This document summarizes a research article that assesses the habits of African American males from low-income households who successfully complete secondary education. The research article identifies six key habits: 1) Utilizing "hidden cultural rules" to ensure success, 2) Having a strong sense of self and motivation to achieve, 3) Maintaining sustained motivation throughout school, 4) Determination to succeed despite poverty, 5) High aspirations beyond high school, and 6) Strong relationships with family, community, and school. The document provides context on challenges faced by African American males and discusses various studies and theories related to factors that influence their educational achievement.
It is widely known that education for all ought to be equal to all, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender and hierarchy. Although equality in education is the primary purpose of our government, however, there are some instances that inequality in education exists due to some factors. This research identifies the factors that lead to inequality in education. Based on our findings factors such as individual characteristics attitudes and beliefs, psychological traits, parental socio economic status , individual educational success attainment, field of study , population groups men and women and ethnic groups , educational inequality gender pay gap, horizontal, occupational and segregation contributes to the overall dilemma. Moreover, our findings also show that micro and social contributes to the gaps of inequality of education, thus, social interactions and social structures affects the micro conditions and outcome. This implied that educational inequality is caused by different factors and constructs that undermined the policy of an educational system and this lead to inequality of education. Lucelle B. Collamat | Maureen S. Salagada | Emerson A. Sentos | Clarissa S. Tabar | Regina P. Galigao "Inequality in Education: A Literature Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33639.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33639/inequality-in-education-a-literature-review/lucelle-b-collamat
Gender Inequalities in the Context of Basic Education A Literature Reviewijtsrd
Gender inequality in education has been a buzzword in our educational system in recent decades. This paper identifies the factor that creates gender inequality in education and in the world in general. Our study focuses on the identified factors that elevate the existence of gender inequality in education. Based on the literature, recent studies and reports shows that there are 5 factors that contribute to the existence of gender inequality in education and these include poverty, geographical remoteness, armed conflict, lack of school infrastructure, and quality of education. The researchers strongly believed that our young learners are our future innovators and heroes, thus, without quality education none of these would be achieved. The results suggest that our educational system needs to collaborate with the private sector and provide innovative measures to address these issues of gender inequality in education. Crispina Ana N. Pacalda | Maristila Y. Nailon | Junhrey A. Vibar | Janette B. Cobrado | Roanne Shyn L. Brian | Regina P. Galigao "Gender Inequalities in the Context of Basic Education: A Literature Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33554.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33554/gender-inequalities-in-the-context-of-basic-education-a-literature-review/crispina-ana-n-pacalda
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRAT...William Kritsonis
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. David E. Herrington, Invited Guest Editor, NFEAS JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982)
It is widely known that education for all ought to be equal to all, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender and hierarchy. Although equality in education is the primary purpose of our government, however, there are some instances that inequality in education exists due to some factors. This research identifies the factors that lead to inequality in education. Based on our findings factors such as individual characteristics attitudes and beliefs, psychological traits, parental socio economic status , individual educational success attainment, field of study , population groups men and women and ethnic groups , educational inequality gender pay gap, horizontal, occupational and segregation contributes to the overall dilemma. Moreover, our findings also show that micro and social contributes to the gaps of inequality of education, thus, social interactions and social structures affects the micro conditions and outcome. This implied that educational inequality is caused by different factors and constructs that undermined the policy of an educational system and this lead to inequality of education. Lucelle B. Collamat | Maureen S. Salagada | Emerson A. Sentos | Clarissa S. Tabar | Regina P. Galigao "Inequality in Education: A Literature Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33639.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33639/inequality-in-education-a-literature-review/lucelle-b-collamat
Gender Inequalities in the Context of Basic Education A Literature Reviewijtsrd
Gender inequality in education has been a buzzword in our educational system in recent decades. This paper identifies the factor that creates gender inequality in education and in the world in general. Our study focuses on the identified factors that elevate the existence of gender inequality in education. Based on the literature, recent studies and reports shows that there are 5 factors that contribute to the existence of gender inequality in education and these include poverty, geographical remoteness, armed conflict, lack of school infrastructure, and quality of education. The researchers strongly believed that our young learners are our future innovators and heroes, thus, without quality education none of these would be achieved. The results suggest that our educational system needs to collaborate with the private sector and provide innovative measures to address these issues of gender inequality in education. Crispina Ana N. Pacalda | Maristila Y. Nailon | Junhrey A. Vibar | Janette B. Cobrado | Roanne Shyn L. Brian | Regina P. Galigao "Gender Inequalities in the Context of Basic Education: A Literature Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33554.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33554/gender-inequalities-in-the-context-of-basic-education-a-literature-review/crispina-ana-n-pacalda
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRAT...William Kritsonis
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. David E. Herrington, Invited Guest Editor, NFEAS JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982)
Dr. Fred C. Lunenburg - measurement and assessment in schools schooling v1 n1...William Kritsonis
Dr. Fred C. Lunenburg, www.nationalforum, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Houston, Texas, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief,
www.nationalforum.com
National Refereed Journals
WRITING FOR PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATION IN NATIONAL REFEREED JOURNALS by William...William Kritsonis
WRITING FOR PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATION IN NATIONAL REFEREED JOURNALS by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is Editor-in-Chief of NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS.
Founded in 1983.
Calais, Gerald j[1]. Teacher Education, www.nationalforum.com
Dr. Williami Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief,
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.com
Dr. Anthony Rickard, www.nationalforum.com
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; counseling and addiction, international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Resisting Total Marginality: Understanding African-American College Students’...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This article explores collegiate Black identity development when African American students attend predominantly White institutions (PWIs) in the United States, considering the overall impact of total marginality. The term “total marginality” is used to describe the myriad, chronic, and often inescapable ways that African American college students attending PWIs are marginalized in a college setting. The focus of this paper is the impact of total marginality on Black identity development for those African American collegians who successfully complete their university studies at a PWI.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Dr. Karen Weddle-West & Dr. Rosie Phillips Bingham, University of MemphisWilliam Kritsonis
Dr. Karen Weddle-West & Dr. Rosie Phillips Bingham, University of Memphis - Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, www.nationalforum.com
He has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
The Qualitative Report 2015 Volume 20, Number 8, Article 6, 12.docxoreo10
The Qualitative Report 2015 Volume 20, Number 8, Article 6, 1260-1269
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR20/8/bell6.pdf
Understanding African American Males’ Schooling Experiences:
A Qualitative Inquiry
Edward E. Bell
Independent Researcher, Raleigh, NC, USA
The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand how African American
males feel about their schooling experiences. This inquiry involved 18
participants located in eastern North Carolina. Many African American
males lack early learning experiences to adequately prepare for a positive
schooling experience. The findings from this study might prove helpful for
working with African American males in an educational setting. Keywords:
Black Males, Graduation, Qualitative Research, Education
African American males need early positive schooling experiences to prepare them
for lifelong learning in the classroom, yet many African American males do not attend
quality preschool programs or participate in early learning opportunities (McCall, 1993).
These types of early childhood experiences might better prepare African American males for
learning and foster a positive schooling experience. Rounds-Bryant (2008) concluded that
“school is the first public place that many children get the opportunity to demonstrate mastery
and competence outside of their family environment” (p. 27). In addition, Rounds-Bryant
postulated that early failure in school typically leads to classroom frustration, academic
withdrawal, and negative behavior. Most important, early academic successes might promote
a long-lasting appreciation for schooling among African American males.
Literature Review
Historical Overview of African American Males
The experience of African American males in America is unlike any experience other
immigrants have faced (Douglas, 2007). During slavery, African Americans were
dehumanized and treated as inferior based solely on their skin color (Douglas; Anton, 2009).
Even today, individuals discriminate against African American males by assuming they
possess less-than-acceptable qualities, such as being lazy and irresponsible (Douglas;
Swanson, Cunningham, & Spencer, 2003). African American males may still be
experiencing the residual effects of slavery, and their academic performance may be linked to
biases (Douglas). Hallinan (2010) revealed that with “roots in history of slavery, civil war,
and racial segregation, Black-White differences in social status and resources have been
difficult to overcome” (p. 50). Hallinan further noted that for decades public schools enrolled
primarily non-Black students, making it essentially illegal for African American students to
read or write. Historically, African Americans have inherited generations of self-hatred and
the looming effects of slavery (Douglas). Many African American males have internalized
negative stereotypes about themselves, their appearance, ...
Get out!!! black male suspensions in california public schools #BMIUCLA #SDSUGary Clarke
This report is a joint publication of the Black Minds Project (an initiative of the Community College Equity Assessment Lab (CCEAL) at San Diego State University (SDSU) and the Black Male Institute at the University of California, Los-Angeles (UCLA). In this report, we present analyses of publicly available statewide data on the suspension of Black males in California’s public schools.
The statewide suspension rate for Black males is 3.6 times
greater than that of the statewide rate for all students. Specifically, while 3.6% of all students were suspended in 2016-2017, the
suspension rate for Black boys and young men was 12.8%.
• Since 2011-2012, the suspension rates of Black males in California
has declined from 17.8% to 12.8%.
• The highest suspension disparity by grade level occurs in early
childhood education (Grades K through 3) where Black boys are
5.6 times more likely to be suspended than the state average.
• Black male students who are classified as “foster youth” are
suspended at noticeably high rates, at 27.4%. Across all analyses,
Black males who were foster youth in seventh and eighth grade
represented the subgroup that had the highest percentage of
Black male suspensions, at 41.0%.
• The highest total suspensions occurred in large urban counties,
such as Los Angeles County, Sacramento County, San
Bernardino County, Riverside County, and Contra Costa County.
In fact, these five counties alone account for 61% of Black
male suspensions.
• The highest suspension rates for Black males occur in rural
counties that have smaller Black male enrollments. In 2016-2017,Glenn County led the state in Black male suspensions at 42.9%.
• Other Counties with high suspension rates included Amador
County, Colusa County, Del Norte County, and Tehama County.
San Joaquin county has especially high suspension patterns.
In the past 5 years, they have reported suspension rates
at 20% or above. Four counties have reported similarly high
suspension patterns across the past 4 of 5 years, they include:
Modoc County, Butte County, Merced County, and Yuba County.
• A number of districts have large numbers of Black boys
and young men who were suspended at least once. Some
of these districts included Sacramento City Unified (n = 887),
Los Angeles Unified (n = 849), Elk Grove Unified (n = 745), Fresno
Unified (n = 729) and Oakland Unified (n = 711).
• There are 10 school districts in the state with suspension rates
above 30%. Of these, the highest suspension rates are reported
at Bayshore Elementary (San Mateo County, at 50%), Oroville
Union High (Butte County, at 45.2%), and the California School for
the Deaf-Fremont (Alameda County, at 43.8%).
• There are 88 school districts in the state of California that have
suspension rates for Black males that are below the state
average. These schools vary in size, urbanicity, and region.
#BMIUCLA
Disproportionate Representation of African American Students i.docxelinoraudley582231
Disproportionate Representation of African American Students in Special Education:
Acknowledging the Role of White Privilege and Racism
Author(s): Wanda J. Blanchett
Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 35, No. 6 (Aug. - Sep., 2006), pp. 24-28
Published by: American Educational Research Association
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Disproportionate Representation of African American
Students in Special Education: Acknowledging the
Role of White Privilege and Racism
by Wanda J. Blanchett
This article places the problem of disproportionate representation of
African American students in special education in the context of the
White privilege and racism that exist in American society as a whole.
The author discusses how educational resource allocation, inappro-
priate curriculum and pedagogy, and inadequate teacher preparation
have contributed to the problem of disproportionate representation.
More important, she argues that remedies designed to address the
disproportionality challenge must place the aforementioned structural
forces at the center of education research, policy, and practice.
Ithough the field of special education was formed on the
heels of the Brown decision and applied rhetoric and
tactics from the Civil Rights Movement, the dispropor-
tionate referral and placement of African American students in
special education has become a discursive tool for exercising White
privilege and racism. First, African American students are dispro-
portionately referred to and placed in the high-incidence special
education categories of mental retardation, emotional or behavioral
disorders, and learning disabilities (Zhang & Katsiyannis, 2002).
Second, once labeled as having disabilities and placed in special
education, African American students make achievement gains and
exit special education at rates considerably lower than those of
White students identified as having .
Dr. Elias Alex Torrez, Dissertation PPt. - The Impact of Smaller Learning Com...William Kritsonis
Dr. Elias Alex Torrez, Dissertation PPt. - The Impact of Smaller Learning Communities on Closing the Achievement Gaps among Student Population Groups in Texas High Schools - Dissertation Chair: William Allan Kritsonis
PhD Program in Educational Leadership, PVAMU, The Texas A&M University System
Bartz, david e enhancing education for african american children nftej v27 n3...William Kritsonis
Dr. David E. Bartz, Professor Emeritus, Eastern Illinois University - published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief
Bartz, david e enhancing education for african american children nftej v...William Kritsonis
The United States is in a crisis regarding the ineffectiveness of PreK-12 education for African American children. Principals play a key role in alleviating this crisis through culturally responsive school leadership that includes critical self-reflection, consistently contributing to culturally responsive teaching and curriculum, promoting culturally responsive school environments, and engaging the community in culturally responsive ways. Teachers and significant others (parents/guardians, grandparents, family members, and siblings) in the daily lives of African American children, and community agencies must work collaboratively to enhance the cognitive and social psychological development of African American children.
Similar to Parson gail_c_an_assessment_of_the_habits_of_african_american_males_from_urban_households (20)
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
1. DOCTORAL FORUM
THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR PUBLISHING AND MENTORING DOCTORAL STUDENT RESEARCH
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 1, 2006
A National Focus: An Assessment of the Habits of
African American Males From Urban Households of
Poverty Who Successfully Complete Secondary
Education Programs
Gail C. Parson William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
PhD Program Student in Educational Professor
Leadership PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A & M University Prairie View A&M University
Assistant Principal Distinguished Alumnus (2004)
Thurgood Marshall High School Central Washington University
Fort Bend Independent School College of Education and Professional Studies
District Visiting Lecturer (2005)
Missouri City, Texas Oxford Round Table
University of Oxford, Oxford, England
ACRL – Harvard Leadership Institute (2006)
Harvard Graduate School of Education
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to assess six habits of academic achievement by
African American male students from households of poverty whom been successful
in completing a 5-A high school program of study. Despite the wealth of research
that indicates a great disparity among racial and gender groups with regard to
standardized assessment, participation in advanced placement courses, and the
overrepresentation of minorities in special education, particularly the African
American male, in the realm academic achievement; there are still those male
students who utilize individual achievement models to divert the apparent legacy of
failure or lack of productivity. This will be referred to as the “success
phenomenon.”
C
ooper and Jordan (2003) argue that “good schools encourage at-risk students to
surpass the level of education of their parents to obtain social progress
(transformative) while allowing affluent students to, at least, reach the same level
1
2. DOCTORAL FORUM
THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR PUBLISHING AND MENTORING DOCTORAL STUDENT RESEARCH
2__________________________________________________________________________________
as their parents (reproductive).” Despite the literature that delineates a precedent of
failure, some African American males who share common demographic influences in
poverty, succeed in competing the high school curriculum, advance in the mind field of
high stakes testing, placement in special education programs. Somehow achievement
finds a way. What unique characteristics do these males possess that help them to be and
remain academically successful while juggling the effects of poverty?
The purpose of this article is to discover what habits these young men possess that
enable them to be successful and basically beat the odds. Two issues should be addressed
when discussing educational achievement for poor Black youth. The first is that any
differences within this particular subgroup should be placed in the context of the
differences that exist in larger society. Another issue, which should be addressed, is
exactly how educational achievement is measured (Wheat 1997). Teaching and nurturing
Black males through their own self-imposed obstacles and behaviors can be a marathon
(Wynn 2005). Where do educators, theorists, or researchers begin to find and implement
leadership strategies that are constructively aimed at an imperceptible moving target? A
target that is complex and mutable, multifaceted; intangible; and, easily adaptable to its
changing environment. Where should theorists look intently? They must look first inside
the culture that produces and influences the African American male: its own.
Educators must begin to look for and acknowledge the African American male’s
culture to discover what Payne (1985) refers to as “hidden rules” these young men bring
to the learning forum as a result of poverty. The understanding of these rules and how
they impact student learning should instigate more research in this area as it relates
specifically to academic achievement of African American males.
Neither poverty nor culture is educational destiny. Very little research reveals the
habits of African American males who have successfully completed high school in an
environment of poverty. The process of connecting African American males to the world
of academic achievement isn’t easy in the best of educational settings—and such settings
are today far and few behind. But that means that in order to “counter and transform”
African American “cultural patterns,” as Pedro Noguera calls for, fundamental change
in American education will be necessary. Recognizing that there is a problem is the first
step (Thernstrom and Thernstrom 2003).
Payne’s (1985) concept of hidden rule seems to gain credence when it is
considered that unless the larger society seeks to identify the hidden rules of the culture
of these young men, the problem will persist.
Educators must begin to intently look into a cultural mirror that may not reflect
positive and strong self-concepts, but must understand that it is there. The way that one
perceives himself is vital to the learning process. The mirror image of the Black male has
remained constant over the past three decades or so; despite research, intervention,
discussion, theory or blame; things have remained virtually the same. However, some
Black males have used this part of their legacy to determine influence.
Late 20th century America is the scene of stunning African American male
success stories exemplified by superstar athletes and entertainers. The image of a larger-
than-life Michael Jordan exists in stark contrast to the daily grind the millions of
employed semi-employed and unemployed African American men endure. Dr. James
Lanier, Senior Resident Scholar for community Justice Programs at the National Urban
3. GAIL PARSONS AND WILLIAM KRITSONIS
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League’s Institute for Opportunity and Equality, posits Black males are only six percent
of the U.S. populations, but 44 percent of the national prison population. On average
Black men who are employed earn nearly $16,900 less per year than White men. And
while the economic boom of the later 1990s boosted Black income and shrank
unemployment to historic lows, amid the current slump Black joblessness has surged
once again so that it is now double that of whites (Muhammad, Davis, Lui, Leondar-
Wright 2004).
Theorists such as Erikson (1950) have suggested that major aspects of human
development unfold in a series of life stages. As individuals progress through the life
stages, they must achieve a series of developmental tasks. The achievement of these
tasks at one stage of life influences success with tasks in succeeding states. When
considering psychosocial development of young African American males, it is important
to note the social, cultural and economic forces throughout American history that have
combined to keep Black males from assuming traditional masculine roles (Staples 1982).
Innovative academic roads are forged. In order to progress, young African
American males must be offered ways of thinking above and beyond their current
dilemma and taught to refuse to accept definitions of them within a paradigm that seeks
their self-destruction. Swanson, Cunningham, and Spencer (2003) provide quantitative
support for the effects of negative school climate asserted by Cooper and Jordan (2003)
and seek to identify in their study whether African American males employ reactive
coping strategies (bravado attitudes) in response to negative social and educational
experiences (Coleman 2002).
The educational system’s failure to connect with African American males is
rarely addressed, though the impact is tremendous- from families and crime to
employment and quality of life. Most Black males who graduate from high school move
on to social and economic mediocrity or worse. Not only do African American males fall
behind their male peers but are also unable to maintain professional, social, and economic
footing with Black females. Still, there has been little attention paid to how to raise
expectations and performance. Examples of success often are the result of strong,
determined personalities, rather than systematic improvements.
Black males are largely perceived and stereotyped by one or more of the five D’s:
dumb, deprive, dangerous, deviant, and disturbed (Gibbs 1988).
William A. Sampson examines several questions in his book, Black Student
Achievement: How Much do Family and School Really Matter? He looks at the
problems that engaged researchers of urban minority students for decades: what factors
create a successful student, what are the factors that most influence learner to success,
what reforms are needed to assure student success? Sampson’s theory is that ‘differences
in family dynamics and/or home environment account for the differences in school
performance.”
Ogbu (2003) who grew up in Nigeria discussed Low Effort Syndrome. He
concluded that “there was a culture among Black students to reject behaviors perceived to
be ‘white’ which included making good grades, speaking Standard English, being overly
involved in class, and enrolling in honors or advanced-placement courses. The students
told Ogbu that engaging in these behaviors suggested one was renouncing his Black
identity. Ogbu concluded that the African American peer culture, by and large, put
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pressure on students not to do well in school, as if it were an affront to blackness (Myke’s
Weblog 2003).
Academic success is sustained. The most difficult task facing educators and
mentors of African American males is to expand the focus beyond intervention and
prevention programs to conceptualizing and implementing empowerment processes. If
we want change to matter, to spread, to last, then the system in which leaders do their
work must make sustainability a priority (Hargreaves & Fink 2003). To help alleviate the
disparage in African American male and other groups Wheat (1997) argues for the
emergence of and subsequent controversy surrounding schools exclusively for Black
boys…specifically, there is at least the perception by some that Black boys are falling
behind Black girls in educational achievement” (p.1). Wheat further contends that a
major issue that should be addressed when hypothesizing about factors that contribute to
the achievement of the Black male is how is education achievement truly measured? He
believes, “the difference in educational achievement can be measured in a number of
ways, which can make it difficult to state conclusively whether one group has strictly
better academic performance than the other (Wheat 1997).
For the past decades, terms such as school reform, restructuring, redesign, and
improvement have dominated educational discourse regarding possible ways of affecting
fundamental changes in schooling experience of at-risk students. Research suggests that
these initiatives emerged in several waves (Lusi 1997). The early waves focused directly
upon raising standards. Failing schools were often mandated to work harder at doing
more of the same (p.4). On the one hand, there is recognition by the educational research
community that many Black children and adolescents may need potent interventions to
succeed in school
Teachers who expect that African American male student cannot achieve
academically will model inappropriate behavior to support his erroneous assumption
asserts Reglin (1994, p.3).
Self-determination is the glue that has kept all of the pieces together. One unusual
anomaly that appears to exist in the academic success of the Black males is the theory
of resilience (Reis, Colbert & Hebert 2005). This group of Black males overcomes the
seemingly insurmountable obstacles that are emphasized in current research literature.
For instance, the resilience theory that attempts to explain academic achievement
among students who encounter negative psychological and environmental situations
where no single definition of resilience exits. Wolin and Wolin (1993) describe resilient
individuals hardy, invulnerable and invincible. Rutter (1987) defines resilience as a
“positive role of individual differences in people’s response to stress and adversity” (p.
316). However, Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1994) define educational resilience as the
“heightened likelihood of success in school and other life accomplishments, despite
environmental adversities brought about by early traits, conditions, and experiences”
(p.46).
Most previous research on academic resilience has focused on at-risk minority
students. Our results suggest that this focus has been well justified, in that the “double
jeopardy” of being poor and a minority student exposes students to greater risks and few
resilience-promoting conditions. Within the sample of African American students, from
relatively homogeneous low socioeconomic status backgrounds, it is the disturbing fact
5. GAIL PARSONS AND WILLIAM KRITSONIS
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that the minority students from the sample have poorer levels of internal locus of control
and academic self-efficacy and are exposed to school environments that are less
conducive to academic resilience.
Before students think of college enrollment, there must be some form of
aspiration to do so. Eighty-eight percent of 8th graders expect to participate in
postsecondary education, and approximately seventy percent of high school graduates
actually go to college within two years of graduation. Oftentimes, aspirations develop as
a result of the desire to become removed from the present economic or social
environment.
St. John (1991) on aspirations confirms that when socioeconomic factors are held
constant, African American males often have higher aspirations for higher education than
other ethnic/racial groups. In recent research, Gates Millennium Scholars, Allen,
Bonous-Hammarth, and Suh (2003) found that “compared with other racial/ethnic
groups, African American students were more like to have the highest education
aspirations (p.9). For African Americans, this is undoubtedly tied to the cultural belief of
education being the only means by which African Americans can increase their stature in
society. Education for African Americans is a means to overcome and rise above
economic deprivation (Allen, Bonous-Hammarth, & Suh 2003).
“No significant learning occurs without significant relationship.” (Comer 1987).
Here is the genesis of a new school of thought. Significant relationships are a
phenomenon that includes the input of parents, teachers, administrators, clergy, business
partners, and community. These stakeholders will each play a vital role in the
development of a novel and flexible action plan to combat the disenfranchised and
underachieving perception of the Black male in order to cultivate and demonstrate a
legacy of excellence.
It is palpable, however, the notion that family systems possess and exert influence
on the Black male: whether that influence is considered positive or negative. If these
men can be viewed as unsuccessful, one must look at the influence family systems exert
on them with renewed scrutiny. Family is where one should receive the gift of
empowering legacy; however, too often this element is not passed on from one generation
to the next. Legacy enables one to see himself through the eyes of possibility and
challenge. There has to be a revival in the Black community initially with families.
Being victims of poverty is no longer a viable rationale to be excused from non-
productivity. Family and community encourage and instill the idea of legacy into its
own. Legacy that will not produce doubt in men “who themselves are not yet sure of
their right to demand opportunities to forge new roads entitled success” (DuBois 1903).
Many children live in vulnerable families and neighborhoods where the incidence
of poverty…is widespread. Schools are increasingly recognizing that the educational
performance of at-risk children will not improve unless efforts are mad to remove the
barriers to learning created by problems that begin outside of the classroom walls. The
research on the effectiveness of parent involvement with older students, therefore, often
focuses on different forms of participation—e.g. parents monitoring homework, helping
students make postsecondary plans and select courses which support these plans, parent-
school agreements on rewards for achievement and behavioral improvements—as well as
some of the “stand-by” functions, such as regular home-school communication about
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students’ progress and parent attendance at school-sponsored activities. Clearly, parent
involvement is effective in fostering achievement and affective gains at all levels, and
schools are encouraged to engage and maintain this involvement throughout the
secondary years (Cotton & Wikelund 1989).
In conclusion, a review of research in this analysis yields six specific habits (or
themes) that appear to be instrumental in helping African American males from
households of poverty be academically successful:
1) Hidden cultural rules that are utilized at various points by Black males to
ensure success;
2) A strong sense of self and the innate desire to achieve;
3) Sustained motivation for achievement that is threaded throughout the
secondary academic career;
4) A determination to succeed despite the influences of poverty;
5) A high degree of aspiration to envision success well beyond high school; and,
6) A strong system of significant relationships that exist in the family,
community, and school.
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