was eclectic and it was based on the Theory of Naturalism.
Marketing the Igbo Language: The Future is here, today.ikennaaghanya
This study centers on marketing the Igbo Language to the international community. Igbo language is one of the three major languages in Nigeria. The Igbo language is spoken by the Igbo tribe, who occupy the South East geo-political zone of Nigeria. Recent Studies have shown that among the three major languages, Igbo language is the most neglected due to the wrong attitude of the people who speak the language. The Igbos do not give adequate attention to the language. The language is not fully recognized within the geo-political zone, not to talk of giving it any international recognition. In spite of the efforts of some notable Igbo language writers among whom are F.C. Ogbalu, Nolue Emenanjo, Donatus Nwogu, Adiele Afigbo, this paper still perceives that a lot still has to be done to promote the language. There is need to embark on more intensive mobilization of people to support the already existing groups in propagating the Igbo language. Meaningful Igbo write-ups and researches should be done and uploaded on the internet and published in reputable journals for easy accessibility of the language and related materials at any point in time. The Igbo language should be redefined and fine-tuned in a way that it will be acceptable to all and sundry. This paper propagates the need to have be definite words and meanings for all the English words in Igbo language. The future is here, today.
A linguistic analysis of translation in an african novelAlexander Decker
This document discusses translation in African novels, specifically analyzing proverb translations in Mawuli Adzei's novel "Taboo". It provides background on the debate around language use in African literature, including four tendencies: acceptance of colonial languages, Africanization of those languages, repudiation and return to indigenous languages, and reinvention of indigenous languages in the African diaspora. The study aims to identify linguistic features of translations in African writing by analyzing proverb translations in "Taboo" using translation theory models. It finds that translations allow incorporation of African sociocultural nuances into works in colonial languages, showing Adzei supports Africanizing those languages.
A linguistic analysis of translation in an african novelAlexander Decker
This document discusses translation in African novels. It analyzes translations of proverbs from Ewe to English in Mawuli Adzei's novel Taboo. The analysis uses Vinay and Darbelnet's translation theory model. Key findings show linguistic features and stylistic processes of translation evident in the novel. The document provides background on the debate around language use in African literature. It discusses four tendencies African writers have taken regarding language, including acceptance or rejection of colonial languages. The study is relevant to understand sociolinguistic contexts of African writing by revealing linguistic details of translations.
The dominance of English language in Nigeria has led to the depletion in the use of indigenous languages in the country. This has generated the necessity of conducting a more sophisticated and in fact an exhaustive study of the number of existent and non-existent/extinct languages. The basic finding of this study is that the mother tongue is still the dominant language in use in the home domain in Nigeria. This scenario reveals a case of language maintenance in Nigeria for now. Indeed, this position may not be sustainable for long in view of the preference of Nigerian youths for English over the mother tongue. The reasons behind current maintenance may not be unconnected with the fact that Nigerians are thoroughly bilingual in the semi-exoglossic type. This type of bilingualism entails knowledge of English and the mother tongue of the individual involved. While this development signifies that Nigerians are simply not learning any other indigenous language in addition to theirs as stipulated in the constitution, the study is a pointer to the fact that the stage is now fully set for the establishment of a mother-tongue based bilingual education in English and the mother tongue to avert any eventuality owing to the fact that English in Nigeria today is used in practically all domains. The study is a clarion call on all stakeholders to wake-up to the reality of the scourge of language shift and language endangerment currently plaguing Africa including Nigeria and some other developing countries of the world.
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An expressive or informal form of a proper name that derives morphologically from a personal name. E.g. Bill and Dick for William and Richard respectively in English.
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A familiar personal name modified by abbreviation.
An expressive form of a child language that sometimes renders the personal name unrecognisable.
A nickname
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Some French expressions as used in Urhobo: a case study of the terms ‘AVOIR …...Premier Publishers
Expressions are expositions of the mind. They reveal thoughts which otherwise would have remained undisclosed. How these thoughts are expressed differ from language to language and from individual to individual. Even individual expressions can also be different one from the other even though they are expressed in the same language. In some instances, certain similarities and dissimilarities have been found in the phrasal constructions and usage of certain French and Urhobo expressions, even though they do not indicate any semantic divergences. In this study, the difference between some French ‘avoir’ expressions and their Urhobo equivalents will be examine. What happens to the verb ‘avoir’ when the expressions are translated into the Urhobo language? How is the structure of the expression affected by the transfer from one language to the other? This study is prompted by the hope of selling the Urhobo language to others as a means of saving it from extinction. The study will be based on some extracts of the French ‘Avoir …‘ expressions as compared to their Urhobo equivalents. For obvious reasons, the approach in this study will be somewhat eclectic. It will involve individual interviews, and since there will be some elements of translation the study will have recourse to Eugene Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence.
French and Urhobo languages are so linguistically different one from the other, yet their grammars show traces of similarities and differences that raise questions. Questions, which, when answered would elicit further research into the nature and various nuances of these languages; i.e. their speeches and articulations, discourses, nouns, verbs etc. In this study, the French reflexive verb and its Urhobo equivalent were examined. A description of the reflexive verb in French and Urhobo show elements of possible structural and semantic convergences and or divergences. Is every French reflexive verb also reflexive in Urhobo? Are their structural sequences the same? These and some others which surfaced in the course of this study are the questions which were answered during this study. French language is fully documented while Urhobo is much less documented. For this reason, method of research was varied. This study was based mainly on the theory of Transformational grammar also known as Transformational Generative Grammar. But because of some inherent elements of translation, Eugene Nida’s theory of equivalence was also brought into play.
Learn Yoruba with this course from the Foreign Services Institute. Download the full course (with audio) at http://www.101languages.net/yoruba/free-yoruba-course-2
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The Reflexive Verb in the Grammar of the Urhobo Language Premier Publishers
In the grammar of a language, the reflexive verb is part of the structure of speech which shows the action of the verb being executed on the speaker while the action of other verbs is received by other objects outside the speaker. Amongst a community of persons, there are often situations which provoke reflexive actions and expressions such as “I see myself”/ Mé mre ómà mè “Lift yourself up” / “kpárōmà”. By this I mean that it is expedient that the grammar of a language contains forms of the reflexive verb; not only should it contain it, the reflexive verb should also be easily recognisable. Currently, the language has several Urhobo dictionaries to its credit. Sadly, though, they do not seem to feature the reflexive verb. Why is this so? This is the question which this study has tried to answer while attempting to fill up the existing lacunae. The approach to this study has been eclectic since it involved the application of various methods. In view of the structure of the reflexive verb, this study was based on Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar or Transformational Generative Grammar.
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Overview
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Key Topics Covered
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12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
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Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdf
Perspectives and problems of codifying nigerian pidgin english orthography
1. Developing Country Studies
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.3, No.12, 2013
www.iiste.org
Perspectives and Problems of Codifying Nigerian Pidgin English
Orthography
ANTHONY OJARIKRE
Department of General Studies
Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria.
Abstract
The essence of the paper is to look for an orthography which would form the basis for a future development of a
standard for Nigerian Pidgin English. The paper begins the search by examining the views of scholars like
Mafeni (1971), Elugbe and Omamor (1991) among others. The paper considers the various views and agrees
with the school that says Nigerian Pidgin English should be seen as a language in its own right and should be left
to develop along its own lines. Against this background, the paper in its conclusion aligns with the view that
Nigerian Pidgin English orthography should be indigenized and seen as an evolving Nigerian language.
Introduction
It is generally agreed that pidgins arise from contact situations. They evolve when there is a dire and urgent need
to communicate for a purpose like trade among persons who do not subscribe to a common language. The groups
in this linguistic dilemma make desperate attempts to communicate in one of the languages, leading to what
Elugbe and Omamor (1991:2) refer to as a rudimentary contact speech form.
This rudimentary contact speech form is limited in vocabulary and relies heavily on gesticulation. Pidgins have
thus been variously described as, ‘contact’, ‘trade’, ‘auxiliary’, ‘debased’, ‘jargonized’, ‘rudimentary’,
‘minimum’ and ‘makeshift’ linguistic forms among other nomenclatures.
Elugbe and Omamor (op cit) opine that this can only be true of the initial stages of the development of pidgins.
Agheyisi (1971) sees West African Pidgin as simplified English with a lot of lexical gaps filled by English.
West African Pidgin is described as impoverished.
The origin of Nigeria Pidgin English (henceforth NPE) is traceable to the contact between the coastal peoples of
Nigeria and the Europeans.
Egbokhare (2006:6) observes that the first contact was made by the Portuguese around 1469. The Dutch
followed about 1593, but soon faded away to be replaced by the English from 1650 onwards.
Elugbe and Omamor (1991:3) claim that some form of Portuguese pidgin must have been spoken along the
coast. This must have been short-lived with the ousting of the Portuguese by the French, the Dutch and the
English. Among these groups, the British impact was more enduring and resulted in the development of an
English-based pidgin along the Nigerian coast.
The same reasons that led to the evolution of NPE has popularized it in Nigeria. Urbanization, trade and other
contact situations within the country have led to the spread of NPE. The language has become a lingua franca not
only in a multiethnic Niger Delta, but in the whole of Nigeria. The multiethnicity of barracks and urban centres
has also helped in transporting the language inland. The result is that we now have varieties of pidgin based
roughly on the ethnic groups and geographical locations. Elugbe and Omamor (1991) observe that it has
creolized in the Warri and Sapele areas of the Niger Delta.
Mafeni (1971:97) says that NP comprises a base language-English, which has been and continues to be modified
by indigenous languages.
The present profile of NP is that of a lingua franca, building linguistic and communicative bridges among the
400 or so ethnic groups in Nigeria.
NPE can be regarded as ‘a child of necessity’ and a language of convenience. This is because of its use as a
contact language and its communicative value among our many ethnic groups. Starting from the coastal regions,
it has metamorphosed into a lingua franca, penetrating inland to the nooks and crannies of Nigeria.
In spite of its rising status as a language to communicate second experience in Nigeria, it has been kept far away,
like a leper from the school system; seemingly condemned to an informal status. There is the fear that
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introducing NPE in schools will contaminate the English language. So great is the phobia for NPE in schools
that fines are imposed on students and pupils in our schools for daring to speak Pidgin English during school
hours.
The consequence of this is that written pidgin is found mainly in scripts in the electronic media in the form of
propaganda, advertisement and poems which as far as I know, have never been recommended in the primary and
secondary schools.
In spite of these setbacks scholars like Elugbe (1995:291) suggest the use of NPE in areas where the multiplicity
of languages would make it difficult to implement the national policy on language. Gani-Ikilama (1990) in a
paper titled ‘Use of Nigerian Pidgin in Education? Why Not?’ also speaks in the same vein.
Against this background, the pertinent question to ask is, ‘How do we develop a standard orthography for NPE
given the fact that it is an every-man to himself language?
The Issue of Orthography
The 8th edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby defines
orthography as ‘the system of spelling in a language’.
Wales (1989:330) says that ‘orthography’ is from Greek meaning ‘correct spelling’. It therefore refers to the
(standard) spelling system of a language. The English spelling system is referred to as decidedly traditional
because it refers to pronunciations current in the 16th century.
Chalker and Weiner (1994:276) see orthography as ‘The study or science of how words are spelt contrasted with
graphology. Referring to Earle (1873) they say further that when we use the word ‘orthography’, we do not
mean a mode of spelling which is true to the pronunciation, but one which is conventionally correct.
To Akmajian et al (2001:584), orthography is any writing system that is widely used by the members of a given
society to write their language. They explain further that most orthographies do not represent the speech sounds
of the language in a systematic way.
Yule (1996:9) traces the development of writing from pictograms, ideograms, logograms, and rebus to the
modern form of alphabetic writing. He also notes that there is not always a correspondence between symbol and
sound. The mismatch of sound and symbol in English according to him is largely a result of printing tradition
and the influence of various languages on English.
A common thread that runs through these definitions and explanations is non-compulsory nature of
correspondence between sound and the symbol used to represent it. It therefore follows that the symbols of a
language evolve out of arbitrariness and tradition, rather than some logical match between sound and symbol.
Mafeni 1971
Mafeni (1971) is of the opinion that given the phonology of a few varieties of NPE that he has studied, an
orthography similar to that of Yoruba or Igbo would not only show clearly at least the phonetic/phonological
differences between the base language and pidgin but would emphasise the independent nature of NPE.
To defend his position, he illustrates with two passages which according to him, are clearly Nigerian pidgin but
have been written in English orthography.
Ah! I hear say’ e get one letter so from im boy dat “kobo-kobo” boy dem call
Mr. Chukwuka. Me I no know wetin ‘e begin do as if’e mad. Dem don carry
am go Abeokuta Mental Hospital. Some people wey know-am proper for
Ilesha say na de same ting wey kill ‘im papa. Dem say ‘e run mad one
afternoon, kill one of ‘im own pikin with matchet and run inside bush…(V.C.
Ike, Toads for Supper, London, 1965)
so e make two time way Mr. Midman come thisi Niger Company to come
and be. AG… and that time I de for work, and them write come from
England say Mr. Midman don resign from Niger Company and then he dash
government ten hundred say because he be big man and that be the time I de
thatsal’.
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(from a recording by Kay Williamson in Western Ijo Division in 1963. The speech is that of Chief Moke
Ohihia). Comment by Mafeni (1971)
The passages give the impression of a sub-standard dialect of English. Mafeni observes that the spoken form is a
different matter. Having listened to the original recording of Chief Ohihia’s speech, he regrets the false
impression that the transcription has created even though Mafeni himself admits that the transcriber, had little
knowledge of what he was doing.
He goes further to say that the extract from Ike’s novel also illustrates the disadvantage of trying to write
Nigerian Pidgin according to English orthographic conventions. In the sentence, ‘I no like de way you de waste
your time come here’, the two words ‘de’ in ‘de way’ and in ‘you de waste’ are spelt alike, but they are actually
two different lexical and grammatical items with different phonetic realization. The first is phonetically /di/ and
the second is /de/.
Mafeni’s position that NPE should adopt an indigenous orthography is illustrated in the NPE vowels he
identifies together with their corresponding orthography.
Vowel
Phonemic
Orthographic
English
Phonemes
Equivalent
i
/bit/
bit
beat
e
/pén/
pén
pain
ε
/bεt /
bét
bet
a
/hát/
hát
heart
כ
/h t/
hót
hot
o
/tót/
tot
carry
u
/fút/
fút
foot
Elugbe and Omamor (1991)
They look at three broad options open to writing NPE.
English Spelling/Alphabet
The first is to reproduce the pidgin words exactly as they are in English. The English spelling is fully retained.
Very few items are written in pidgin spelling. This approach is favoured by Nigerian creative writers like
Achebe and Soyinka. Lines from Aig-Imoukhuede’s poem, “one Wife for One Man’ are used to illustrate this
orthographic style.
1. My fader before my fader get him wife borku
2.
E no’ get equality palaver; he live well.
Comments by Elugbe and Omamor (1991)
They observe that the reader of such pidgin writing must first be literate in English, which removes from pidgin
as a language in its own right. Words not of English origin would have to be written using principles that are
radically different from those involved in English spelling. This in their view, would make the orthography of
NPE even more erratic than English. Although this option will probably be attractive to printers, publishers and
the educated, it would give the impression of NPE English as a deviant form of English. They agree with Mafeni
(1971:102) that this option would amount to a gross distortion of the true signal.
The lines from Aig-Imoukhuede are used to illustrate the problems and inconsistencies of this approach to
writing NPE.
My fader before my fader get him wife borku.
Apart from ‘borku’ which is not of English origin, all other words are of English origin and spelt the English
way. It is argued further that it cannot be used consistently by different writers and the same writer is often
inconsistent in his spelling as illustrated in the second line.
E no get equality palaver; he live well.
Here, both ‘E’ and ‘he” refer to ‘my fadar before my fader’
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but they are spelt differently, even though they have the same sound.
Phonetic Alphabet
The second option according to Elugbe and Omamor (1991:114) is the phonetic alphabet. It indicates every
systematic phonetic feature, freely using special symbols and diacritics. They quote Oyebade (1983) as using this
method with symbols from IPA.
Comment by Elugbe and Omamor (1991)
It is said to have the advantage of being possible to read by every trained linguist. It is a faithful phonetic record
of spoken pidgin. The problem with it is that it is not intended for the public and is restricted to academic works
to be read by specialists. They do not therefore, treat it in any detail.
New Modern Orthography
The third option, according to Omamor (1991:115) is to attempt a new modern orthography based on the
principles of a good orthography and on the acceptance that NPE is a language in its own right, independent of
English.
They discuss a number of possibilities. One such possibility is in Horsfall (1981). She has no special symbols
for consonants. She uses digraphs such as ‘sh’ for /∫/, ‘ch’ for /t∫/, and the symbol ‘j’ for /dз/.
Todd (1974) and Jones (1971) employ special symbols only for the vowels /ε/ and / / כas in krio or for / / כonly
as in Cameroon Pidgin.
Elugbe and Omamor observes that consonants do not pose problems in the writing of most English based pidgins
and creoles. They observe further that problem is with representing /ε/ and /./ כ
They suggest, however, that when the contrasting sounds in a given language are more than we can take care of
within the Roman alphabet, there are three basic ways of getting round the problems.
The first is to take two letters of the alphabet to represent a sound for which there is no direct equivalent in the
Roman alphabet
Comment by Elugbe and Omamor (1991)
They are not critical of this approach but rather, they express their preference for it when they say that it is
necessary that an orthography for NPE should be a modern orthography based on the principle that NPE is a
Nigerian language in need of a writing system based on a clear understanding of its phonology.
Egbokhare (2003)
He begins by agreeing with Elugbe (1995) that anglicized spelling is predominant. Quoting the same source he
says, “the common practice is still what they call ‘anglicised’ spelling which is characterized by the writing of
most Nigerian Pidgin words exactly as in English while allowing a few tell-tale examples’.
Egbokhare goes further to comment on Elugbe and Omamor (1991) that they propose a writing system for NPE
which follows the established traditions of writing Nigerian languages and consequently avoids the pitfalls of
inconsistencies associated with the English orthography. Such a system would make NPE look less English and
independent.
Egbokhare (2003) however feels that the issues of how to write NPE is not as straight forward as many think.
He justifies an anglicised spelling on the following grounds.
First, existing writing tradition in NPE is based on it. Second, an over whelming percentage of NPE forms are
sourced in English. Consequently, adopting an anglicized spelling appears to be an objective recognition of that
fact. Besides, it will make for easy reading of NPE, since those already familiar with English would find the
words familiar. This according to Egbokhare could make NPE and English mutually reinforcing as media of
education since native speakers of NPE would gain some advantages as English language learners because of
their familiarity with the English spelling. Egbokhare posits that NPE can benefit positively from the fortunes of
English as an international language and the language of technology through its access to the English
vocabulary. Based on this, ‘pragmatic considerations of accessibility’, Egbokhare supports an anglicized
spelling.
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Egbokhare (2003) further argues that it serves no useful purpose trying to deny the English connection of NPE as
Elugbe’s support for writing NPE in the traditions of Nigerian languages seems to suggest. The relationship
NPE has with English cannot be a liability if properly managed. To Egbokhare, if this relationship is so seen,
then, it is because of other factors not primarily located in the linguistic realities themselves.
In spite of these arguments Egbokhare (2003) sees ‘compelling reasons for adopting a Nigeriansed spelling’.
There is the issue of what to do with words that are borrowed from Nigerian languages. NPE is rhythmically
incompatible with English. Its rhythm and intonation are typically tone based. An anglicized spelling with tone
super-imposed is both irritating, confusing and impractical. Egbokhare (2003) goes further to say that if we take
this together with the fact that a wrong impression of phono-semantic equivalence between NPE and English is
suggested by such a spelling, we face an urgent need to adopt the Nigerianised spelling. Not much of English
sound quality and meaning is actually left in the so-called English words in NPE. He also mentions that the NPE
vocabulary does not correspond with the English vocabulary as some often erroneously believe. There is also a
case of NPE vocabulary of English origin. His observation is that often educated speakers of NPE, draft English
words into NPE when they are confronted with situations for which appropriate words do not exist – a case of
code-mixing. Having English looking words in NPE could create a problem if readers erroneously give English
readings to them. This will discourage a proper leaning of NPE in terms of sound qualities and grammar.
Based on these arguments, Egbokhare confirms Elugbe’s position that anglicized spelling gives the impression
of NPE as some form of devalued English. This may evoke too serious a negative attitude towards NPE.
Egbokhare concludes thus, ‘from the foregoing, it appears logical to adopt a spelling system that confers some
independence on NPE.
Concluding further, Egbokhare suggests ‘a more pragmatic approach’ which essentially recognizes the origin,
nature and evolution of NPE. He therefore suggests a ‘pidginization’ of English orthography as an approach to
the problem; a situation where NPE will retain its character as a pidgin even in the way it is written. Essentially,
such an orthography will be substantially English but with some characteristics of a Nigeriansed spelling. This
can be achieved by:
(a)
Retaining Nigerian language words as they are normally written and spelt;
(b)
Retaining English words as they are written and spelt;
(c)
Minimizing superfluity and inconsistencies in the orthography: which may mean some
adjustment in the English spelling.
Deuber (2005)
Deuber (2005) looks at two basic approaches to the graphization of pidgins and creoles: the etymological and
phonemic. In the etymological, the spelling system of the lexifier is adopted, with some adaptations where
necessary. In the phonemic approach, the pidgin is treated as a language in its own right independent of the
lexifier. This results in a ‘tailor-made orthography in which each phoneme is represented by exactly one symbol.
Referring to Hall (1966:41), she says there is a modified version of the phonemic, which is called
ethnophonemic. It is basically phonemic but diagraphs and other orthographic devices are taken over from the
spelling of the lexifier to represent phonemes for which no single letter is available, in order to avoid special
characters.
Comment by Deuber (2005)
People who are already literate in English favour the etymological approach; but the phonemic is likely to have a
positive impact on attitudes towards the pidgin as it emphasises its distance from English. The phonemic
approach would need to be taught in schools to be generally accepted. The reality or desirability of this would
depend on the sociolinguistic status of the Pidgin or Creole.
Quoting Mafeni (1971:10); Ofuani (1981:340); Agheyis; (1988:239); Elugbe and Omamor (1991:Chapter 5), she
argues that linguists have for a long time argued against the etymological type of spelling and for a
phonologically based system. She says further that the proposals in this direction are mainly of the
ethnophonemic type, with digraphs such as ‘sh’ and ‘ch’ for /∫/ and /∫t /, respectively.
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She gives an example with an orthography by Faraclas which she describes as ‘certainly convincing’ not only in
terms of the systematic representation of NigP’s sounds which it makes possible but also in terms of simplicity,
as there are no special characters and only two diacritics, the subscript diacritics marking the mid-open vowel
phonemes (a device common in orthographies for Nigerian languages).
Phoneme
Grapheme
Phoneme
Grapheme
a
a
m
M
b
b
n
N
t∫
ch
η
Ng
d
d
o
o
e
e
כ
ọ
ε
ẹ
p
p
f
f
r
r
g
g
s
s
gb
gb
∫
sh
h
h
t
T
i
i
u
U
dз
j
v
V
K
k
w
W
Kp
kp
j
y
l
l
z
z
Source: Deuber (2005:194) as adapted from Faraclas (1996:257)
Findings
In the course of the study, the researcher found out the following:
1. The intellectual class and our creative writers generally prefer the anglicized spelling of NPE.
2.
Linguists generally prefer the phonetic and ethnophonetic approaches to writing NPE.
3.
The pronunciation of NPE words does not necessarily follow the phonological pattern of English.
A word like ‘borrow’ /bDr∂u/ is pronounced /boro/. The pure vowel and diphthong are not
pronounced as in English. English lexical items assimilated by NPE are thus closer to indigenous
Nigerian languages in pronunciation.
4.
5.
This is acknowledged by Egbokhare (2003).
A strong reason in support of a Nigerianised spelling is the rhythmical incompatibility of NPE
with English. Its rhythm and intonation are typically tone based. An anglicized spelling with tone
superimposed is both irritating, confusing and impractical. If we take this together with the fact that
a wrong impression of phono-semantic equivalence between NP and English is suggested by such a
spelling, we face an urgent need to adopt the Nigerianzed spelling.
NPE vowels are not as many as and do not have the nuances of pronunciation as we have in
English. The realization of the vowels are closer to our indigenous languages than English.
Mafeni (1971) identifies vowels which roughly correspond with the generally used seven pure
vowels in our mother tongues for NPE:/i,e,ε,a, , כo,u/.
Core pidgin is generally spoken by those with little or no Western Education. It is in the birthplace
of NPE (the coastal towns of the Niger Delta) that the educated generally speak NPE well. The
educated, especially from the majority tribes, speak what one might refer to as ‘anglicised pidgin’.
Problems of Codification
The following are the problems of codification identified in the course of the study.
1. There is a general negative attitude towards NPE. It is stigmatized and seen as the language of the
lower class. Elugbe and Omamor (1991:Chapter 7) look at the attitude of various segments of the
Nigerian Society to NPE: the layman, the educated, the government and the linguist. The result is a
generally negative attitude.
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2.
www.iiste.org
To the layman it is just a language of convenient communication with the educated and other
groups of Nigerians with whom he does not share a common language; educated Nigerians see it as
a language that confers no social status and should be kept at a distance; to the government, it is of
no consequence; while among linguists, there is no agreement as to the true nature of the language.
There is the problem of which orthography to adopt. Is it the etymological or the phonemic?
Linguists are not agreed on this, even though a majority of them go for the phonemic and its
variants.
3.
NPE is still largely an oral language. The need to write it is still not considered strong enough.
When there is no encouraging or compelling need for literacy, oracy persists.
4.
The elite and linguists do not seem honest in their support for writing NPE. They declare support,
publicly and shield their children from it at home. The fear is usually that it will be a negative
influence on English.
5.
Linguists and other groups first have to convince government on the need to write NPE. Even if
this succeeds, there will be the problem of how it can be accommodated in the language policy and
the usual problem of funding the implementation.
CONCLUSION
If NPE is seen as a language in its own right, it deserves to grow along its own peculiar linguistic lines and not
being tied to the linguistic apron strings of a mother language.
The history of English itself reinforces the need for NPE to be left to grow its own orthography. English did not
become a prestige language in one day. What we call English today is a fusion of the dialects of Germanic tribes
of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, following the Germanic invasion in about the year 449 (Baugh and Cable,
1978:46; Barber, 1993:100). The following from Baugh and Cable (1978:42) shows that we are often carried
away by English.
We are so accustomed to think of English as an inseparable adjunct to the English people that we are likely to
forget that it has been the language of England for a comparatively short period in the world’s history. Since its
introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only
fifteen hundred years. Yet this part of the world had been inhabited by man for thousand of years, 50,000
according to more moderate estimates, 250,000 in the opinion of some.
English became less influential and inferior after the Norman conquest of 1066, when French became dominant.
Its influence was re-established following the loss of Normady in 1204 (Baugh and Cable, 1978:126). Since then
English has come under various influences from other languages like Latin, Greek, German, French and African
languages. This simply shows that the fortunes of a language are not predictable.
The present orthography of English is a far cry from old English. There were significant influences
along the line by the invention of printing and the dictionary. This seems to suggest that the orthography of NPE
is in our own hands.
The present role of NPE is that of a lingua franca and its possible future role as a more functional
language, makes it deserve a standard orthography in a heterogeneous entity like Nigeria.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Having discussed the findings and problems associated with codifying NPE orthography, it is worthwhile to
make recommendations for the future.
1. An authoritative dictionary (by linguists) of NPE should be produced. Printing and the dictionary were
great stabilizing factors between the 15th and 18th centuries when the orthography of English was in
disarray. NPE can borrow from this.
2.
NPE should continue to be recognized as a language in its own right so that it can evolve unhindered.
Giving NPE its own identity does not detract from its English connection as English itself has its
connection with other languages. This would help the orthography.
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3.
NPE should be nativized just as we nativized English. This would prepare it for a possible enlarged
function in the future. This would favour a combination of the phonetic and ethnophonetic approaches.
4.
Following from the nativization, an indigenous orthography which recognizes the peculiar phonology of
NPE is hereby recommended.
5.
For now, it is not too clear whether NPE English can fight its way to the classroom. To prepare its for a
classroom role, a positive attitude has to be developed toward it: stigmatization has to stop; funding has
to be considered; a printing tradition has to be adopted and NPE given some space to co-exist with
English.
As earlier suggested, the destiny of NPE orthography is in our own hands. The newly formed Pidgin
English Association of Nigeria is working hard towards a standard.
REFERENCES
Agheyisi, R.N. (1971). West African Pidgin English: Simplification and Simplicity PhD Thesis, Stanford
University.
Akmajian, A. et al (2006). An Introduction to Language and Communication. India: Prentice Hall.
Barber, C. (1993). The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baugh, A.C. and Cable, T. (1978). A History of the English Language (3rd ed). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Chalker, S. and Weiner, E. (1994). The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, London: BCA.
Dauber,D.(2005). Nigerian Pidgin in Lagos. London: Battlebridge.
Egbokhare, F. (2003). The Nigerian Linguistic. Ecology and the Changing Profiles of Nigerian Pidgin. Ibadan:
John Archers.
Elugbe, B. (1995). ‘Nigerian Pidgin; Problems and Prospects’ in New Englishes: A West African Perspective.
Ibadan: Mosuro.
Elugbe, B.O. and Omakor, A.P. (1991). Nigerian Pidgin: Background and Prospects. Ibadan: Heinemann.
Gani-Ikilama, T.O. (1990). Use of Nigerian Pidgin in Education: Why Not? In Emenanjo, E.N. (ed)
Multilingualism, Minority Language and Language Policy in Nigeria, Agbor: Central Banks.
Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (8th ed). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Mafeni, B. (1971). Nigerian Pidgin in Spencer, J. (ed). The English Language in West Africa. London:
Longman.
Wales, K. (1989). A Dictionary of Stylistics. London: Longman.
Yule, G.(1996). The Study of Language (3rd ed). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
133
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