Parental Involvement in Education

Running head: PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION
1
Parental Involvement in Education
Sadania Miller
Queens University of Charlotte
Author Note
Sadania Miller, Department of Psychology, Queens University of Charlotte at
Charlotte, North Carolina.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sadania Miller,
Department of Psychology, Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28274.
Email: sadania.miller@rexmail.queens.edu

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN
EDUCATION 2
Abstract
Parental involvement is very important in regards to children and their education. The No Child
Left Behind Act was implemented to help student succeed in school and to promote more parent
involvement in educating their child. Although the No Child Left Behind Act had major
problems school system such as Louisiana and Arkansas found ways around the act in order to
obtain funding for their education system. The lack of parental involvement can lead students to
dropping out of school, increase exposures to violence, and other behavioral issues. Many factors
can influence parental involvement such as the environment, attachment, motivation in school,
self-efficacy, parental control in tutoring, parent-teacher involvement, and homework. A parent’s
perception can influence a child’s way of thinking in regards to education and success. If parents
perceptive their child as a student who will succeed, the child will more than likely succeed
because they know that is what their parents expect from them but, the child does not know what
the parent expects they will not succeed. Without parental assistance, a student’s autonomous
beliefs which could potentially lead them down the wrong path. Studies have shown that parents
who leave their child to make autonomous decisions themselves are often left making decisions
that affect their life as they get older, and live independently.
Keywords: lack of parental involvement, education, federal funding, rules and
regulations, education system

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Parental Involvement in Education
Recently, President Obama gave ten states the opportunity to waive their right for the No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and requested that they made sure that their students graduated
and had enough knowledge to go on to the next level (Star News, 2012). Currently, Obama
Administration has been dealing with issues regarding the NCLB Act of 2001. In New Orleans,
Louisiana, and a few other states, the NCLB has been waived because those states have made
modification to the act and renamed it The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
(Cunningham, n.d.). The modifications have made much improvement in states such as
Arkansas. Even though, Arkansas has made changes to the NCLB Act they are still able to
receive money for their Title 1 program and leave their ownership to the state and local
government to handle. Teacher and parent encouragement is needed in order to make the
program and act successful, especially when a program was not in the shape it needed to be in.
Without parental involvement many schools will shut down and their will be no place for
students to go but, to other crowed schools (Cunningham, n.d.). John Hopkins University
performed a study that found only a 10% difference had been related to academic achievement
was school related. The minority group of students had a 20% difference as it related to
difference among racial groups, mainly because a number of the parents had obtained low
educational level than others (Smith, 2012). The NCLB Act was implemented according to
Smith (2012) to eliminate discriminating gaps within the school system, mainly due to poverty
levels around the different schools. The NCLB Act was made administrators and teachers set up
impossible standards that eventually labeled many schools as needing to be improved. NCLB has
made many groups and races stick out more than other since, it records race into consideration.
When the repot prints out for the students it clearly labels race which is 81% of the White

EDUCATION 4
population scores high and 5% of the Blacks, Hispanic, disadvantage, and special education
students scores as low (Webley, 2012). Many schools had to come up with additional options for
students such as Saturday school, extended school days, to be taken over and turned into a
private charter school, or be shut down (Webley, 2012). On the other hand, President Obama
stresses the fact that it is impossible for policy holders to designate a certain amount to students
who are incapable of learning and sentence them to life in poverty just because they can’t get
ahead.
NCLB held educational leaders to set requirements for schools to focus on credentials or
ability to improve learning by hiring highly qualified teachers to make things move more
effectively. In order to make the teachers more qualified, school’s had to come up with an
evaluation system, to test teachers performance and parents, teachers and education leaders had
to join in on the creation of the system for that process in order to better understand the entire
process and to make changes if necessary( John, 2012). President Obama agrees that the NCLB
enactment needs to be mandated by the federal government and not the local government. There
is more money within the federal government, then the local government, and it should be the
federal governments right to regulate the education system for every state, not just some states.
President Obama is also for students coming first and not left behind and that it is the state
governments right to help regulate better education systems, but not take total control of them
(Spellings, 2012).
So, what is parental involvement (PI)? PI is the amount of time parents participate in their
child’s school activities, and day to day life. Researchers have found that PI is vital in a child’s
education from kindergarten to high school. In 2001, No Child Left Behind Act was
implemented to help improve PI in education. According to Bloomberg Business Week (2012),

EDUCATION 5
NCLB was mandated by the United States government to implement proficiency in math and
language by 2014, this act required that authors needed to realize how bad the education system
was and how the achievement scores were lowering (Bloomberg Business Week, 2012). The
NCLB act will soon expire and states will have to deal with their own education system alone
The NCLB goes by strict guidelines many states don’t want the strict guidelines they will no
longer receive help form the government for their education system (Bloomberg Business Week,
2012). Many states want to receive money for programs and things but, they don’t want the extra
rules and regulations that came with receiving the extra money. PI is important in educating a
child, and this Act strives to improve the overall quality of the school systems by providing
funds to each state. Next, we will discuss the lack of PI and how important it is with homework,
attention, courage and motivational strength.
The lack of PI includes: the amount of time a parent spends with their child on
homework, the amount of attention a parent shows their child and the lack of courage or
motivational strength a parent gives their child. Being involved in a child’s life not only includes
getting them up, out of bed and on their way to school, but also includes being a strong support
system. A child with a good support system at home results in increased motivation and better
behavioral habits; it may also help them achieve academic goals such as school performance
(Hornby & Lafaele, 2011). Students, who strongly agree with their parents’ perception on
education, tend to do better than students who don’t believe in their parents’ perception on
education (Kerpelman, Eryigit, & Stephens, 2008). The purpose of this paper is to review the
literature factors including environment, school motivation and attachment, self- efficacy, rules,
parent- teacher contact, marital status of the parents, parent perceptions, and beliefs that are

EDUCATION 6
obtain by both the parents and the child. There are many factors that are included in parent
involvement, so next we will review environmental factors that could influence education.
Environmental factors
Environmental factors that influence PI can affect a child’s academic success. Frey,
Ruchkin, Martin, and Schwab-Stone (2009) found that students living in cities, particularly high
crime areas are more likely to be exposed to violence than students not living in the city. These
researchers found that students living in high crime areas perceived violent behavior as typical;
the student’s eventually began to show regression as a reaction to the perceived thoughts of the
violent crime they witnessed. The lack of PI in the lives of adolescents can cause adolescents to
look up to their peers, which can lead to negative behaviors such as, drug use, poor grades,
behavior problems, depression, and poor attendance in school (Gonzales-DeHass, Willems, &
Holbein, 2005).When students perceive violent crime as a norm, there is a potential for the
development of anti-social behavior, as well as aggression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
With parental support, supervision, and coping strategies, adolescents’ perceptions and
motivation can be changed. Reducing violent exposure can increase a child’s social life, making
a more beneficial connection between his or her personal life and education (Frey et al., 2009).
When students have increased attachments with school, they tend to have lower levels of
abnormal behavior and they view school as a more positive place. This may result in increased
academic motivation and decreased levels of violence in the city (Frey et al., 2009). In contrast
students with low attachment to school have higher levels of abnormal behavior and
aggressiveness resulting in decreased academic motivation (Frey et al., 2009). Usually, programs
that decrease students’ perception on violence have a tendency to use the holistic approach to
reduce certain behaviors from occurring (Frey et al., 2009). Holistic approaches in programs

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focus more on the overall picture of what is going on rather than the general idea or certain
things in particular, without leaving everything else out of the picture like seeing violence in the
community. Holistic programs fix ideas as students view them and try to change their way of
thinking. A teacher and Presidents of the Wisconsin Education Association Council by the name
of Mary Bell (2012), believes that it takes a holistic approach to determine how well a school
will do based on academic and social expectations, not just expectations guided by educators as
to how they want intervention to be created and what to expect afterwards. Even many parents
who are actively participating in their childs school believe that taking a complete approach will
be more effective than taking only a few approaches at a time and rather than thinking things will
get better just because you work with that particular child at school and develop plans for
improvement without knowing what other factors contribute to the childs academic performance
(Bell, 2012). Next, we will review school motivation and attachment.
School motivation and attachment
Parents who are involved in their child’s schooling have higher grade point averages, and
higher involvement rates academically (Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). These researchers also
found that increased PI correlates with an increased motivation for the child, which may lead to
better school performance. When parents react to their students’ grades and performance in
school by awarding them for their good work, students begins to react by becoming motivated
(Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). Parenting style and motivation can be correlated as well
parenting styles can change the way student view ideas by helping them to control their
understanding, perceived competence, and perceived autonomy. With parental assistance
students are able to see things more clearly and are able to make autonomous decisions
(Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). Without parental encouragement for academic improvement, the

EDUCATION 8
child will not be encouraged or motivated to do better. Students with motivationed attitudes
towards school are more likely to continue their school work successfully (Englund, Egeland, &
Collin, 2008). Next, we will review self-efficacy and how it relates to education.
Self-efficacy
Self- efficacy is known to be the internal beliefs of adolescence and his or her
performance for the future (Kerpelman, Erigit, & Stephens, 2008). According to past studies,
African American female students have been known to be stronger on school work, self-efficacy,
and maintain a higher grade point average than African American males (Kerpelman et al.,
2008). Females have a stronger affect for higher education than males (Kerplman et al., 2008;
Sartor & Youniss, 2002; Garg, Melanson, & Levin, 2007). PI can play a role in self-
determination and as long as a parent stays involved in their child’s control for understanding,
perceived competence, and self- regulation, the parent will be able to predict their child’s
education attainment (Gonzales- DeHass et al., 2005). Suizzo and Stapleton (2007) suggest that a
child will have self-efficacy if they hold high aspirations about themselves from their parents
which consist of viewpoints of what he or she should do with their lives as far as going off to
college and achieving high grade point averages. It is possible for a child who has parents
without self- efficacy to have limited sense of determination or effectiveness in their future.
Next, we will review rules and how important it is to have them when it comes to educating
children.
Rules
Another factor includes rules, according to Suizzo and Stapleton (2007) by allowing PI to
be established at home, parents are able to discuss problems and other things going on in school
during mealtimes, and family discussion. Family discussion and mealtimes help the child better

EDUCATION 9
elaborate on what’s going on at school and it allows time for the parents to intervene on
problems that may need to be addressed with the school (Suizzo & Stapleton, 2007). Researchers
such as Spera (2005) found that preschool students whose parents regulated rules at home are
more mature, independent, pro-social, active, and achievement-oriented than children whose
parents that do not regulate rules. Fan and Williams (2010) developed rules for homework,
chores, television and maintaining grades were positively influenced by many parents. These
rules had a positive influence for students obtaining a higher education. Researchers have found
that although rules are important, the amount of rules is also important (Simpkins et al., 2009).
Parents with fewer rules had fewer problems and parents who had too many or too little rules had
negative reactions from their child to the rules that were set in place (Simpkins et al., 2009). If a
parent has too many rules, a student is likely to feel overwhelmed and highly controlled by the
rules; if a parent has too little rules a student is likely to get off track, develop behavior problems,
and become more dependent on others.
Researchers have found that adolescents see homework involvement with parents as a
positive influence (Spera, 2005; Hornby & LaFaele, 2011). The more parents are involved in
monitoring, enforcing, or helping with homework, the greater the chances the student will
become more motivated and dependent on external sources such as a parent or counselor
(Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). As long as a parent is involved with the adolescent’s homework,
the adolescent will be likely to show more interest in homework by spending more time on it.
Parents who check their children’s homework were a positive influence on their childs academic
success (Fan & Williams, 2010). Although assistance with homework showed positive effect
with parental involvement, assistant services such as tutoring can also play a role in parental
involvement. For students who received free tutoring that was state or district approved, the

EDUCATION 10
parents’ involvement was lower than students receiving other types of tutoring that wasn't state
or district approved (Hartlep & Ellis, 2010). So, in other words parents with free tutoring feel
like it’s not their responsibility to help their child with school work, when they ‘re being
provided with tutors. The parent with free tutoring services feel like it’s the government job to
provide those services for their children and they are no longer needed to educate their child
(Hartlep & Ellis, 2010). Hartlep and Ellis (2010) found that in children who received tutoring
assistance provided by the state or district scored lower than, student who received private
assistance. In regards to ethnicity, African American parents are more involved in homework
than any other ethnicity (Hartlep & Ellis, 2010). These researchers also found that lower level
income parents were more involved when it came to homework than middle level income parents
(Harlep & Ellis, 2010). These results could be due to the increase African American mothers
valuing higher education, and low income families having additional time on their hands, giving
them the opportunity to assist their child with their homework than middle income level parents
(Hartlep & Ellis (2010). Next, we will review parent-teacher contact and how important it is to
be involved when it comes to education.
Parent-teachers contact
Having contact with the school can have both negative and positive effects on a child’s
willingness to learn and becoming motivated. Gonzalez-DeHass et al. (2005) found that
increased parent-teacher contact was related to decreased school interaction. The relationship
between the parents and teachers are sometimes viewed to be a negative one because parents-
teacher contact often deals with behavioral issues (Gonzalez et al., 2005). The greater the amount
of time a parent spends with parent-teacher contact the less the student will stay focused (Hornby
& Lafeale, 2011). According to Frey, Martin, and Schwab-Stone (2009) as long as parent-teacher

EDUCATION 11
support is within the child’s reach, a child is more likely to succeed both academically and
intellectually. Increased parent knowledge on their child’s academics, can change a child’s
academic performance and create a more positive attitude towards school (Spoth, Randall &
Shin, 2008).
PI is a problem for parents and teachers, mainly because the material is being taught
differently at home and at school (Horney & Lafaele, 2011). The teacher and parent aren’t
always on the same page with school work that’s why these researchers suggest that the parent-
teacher communication should be more collaborative (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011). Immigrant
families have the least amount of parent-teacher contact because they can have limited skills in
English, resulting in barriers between parent-teacher contacts (Turney & Kao, 2009). Many
immigrant parents who had not lived in the United States for a long period of time were less
likely to get involved with the education system; limiting resources with language barriers, child
care, transportation and communication (Turney & Kao, 2009; Hornby & Lafaele, 2011).
Mothers in immigrant families are more likely to get involved in their children’s education if
they worked part-time versus working full-time (Turney & Kao, 2009). Students of immigrant
families are likely to have higher level of parental involvement if they live within two parent
homes rather than only a one parent home (Turney & Kao, 2009). Promoting more effective
communication could help with the barrier within parent-teacher communication and providing
services to accommodate their need may be beneficial for many of the immigrant families. Next,
we will review marital status and how it relates to parental involvement.
Marital status
Marital status of the parents can also play a role in educating a child. Males transition
worse than females, when it parents’ divorce and separate (Garg, Melanson, & Levin, 2007).

EDUCATION 12
These authors also found that males from single family homes scored lower than males from two
parent homes on mental health assessments. Males scored higher on dependency, irrelevant talk,
withdrawal, blaming, inattention, inappropriate behavior, unhappiness, and maladaptive
symptoms than females. Garg, Melanon, and Levin (2007) found that boys are in need of more
attention, and demand attention in ways that were inappropriate to many people. Authority
figures were also more common in single-parent homes than two-parent homes and were
positively related to academic achievement (Spera, 2005). Divorced parents were likely to
become more authoritative than married parents; researcher have also found that mother-only
families are not as focused on their children’s education because of the amount of economic
stress and the lack of social support needed to be effective (Garg et al., 2007). These researchers
also found that students living with many family members of different generation are more
resourceful than families without multiple generations within the household because the other
family member can provide additional resources such as babysitting. Next, we will review parent
perception and discuss how parent perceive their childs’ education.
Parent’s perceptions
Parent perception is how a parent feels about certain ideas in relation to their child
education such as school expectations, interactions with school work, and tolerance for their
child’s behavior (Bhutto, Narejo, Butt, Shaikh, & Virwani, 2012). “PI plays a major role in
children education in terms of performance and career choice (Bhutto et al., 2012).” Parents have
many perceptions of their children and their academic success. Kerpelman, Eryigit, and Stephens
(2008) found that a parents’ perception of future success can be positively related to a child’s
knowledge and how a parent feels about their education. If a child knows that the parent desires a
higher education, then the child will give the parent what they desire. If the child doesn’t know

EDUCATION 13
the parent wants them to get a higher education it will not be obtained (Kerpelman et al., 2008).
These researchers designed a survey for participants to evaluate their perception on support from
parents and they found that on average, participants within the survey had moderate associations
with future education orientation. Another study concluded that goals and aspirations set by
parents for their children were related to their children’s academic goals, presence in school,
course enrollment, accomplishments, and attendance to college (Spera, 2005). Spera (2005) also
found that minorities primarily African Americans and Hispanics, value a higher education
equally to non-minority parents. Some immigrants lack understanding of what is expected when
it comes to education in general fail in academic achievement (Turney & Kao, 2009).
Researchers concluded that a child will only do better at school when their parents’ aspiration
and expectation for them increases, so if the child knows the parent expects a higher education
attainment then, the child will have a higher education attainment for themselves (Phillipson &
Phillipson, 2007; Hong, Ho, 2005)). A study performed by Hong and Ho (2005), concluded that
PI with communication and parent aspirations had the most immediate and lasting effect on
academic achievement than Asians and African Americans. Asian American was found to have
more of an effect on parent participation in the effectiveness of involvement and African
American was shown to have an effect on parental education aspiration in the immediate phase
rather than the initial phase and Hispanics only had parental communication as a long lasting
effect, but no other parental involvement effect was shown to have any other significance. Goal
and aspiration are important when trying to reach future success and being able to make
autonomous decision can lead a child to becoming more independent. So, next we will review
beliefs systems and how different types of beliefs are perceived.
Belief system

EDUCATION 14
Exposing a child to have autonomous beliefs has been linked to weaker legitimacy
beliefs. Legitimacy beliefs are adolescents’ beliefs that are accepted by parents that have been
known to control a child’s behavior (Kuhn & Laird, 2011). These researchers also found recent
studies that concluded adolescents who were unsupervised on behavior were associated with
anti-social behavior. Students were shown to have less legitimacy beliefs were likely to disclose
their behavior to their parents. Behavioral autonomy in children was associated with behavioral
problems when children made decisions for themselves verses making decisions based on their
parent’s perception; the child was also likely to have a weaker legitimacy belief.
Parent beliefs are beliefs that parents have about the acceptance about a decision their
child has made. Autonomous beliefs are beliefs in which one develops based on desires. Many
parents believe that as their child ages, he or she should express their own autonomy. Some
parents let their children experience life for themselves, leaving them to make unreasonable
decisions (Gonzales-DeHass et al., 2005). Leaving a child to express a little autonomy is said to
be fine but, as long as the parent helps support their child’s autonomous decision it could
positively correlate to his or her increase in motivation (Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). These
researchers also found that parental autonomy and support goes along with a student’s
understanding, perception and independence (Gonzalez-DeHass et al., 2005). Next, we will
conclude this article by viewing all these ideas together.
Conclusion
PI can help a child succeed both academically and intellectually. PI promotes a child to
achieve better in life overall based on their autonomous beliefs and the perceptions from their
parents. Parents and teachers should be actively involved in the students’ education more
collaboratively in order to reduce negative attitudes the child may have with school, resulting in

EDUCATION 15
lower motivation rates and grades. As long as the negative attitude about school is managed, a
child’s motivation will increase. There are many factors that can become a barrier in a child’s
education but, as long as all the factors are managed more effectively, higher academic
performance can be achieved. This is important because without parental involvement, drop-out
rate would increase and student’s perception as something being normal can reflect the child’s
behavior. Future research needs to be geared towards parental support and academic monitoring
which only allows some African Americans to succeeds, but not all (Rath, Gielen, Haynie,
Solomon, Cheng, & Simons-Morgan, 2008). Rath et al. (2008) performed some previous
research that found positive relationships between parental academic monitoring and
adolescent’s academic achievement. Rath et al. (2008) also concluded that home and school had
a positive correlation on academic outcomes.

EDUCATION 16
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EDUCATION 17
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