Blackhead disease, also called Histomoniasis, is a serious disease that can decimate turkey flocks. It is caused by the protozoan Histomonas meleagridis. Recent research has revealed that turkeys can transmit Blackhead to each other through cloacal drinking. Prevention is key, as there is no treatment once turkeys are infected. Producers should separate poultry species and fallow contaminated ground or houses for at least 3 years. Selecting for resistant heritage breeds and adding preventative feed additives can also help manage the disease.
This document summarizes pulmonary echinococcosis, which is caused by the larvae of the tapeworm Echinococcus. Four species can cause infection in humans, with E. granulosus being responsible for the majority of cases. E. granulosus has a worldwide distribution and causes cystic echinococcosis. Humans can become infected through contact with infected dogs or ingesting eggs. Lung involvement occurs in 10-30% of cases and symptoms may occur due to cyst rupture or compression. Diagnosis involves imaging to detect cysts and serological testing to detect antibodies. Surgical excision is the treatment of choice when possible.
Leucocytozoon is a protozoan parasite transmitted between birds and blackfly vectors. It infects the red blood cells of over 100 bird species. The parasite has a complex life cycle involving development in the blackfly and birds. In birds, sporozoites infect liver cells before spreading to other organs. Most infections are asymptomatic but can cause anemia and death in young birds. Diagnosis is via blood smears and treatment involves controlling blackfly vectors.
Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease of the intestinal tract caused by coccidian protozoa. It spreads through contact with infected feces and causes diarrhea. While most infected animals are asymptomatic, young or immunocompromised animals can suffer severe symptoms and death. The disease is common in confined poultry operations where oocysts contaminate the environment. Several species of Eimeria cause distinct lesions in different parts of the intestines. Clinical signs range from reduced growth to high mortality. Treatment involves anticoccidial drugs while control relies on sanitation, anticoccidial medication in feed, and separating birds from droppings.
This document summarizes research on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, in various farm animals used as food sources in the United States. It finds that T. gondii infection is common in pigs and chickens, with lower levels found in beef and chicken meat available in retail stores. Surveys of pigs over time found declining infection rates, from 23% in 1984 to 2.6% in 2006, likely due to increased confinement housing that reduces environmental exposure. However, stable low-level infection in grower/finisher pigs indicates gaps in confinement practices. Oocyst contamination of soil and water remains a major source of infection for farm
Veterinary aspects of watter fowls and game birds breedingABOHEMEED ALY
This document discusses several diseases that affect waterfowl and game birds. It begins by describing viral diseases like duck viral hepatitis and duck virus enteritis. It then discusses other diseases such as aspergillosis, gizzard worms in geese, and veneral diseases in ganders caused by mycoplasma. The document provides details on the clinical signs, lesions, diagnosis, treatment and prevention for each disease. It concludes by discussing diseases that affect common game birds, including rotavirus infection causing mortality in pheasant chicks, and marble spleen disease characterized by respiratory signs and enlarged mottled spleens in pheasants.
This document discusses avian parasitic diseases. It begins by outlining the economic importance of parasitic diseases in poultry, noting they can cause direct disease, transmit other pathogens, decrease production, and stunt growth. It then examines factors affecting incidence such as breed, age, season, nutrition, housing system, and management practices. The document categorizes parasitic diseases and describes various nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, protozoa, ectoparasites, and their lifecycles, transmission methods, clinical signs, treatment and more. In closing, it provides detailed information on several common parasitic infections in poultry.
1. India has a duck population of 23.54 million, second only to chickens for egg and meat production. West Bengal is the top duck egg producer while Assam has the highest duck population.
2. Ducks face numerous infectious diseases including viral diseases like duck virus hepatitis and duck virus enteritis (duck plague), bacterial diseases such as duck cholera and Riemerella anatipestifer infection, parasitic diseases like sarcocystis, and fungal diseases including aspergillosis.
3. Prevention of diseases involves vaccination, biosecurity measures, and minimizing environmental stresses on ducks through provision of clean water and shelter, adequate nutrition and light, and protection from weather and predators.
This document discusses coccidiosis, a parasitic disease of poultry caused by Eimeria species. It covers the epidemiology, clinical signs, pathology, diagnosis and control methods of coccidiosis. Some key points include:
- Coccidiosis causes reduced growth, poor feed efficiency, and increased mortality in poultry. It is one of the most prevalent and economically important diseases in the broiler industry.
- The disease is transmitted through ingestion of sporulated oocysts in the litter or environment. Broilers are most commonly infected between 3-6 weeks of age.
- Clinical signs include diarrhea, poor uniformity, downgrading of carcasses. Pathology
This document summarizes pulmonary echinococcosis, which is caused by the larvae of the tapeworm Echinococcus. Four species can cause infection in humans, with E. granulosus being responsible for the majority of cases. E. granulosus has a worldwide distribution and causes cystic echinococcosis. Humans can become infected through contact with infected dogs or ingesting eggs. Lung involvement occurs in 10-30% of cases and symptoms may occur due to cyst rupture or compression. Diagnosis involves imaging to detect cysts and serological testing to detect antibodies. Surgical excision is the treatment of choice when possible.
Leucocytozoon is a protozoan parasite transmitted between birds and blackfly vectors. It infects the red blood cells of over 100 bird species. The parasite has a complex life cycle involving development in the blackfly and birds. In birds, sporozoites infect liver cells before spreading to other organs. Most infections are asymptomatic but can cause anemia and death in young birds. Diagnosis is via blood smears and treatment involves controlling blackfly vectors.
Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease of the intestinal tract caused by coccidian protozoa. It spreads through contact with infected feces and causes diarrhea. While most infected animals are asymptomatic, young or immunocompromised animals can suffer severe symptoms and death. The disease is common in confined poultry operations where oocysts contaminate the environment. Several species of Eimeria cause distinct lesions in different parts of the intestines. Clinical signs range from reduced growth to high mortality. Treatment involves anticoccidial drugs while control relies on sanitation, anticoccidial medication in feed, and separating birds from droppings.
This document summarizes research on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, in various farm animals used as food sources in the United States. It finds that T. gondii infection is common in pigs and chickens, with lower levels found in beef and chicken meat available in retail stores. Surveys of pigs over time found declining infection rates, from 23% in 1984 to 2.6% in 2006, likely due to increased confinement housing that reduces environmental exposure. However, stable low-level infection in grower/finisher pigs indicates gaps in confinement practices. Oocyst contamination of soil and water remains a major source of infection for farm
Veterinary aspects of watter fowls and game birds breedingABOHEMEED ALY
This document discusses several diseases that affect waterfowl and game birds. It begins by describing viral diseases like duck viral hepatitis and duck virus enteritis. It then discusses other diseases such as aspergillosis, gizzard worms in geese, and veneral diseases in ganders caused by mycoplasma. The document provides details on the clinical signs, lesions, diagnosis, treatment and prevention for each disease. It concludes by discussing diseases that affect common game birds, including rotavirus infection causing mortality in pheasant chicks, and marble spleen disease characterized by respiratory signs and enlarged mottled spleens in pheasants.
This document discusses avian parasitic diseases. It begins by outlining the economic importance of parasitic diseases in poultry, noting they can cause direct disease, transmit other pathogens, decrease production, and stunt growth. It then examines factors affecting incidence such as breed, age, season, nutrition, housing system, and management practices. The document categorizes parasitic diseases and describes various nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, protozoa, ectoparasites, and their lifecycles, transmission methods, clinical signs, treatment and more. In closing, it provides detailed information on several common parasitic infections in poultry.
1. India has a duck population of 23.54 million, second only to chickens for egg and meat production. West Bengal is the top duck egg producer while Assam has the highest duck population.
2. Ducks face numerous infectious diseases including viral diseases like duck virus hepatitis and duck virus enteritis (duck plague), bacterial diseases such as duck cholera and Riemerella anatipestifer infection, parasitic diseases like sarcocystis, and fungal diseases including aspergillosis.
3. Prevention of diseases involves vaccination, biosecurity measures, and minimizing environmental stresses on ducks through provision of clean water and shelter, adequate nutrition and light, and protection from weather and predators.
This document discusses coccidiosis, a parasitic disease of poultry caused by Eimeria species. It covers the epidemiology, clinical signs, pathology, diagnosis and control methods of coccidiosis. Some key points include:
- Coccidiosis causes reduced growth, poor feed efficiency, and increased mortality in poultry. It is one of the most prevalent and economically important diseases in the broiler industry.
- The disease is transmitted through ingestion of sporulated oocysts in the litter or environment. Broilers are most commonly infected between 3-6 weeks of age.
- Clinical signs include diarrhea, poor uniformity, downgrading of carcasses. Pathology
Characteristic features of a vector organismPuja Ray
The document discusses the characteristic features of vector organisms that transmit pathogens. It provides details about ticks and mosquitoes as vectors. Some key features of ticks that make them efficient disease vectors include their adaptability, ability to firmly attach to hosts, high reproductive rates, ability to survive long periods without feeding, and ability to feed on a wide range of hosts. The document also outlines several characteristics of mosquitoes that allow them to effectively transmit malaria, including their abundance, longevity, capacity to carry parasites, and preference for feeding on humans.
Coccidiosis in small_ruminants samuel last (1)samuel engdaw
Coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria. There are many species that are host-specific to sheep and goats. The life cycle involves endogenous development within the intestinal cells followed by excretion of oocysts in feces which sporulate in the environment. Young lambs and kids are most susceptible and clinical signs include diarrhea and dehydration. Diagnosis is based on finding oocysts in feces or lesions in the intestines at necropsy. Treatment involves anti-coccidial drugs but prevention through good hygiene and management is most important to control the disease.
This document provides an overview of viral diseases that affect poultry, including Ranikhet disease, Gumboro disease, and Marek's disease. It describes the causes, symptoms, transmission, diagnostic findings, treatment and control methods for each disease. Ranikhet disease is caused by a paramyxovirus and can cause up to 100% mortality in chicks. Gumboro disease is caused by a birnavirus and results in immunosuppression. Marek's disease is caused by a herpesvirus and causes tumors in nerves, liver, spleen and kidneys. The document contains detailed descriptions and photographs to aid in disease identification and management.
Tick-borne parasitic infections are caused by protozoan parasites transmitted through tick bites. The most common infections are babesiosis caused by Babesia parasites and theileriosis caused by Theileria species. These infections affect both animals and humans, causing symptoms ranging from fever and fatigue to enlarged lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves identifying the parasites in blood smears or tissue samples. Treatment consists of anti-parasitic drugs. Prevention strategies focus on controlling tick populations and avoiding tick bites through environmental and personal protective measures.
LAMENESS SYNDROMES IN CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS AND HORSESABOHEMEED ALY
This document provides information on common causes of lameness in cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. For cattle, the main causes discussed are foot rot (20% of cases), footwarts, sole ulcers, toe abscesses, broken bones, muscle injuries, septic arthritis, and infections caused by Mycoplasma bovis. Effective treatment requires proper diagnosis by examining the feet. Foot rot responds well to medication if caught early, while swollen joints or broken bones often require salvage of the animal. Lameness in other livestock such as foot rot in sheep, lameness in horses from conditions like founder, and lameness in pigs from toe abscesses are also briefly covered.
Sand fly, Md. Abdul Alim, Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences Universit...Abdul Alim
This document provides information on sand flies:
- Sand flies are small flies that belong to the family Psychodidae and have medical and veterinary importance as vectors of diseases. Over 700 species have been described worldwide.
- They transmit diseases like leishmaniasis, bartonellosis, vesicular stomatitis virus, and sand fly fever virus. The main disease-transmitting genera include Lutzomyia, Phlebotomus, and Sergentomyia.
- Sand flies have characteristic morphological features including long antennae, hairy bodies, and wing venation patterns. Females of many species feed on blood and can transmit pathogens through their bites.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: CoccidiosisElisaMendelsohn
This document discusses the parasite coccidia that causes coccidiosis in poultry. It can cause severe damage to the gut and losses for producers. While small backyard flocks can often manage it without drugs, larger flocks find it more difficult to control and may require vaccines as an alternative to drugs for organic production. The parasite has a complex life cycle within the bird and is transmitted through droppings. Young birds are most susceptible but immunity develops with exposure. Proper management, especially of brooding birds, and pasture rotation can control it on small scales but larger operations may need preventative treatments.
This document provides information on chicken production and management. It discusses local chicken breeds found in Somalia, including the Red Junglefowl. It also describes specialized chicken breeds for meat or egg production. The document outlines factors that influence chicken health, including biosecurity, vaccines, and disease prevention. It discusses chick management practices like brooding and explains housing systems for adult chickens. Finally, it provides information on feeding chickens, including types of feeds and mixing methods.
The document summarizes key information about anthrax including its history, use as a biological weapon, routes of infection, pathogenesis, and recent advances in vaccine development. It describes how anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria and can infect humans through the skin, lungs, or gastrointestinal tract. Recent research developed a nasal vaccine using recombinant protective antigen and oil-water nanoemulsions that effectively protected animals against anthrax infection and could provide a safer alternative to existing vaccines.
A good poultry health management is an important component of poultry production. Infectious disease causing agents will spread through a flock very quickly because of the high stocking densities of commercially housed poultry.
For poultry health management to be effective a primary aim must be to prevent the onset of disease or parasites, to recognize at an early stage the presence of disease or parasites, and to treat all flocks that are diseased or infested with parasites as soon as possible and before they develop into a serious condition or spread to other flocks. To be able to do this it is necessary to know how to recognize that the birds are diseased, the action required for preventing or minimising disease and how to monitor for signs that the prevention program is working.
The document summarizes key information about anthrax including its history, use as a biological weapon, routes of infection, pathogenesis, and recent developments in vaccines. It describes how anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria and can infect humans through the skin, lungs, or gastrointestinal tract. Recent research developed a nasal vaccine using recombinant protective antigen and oil-water nanoemulsions that was shown to effectively induce antibodies and protect against anthrax in animal studies, representing a potential improvement over existing vaccines.
There are four main types of disease affecting poultry: metabolic and nutritional diseases; infectious diseases; parasitic diseases; and behavioural diseases.
Metabolic and nutritional diseases
These are conditions caused by a disturbance of normal metabolic functions either through a genetic defect, inadequate or inappropriate nutrition or impaired nutrient utilisation. These include Fatty Liver Syndrome, Perosis (or slipped tendon), Rickets and Cage Layer Fatigue.
Infectious diseases
An infectious disease is any disease caused by invasion of a host by a pathogen which subsequently grows and multiplies in the body. Infectious diseases are often contagious, which means they can be spread directly or indirectly from one living thing to another. These include Avian Encephalomyelitis, Avian Influenza, Avian Tuberculosis, Chicken Anaemia Virus Infection (or CAV), Chlamydiosis, Egg Drop Syndrome (or EDS), Fowl Cholera (or Pasteurellosis), Fowl Pox, Infectious Bronchitis, Infectious Bursal Disease (or Gumboro), Infectious Coryza, Infectious Laryngotracheitis, Lymphoid Leukosis, Marek’s Disease, Mycoplasmosis, Necrotic Enteritis, Newcastle Disease and Salmonellosis.
Parasitic diseases
Parasitic diseases are infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure. A parasite is an organism that lives in or on, and takes its nourishment from, another organism. A parasite cannot live independently. These include Coccidiosis, Cryptosporidiosis, Histomoniasis, Lice and Mites, Parasitic Worms (or Helminths), Toxoplasmosis and Trichomoniasis.
Behavioural diseases
Abnormal behavioural patterns can lead to injury or ill health of the abnormally behaving bird and/or its companions. These include Cannibalism (or aggressive pecking).
This document discusses coccidiostates, which are used to prevent coccidiosis in poultry. Coccidiosis is a protozoal disease caused by Eimeria species that primarily affects young birds. Coccidiostates work by suppressing the lifecycle of coccidia and allowing immunity to develop without interfering with production performance. There are several categories of coccidiostates including synthetic, ionophores, and mixed combinations. The document provides details on specific coccidiostates such as amprolium, monensin, and nicarbazine, and how they function through different modes of action like interfering with co-factor synthesis, mitochondrial functions, or cell membrane functions. Recomm
Necrotic enteritis is an acute bacterial infection of chickens and turkeys caused by Clostridium perfringens types A and C. It is characterized by sudden death and severe necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, resulting in distended intestines filled with foul-smelling fluid. Clinical signs include depressed and ruffled birds that rapidly progress to death, with mortality rates between 5-50%. Lesions are typically found in the mid-small intestines and include a friable and diphtheritic membrane covering the mucosa.
Ticks are arachnids that can transmit pathogens and act as vectors for diseases. They have a leathery integument and their body is divided into two regions. Hard ticks have a dorsal shield covering their body while soft ticks do not. Ticks undergo morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations to survive as parasites. They can transmit diseases like Lyme disease, babesiosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Prevention methods include personal protection measures, habitat modification, pesticide use, and integrated vector management.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in TurkeysGardening
This document summarizes information about Blackhead disease, also called Histomoniasis, in turkeys. It discusses the history and life cycle of the disease, caused by the protozoan Histomonas meleagridis. Blackhead infects turkeys through ingestion of contaminated soil or earthworms, or through direct contact via "cloacal drinking". Symptoms in turkeys include yellow diarrhea and lesions in the liver. Prevention focuses on sanitation and separating turkeys from other poultry species that can carry the pathogen like chickens. Recent research has found turkeys can spread Blackhead directly to each other through cloacal drinking.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: CoccidiosisGardening
This document provides information on managing coccidiosis, a parasitic disease, in natural and organic poultry production. It discusses the life cycle and types of coccidia parasites, how they are transmitted through the environment, symptoms and diagnosis of coccidiosis, and management strategies for control. These include promoting natural immunity through low-density housing and pasture rotation, as well as discussing natural treatments, drugs, and vaccines that can be used for treatment and prevention. The document aims to help both small-scale and large-scale poultry producers sustainably manage this disease without relying on drugs.
This document provides information on managing coccidiosis, a parasitic disease, in natural and organic poultry production. It discusses the life cycle and types of coccidia parasites, how they are transmitted through the environment, symptoms and diagnosis of coccidiosis, and management strategies for control. These include using low-density production systems to allow birds to develop natural immunity, careful brooding management like sanitation and space requirements, and alternatives to drugs such as natural treatments and vaccines. The document aims to help both small-scale and larger organic producers sustainably manage this disease without relying on preventative drugs.
The primary causes of internal parasitism in sheep and lambs are overstocking of pastures and insufficient pasture rest periods. The parasite that causes the most problems, especially in warm, moist climates, is the barber pole worm (Haemonchus contortis). It is a blood-sucking parasite that can cause anemia, as seen by pale mucous membranes and bottle jaw. Integrated parasite management requires good management practices like avoiding overstocking pastures and limiting re-grazing, as well as strategic deworming and pasture rotation, as drug resistance has become a major issue.
1. The document discusses various insect and vector-borne diseases, including their signs and symptoms as well as the insects that transmit them. Typhus, plague, malaria, dengue and yellow fever are discussed alongside their vector insects like body lice, fleas, mosquitoes and ticks.
2. Cockroaches are described as carriers of diseases like salmonella and triggers of allergies. Bed bugs cause itchy welts but don't transmit disease.
3. Various mosquito genera like Culex, Aedes and Anopheles transmit diseases. Anopheles culicifacies is an important malaria vector in India.
Syngamus trachea, commonly known as the gapeworm, is a parasitic nematode that infects the upper respiratory tract of birds. It has a complex life cycle involving an intermediate host such as an earthworm or snail where it encysts. Adult male and female worms are permanently joined in a Y-shape in the trachea of birds. They lay eggs that pass in the feces and hatch inside or outside the host. Clinical signs in infected birds include weakness, emaciation, and breathing difficulties as the worms cause tracheitis and pneumonia. Diagnosis is made by finding the characteristic eggs in feces or adult worms in the trachea during necropsy. Treatment involves deworming medications and controlling
- T. saginata and T. solium are tapeworms that infect humans and require two hosts to complete their lifecycles. T. saginata infects cattle and humans while T. solium infects pigs and humans.
- Humans can be infected by ingesting infective cysticerci in undercooked beef or pork, or through contaminated food, water, or vegetables. This can lead to cysticercosis if the parasite establishes in the muscles, eyes, or brain.
- Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis are tapeworms that cause hydatid disease in humans. Infection occurs through ingestion of eggs from contaminated food,
Characteristic features of a vector organismPuja Ray
The document discusses the characteristic features of vector organisms that transmit pathogens. It provides details about ticks and mosquitoes as vectors. Some key features of ticks that make them efficient disease vectors include their adaptability, ability to firmly attach to hosts, high reproductive rates, ability to survive long periods without feeding, and ability to feed on a wide range of hosts. The document also outlines several characteristics of mosquitoes that allow them to effectively transmit malaria, including their abundance, longevity, capacity to carry parasites, and preference for feeding on humans.
Coccidiosis in small_ruminants samuel last (1)samuel engdaw
Coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria. There are many species that are host-specific to sheep and goats. The life cycle involves endogenous development within the intestinal cells followed by excretion of oocysts in feces which sporulate in the environment. Young lambs and kids are most susceptible and clinical signs include diarrhea and dehydration. Diagnosis is based on finding oocysts in feces or lesions in the intestines at necropsy. Treatment involves anti-coccidial drugs but prevention through good hygiene and management is most important to control the disease.
This document provides an overview of viral diseases that affect poultry, including Ranikhet disease, Gumboro disease, and Marek's disease. It describes the causes, symptoms, transmission, diagnostic findings, treatment and control methods for each disease. Ranikhet disease is caused by a paramyxovirus and can cause up to 100% mortality in chicks. Gumboro disease is caused by a birnavirus and results in immunosuppression. Marek's disease is caused by a herpesvirus and causes tumors in nerves, liver, spleen and kidneys. The document contains detailed descriptions and photographs to aid in disease identification and management.
Tick-borne parasitic infections are caused by protozoan parasites transmitted through tick bites. The most common infections are babesiosis caused by Babesia parasites and theileriosis caused by Theileria species. These infections affect both animals and humans, causing symptoms ranging from fever and fatigue to enlarged lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves identifying the parasites in blood smears or tissue samples. Treatment consists of anti-parasitic drugs. Prevention strategies focus on controlling tick populations and avoiding tick bites through environmental and personal protective measures.
LAMENESS SYNDROMES IN CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS AND HORSESABOHEMEED ALY
This document provides information on common causes of lameness in cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. For cattle, the main causes discussed are foot rot (20% of cases), footwarts, sole ulcers, toe abscesses, broken bones, muscle injuries, septic arthritis, and infections caused by Mycoplasma bovis. Effective treatment requires proper diagnosis by examining the feet. Foot rot responds well to medication if caught early, while swollen joints or broken bones often require salvage of the animal. Lameness in other livestock such as foot rot in sheep, lameness in horses from conditions like founder, and lameness in pigs from toe abscesses are also briefly covered.
Sand fly, Md. Abdul Alim, Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences Universit...Abdul Alim
This document provides information on sand flies:
- Sand flies are small flies that belong to the family Psychodidae and have medical and veterinary importance as vectors of diseases. Over 700 species have been described worldwide.
- They transmit diseases like leishmaniasis, bartonellosis, vesicular stomatitis virus, and sand fly fever virus. The main disease-transmitting genera include Lutzomyia, Phlebotomus, and Sergentomyia.
- Sand flies have characteristic morphological features including long antennae, hairy bodies, and wing venation patterns. Females of many species feed on blood and can transmit pathogens through their bites.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: CoccidiosisElisaMendelsohn
This document discusses the parasite coccidia that causes coccidiosis in poultry. It can cause severe damage to the gut and losses for producers. While small backyard flocks can often manage it without drugs, larger flocks find it more difficult to control and may require vaccines as an alternative to drugs for organic production. The parasite has a complex life cycle within the bird and is transmitted through droppings. Young birds are most susceptible but immunity develops with exposure. Proper management, especially of brooding birds, and pasture rotation can control it on small scales but larger operations may need preventative treatments.
This document provides information on chicken production and management. It discusses local chicken breeds found in Somalia, including the Red Junglefowl. It also describes specialized chicken breeds for meat or egg production. The document outlines factors that influence chicken health, including biosecurity, vaccines, and disease prevention. It discusses chick management practices like brooding and explains housing systems for adult chickens. Finally, it provides information on feeding chickens, including types of feeds and mixing methods.
The document summarizes key information about anthrax including its history, use as a biological weapon, routes of infection, pathogenesis, and recent advances in vaccine development. It describes how anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria and can infect humans through the skin, lungs, or gastrointestinal tract. Recent research developed a nasal vaccine using recombinant protective antigen and oil-water nanoemulsions that effectively protected animals against anthrax infection and could provide a safer alternative to existing vaccines.
A good poultry health management is an important component of poultry production. Infectious disease causing agents will spread through a flock very quickly because of the high stocking densities of commercially housed poultry.
For poultry health management to be effective a primary aim must be to prevent the onset of disease or parasites, to recognize at an early stage the presence of disease or parasites, and to treat all flocks that are diseased or infested with parasites as soon as possible and before they develop into a serious condition or spread to other flocks. To be able to do this it is necessary to know how to recognize that the birds are diseased, the action required for preventing or minimising disease and how to monitor for signs that the prevention program is working.
The document summarizes key information about anthrax including its history, use as a biological weapon, routes of infection, pathogenesis, and recent developments in vaccines. It describes how anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria and can infect humans through the skin, lungs, or gastrointestinal tract. Recent research developed a nasal vaccine using recombinant protective antigen and oil-water nanoemulsions that was shown to effectively induce antibodies and protect against anthrax in animal studies, representing a potential improvement over existing vaccines.
There are four main types of disease affecting poultry: metabolic and nutritional diseases; infectious diseases; parasitic diseases; and behavioural diseases.
Metabolic and nutritional diseases
These are conditions caused by a disturbance of normal metabolic functions either through a genetic defect, inadequate or inappropriate nutrition or impaired nutrient utilisation. These include Fatty Liver Syndrome, Perosis (or slipped tendon), Rickets and Cage Layer Fatigue.
Infectious diseases
An infectious disease is any disease caused by invasion of a host by a pathogen which subsequently grows and multiplies in the body. Infectious diseases are often contagious, which means they can be spread directly or indirectly from one living thing to another. These include Avian Encephalomyelitis, Avian Influenza, Avian Tuberculosis, Chicken Anaemia Virus Infection (or CAV), Chlamydiosis, Egg Drop Syndrome (or EDS), Fowl Cholera (or Pasteurellosis), Fowl Pox, Infectious Bronchitis, Infectious Bursal Disease (or Gumboro), Infectious Coryza, Infectious Laryngotracheitis, Lymphoid Leukosis, Marek’s Disease, Mycoplasmosis, Necrotic Enteritis, Newcastle Disease and Salmonellosis.
Parasitic diseases
Parasitic diseases are infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure. A parasite is an organism that lives in or on, and takes its nourishment from, another organism. A parasite cannot live independently. These include Coccidiosis, Cryptosporidiosis, Histomoniasis, Lice and Mites, Parasitic Worms (or Helminths), Toxoplasmosis and Trichomoniasis.
Behavioural diseases
Abnormal behavioural patterns can lead to injury or ill health of the abnormally behaving bird and/or its companions. These include Cannibalism (or aggressive pecking).
This document discusses coccidiostates, which are used to prevent coccidiosis in poultry. Coccidiosis is a protozoal disease caused by Eimeria species that primarily affects young birds. Coccidiostates work by suppressing the lifecycle of coccidia and allowing immunity to develop without interfering with production performance. There are several categories of coccidiostates including synthetic, ionophores, and mixed combinations. The document provides details on specific coccidiostates such as amprolium, monensin, and nicarbazine, and how they function through different modes of action like interfering with co-factor synthesis, mitochondrial functions, or cell membrane functions. Recomm
Necrotic enteritis is an acute bacterial infection of chickens and turkeys caused by Clostridium perfringens types A and C. It is characterized by sudden death and severe necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, resulting in distended intestines filled with foul-smelling fluid. Clinical signs include depressed and ruffled birds that rapidly progress to death, with mortality rates between 5-50%. Lesions are typically found in the mid-small intestines and include a friable and diphtheritic membrane covering the mucosa.
Ticks are arachnids that can transmit pathogens and act as vectors for diseases. They have a leathery integument and their body is divided into two regions. Hard ticks have a dorsal shield covering their body while soft ticks do not. Ticks undergo morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations to survive as parasites. They can transmit diseases like Lyme disease, babesiosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Prevention methods include personal protection measures, habitat modification, pesticide use, and integrated vector management.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in TurkeysGardening
This document summarizes information about Blackhead disease, also called Histomoniasis, in turkeys. It discusses the history and life cycle of the disease, caused by the protozoan Histomonas meleagridis. Blackhead infects turkeys through ingestion of contaminated soil or earthworms, or through direct contact via "cloacal drinking". Symptoms in turkeys include yellow diarrhea and lesions in the liver. Prevention focuses on sanitation and separating turkeys from other poultry species that can carry the pathogen like chickens. Recent research has found turkeys can spread Blackhead directly to each other through cloacal drinking.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: CoccidiosisGardening
This document provides information on managing coccidiosis, a parasitic disease, in natural and organic poultry production. It discusses the life cycle and types of coccidia parasites, how they are transmitted through the environment, symptoms and diagnosis of coccidiosis, and management strategies for control. These include promoting natural immunity through low-density housing and pasture rotation, as well as discussing natural treatments, drugs, and vaccines that can be used for treatment and prevention. The document aims to help both small-scale and large-scale poultry producers sustainably manage this disease without relying on drugs.
This document provides information on managing coccidiosis, a parasitic disease, in natural and organic poultry production. It discusses the life cycle and types of coccidia parasites, how they are transmitted through the environment, symptoms and diagnosis of coccidiosis, and management strategies for control. These include using low-density production systems to allow birds to develop natural immunity, careful brooding management like sanitation and space requirements, and alternatives to drugs such as natural treatments and vaccines. The document aims to help both small-scale and larger organic producers sustainably manage this disease without relying on preventative drugs.
The primary causes of internal parasitism in sheep and lambs are overstocking of pastures and insufficient pasture rest periods. The parasite that causes the most problems, especially in warm, moist climates, is the barber pole worm (Haemonchus contortis). It is a blood-sucking parasite that can cause anemia, as seen by pale mucous membranes and bottle jaw. Integrated parasite management requires good management practices like avoiding overstocking pastures and limiting re-grazing, as well as strategic deworming and pasture rotation, as drug resistance has become a major issue.
1. The document discusses various insect and vector-borne diseases, including their signs and symptoms as well as the insects that transmit them. Typhus, plague, malaria, dengue and yellow fever are discussed alongside their vector insects like body lice, fleas, mosquitoes and ticks.
2. Cockroaches are described as carriers of diseases like salmonella and triggers of allergies. Bed bugs cause itchy welts but don't transmit disease.
3. Various mosquito genera like Culex, Aedes and Anopheles transmit diseases. Anopheles culicifacies is an important malaria vector in India.
Syngamus trachea, commonly known as the gapeworm, is a parasitic nematode that infects the upper respiratory tract of birds. It has a complex life cycle involving an intermediate host such as an earthworm or snail where it encysts. Adult male and female worms are permanently joined in a Y-shape in the trachea of birds. They lay eggs that pass in the feces and hatch inside or outside the host. Clinical signs in infected birds include weakness, emaciation, and breathing difficulties as the worms cause tracheitis and pneumonia. Diagnosis is made by finding the characteristic eggs in feces or adult worms in the trachea during necropsy. Treatment involves deworming medications and controlling
- T. saginata and T. solium are tapeworms that infect humans and require two hosts to complete their lifecycles. T. saginata infects cattle and humans while T. solium infects pigs and humans.
- Humans can be infected by ingesting infective cysticerci in undercooked beef or pork, or through contaminated food, water, or vegetables. This can lead to cysticercosis if the parasite establishes in the muscles, eyes, or brain.
- Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis are tapeworms that cause hydatid disease in humans. Infection occurs through ingestion of eggs from contaminated food,
This document provides an overview of anthrax, including its history, epidemiology, causative organism, transmission, clinical manifestations, management, prevention and control. It notes that anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis spores and primarily affects herbivores. The most common form is cutaneous anthrax, which presents as a characteristic skin lesion. Treatment involves antibiotics like penicillin. Prevention strategies include vaccinating animals and properly disposing of infected carcasses.
Bovine babesiosis, also known as tick fever, is a disease of cattle caused by protozoa transmitted by ticks that infect and destroy red blood cells. The disease leads to anemia, jaundice, red or brown urine, neurological issues, and death in over 50% of exposed cattle. It was once widespread in the US but was eradicated through regulatory programs in 1943. However, the ticks and pathogens remain in Mexico and occasional incursions into the US continue to threaten the American cattle industry.
Bovine babesiosis, also known as tick fever, is a disease of cattle caused by protozoa transmitted by ticks that infect and destroy red blood cells. The disease leads to anemia, jaundice, red or brown urine, neurological symptoms, and death in over 50% of exposed cattle. It was a major problem in the US until an eradication program eliminated the ticks carrying the pathogens by 1943. However, the disease remains a threat if the ticks are reintroduced from Mexico or exotic ungulates carrying infected ticks spread them to cattle herds.
This document summarizes several arthropod vectors of human and animal pathogens. It discusses the pubic louse, bed bug, kissing bugs, fleas, mosquitoes, black flies, deer flies and horse flies. Key vectors mentioned include the oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) for plague, Culex mosquitoes for filariasis, Aedes aegypti for yellow fever and dengue, and Anopheles mosquitoes for malaria. Control of vectors focuses on sanitation, removal of breeding sites, and use of insecticides.
This document discusses soil-transmitted helminths (intestinal worms) that infect over 1 billion people worldwide. It describes the life cycles of key soil-transmitted helminths like Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm), Trichuris trichiura (whipworm), and hookworms. The worms are transmitted through eggs passed in feces that contaminate soil in areas with poor sanitation. The eggs hatch into larvae that can penetrate the skin (hookworms) or be ingested (roundworm and whipworm), developing into adult worms in the intestines. Prevention focuses on improved sanitation and deworming treatments.
Bacillus is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that can form dormant endospores. The document focuses on Bacillus anthracis, which causes anthrax. It describes the morphology, cultural characteristics, virulence factors, and methods of diagnosis and prevention of B. anthracis. Key points include that B. anthracis forms encapsulated, non-motile rods and terminal spores. The anthrax toxins are composed of lethal factor, edema factor, and protective antigen, which combine to cause disease. Diagnosis involves microscopy, culture, and serology. Prevention for humans involves vaccination with anthrax toxoid and occupational hygiene, while animals are vaccinated with attenuated spore
- Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax, a disease primarily affecting cattle and sheep. It forms spores that allow it to survive in soil for decades.
- The anthrax bacillus is large, Gram-positive, and forms spores. It produces an anti-phagocytic capsule and lethal toxin. Anthrax can manifest as cutaneous, pulmonary, or intestinal disease in humans.
- Laboratory diagnosis involves microscopy, culture, and identification of B. anthracis by morphology, staining, and molecular methods. Prevention for humans involves vaccination and safe handling of infected animal products, while animals are vaccinated with attenuated spore vaccines. Antibiotics can treat human cases
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This document discusses the parasite coccidia that causes coccidiosis in poultry. It spreads through the droppings of infected chickens and can cause significant losses. Small, pastured flocks can often manage it through careful brooding practices and pasture rotation. However, for larger flocks, vaccines are becoming increasingly important for sustainable control as an alternative to drugs which coccidia are developing resistance against. The document provides information on coccidia's lifecycle, transmission, symptoms, and various management strategies including natural treatments, drugs and vaccines.
Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: CoccidiosisElisaMendelsohn
This document discusses the parasite coccidia that causes coccidiosis in poultry. It spreads through the droppings of infected chickens and can cause significant losses. Small, pastured flocks can often manage it through careful brooding practices and pasture rotation. However, for larger flocks, vaccines are becoming increasingly important for sustainable control as an alternative to drugs which coccidia are developing resistance against. The document provides information on coccidia's lifecycle, transmission, symptoms, and various management strategies including natural treatments, drugs and vaccines.
- Bacillus is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that forms endospores. It includes both pathogenic and non-pathogenic species.
- Bacillus anthracis is the bacterium that causes anthrax. It forms spores that allow it to survive in the environment for long periods. When spores are inhaled or come into contact with skin, anthrax infection can occur.
- B. anthracis produces two virulence factors - a polysaccharide capsule and anthrax toxin. The capsule inhibits phagocytosis while the toxin is responsible for edema and shock. Together these allow B. anthracis to cause disease.
Infections spread from animals to human are called zoonotic infections.
The term zoonos is’ Derived from the Greek
ZOON (animals) and NOSES (diseases)
Pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals cause more than 60% of infectious diseases in man.
Anthrax is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that primarily affects herbivores worldwide. Humans can contract anthrax through contact with infected animal products like hides, hair or wool. The bacteria forms spores that can survive in soil for decades and become airborne, posing an inhalation risk for workers processing infected materials. Most human cases are the cutaneous form, appearing as a small skin lesion that progresses to a black eschar surrounded by edema. While rare, person-to-person transmission is possible through contact with contaminated articles or soil.
This document discusses three types of parasitic zoonoses: Taeniasis, Hydatid disease, and Leishmaniasis.
Taeniasis is caused by the tapeworms Taenia saginata and Taenia solium found in beef and pork respectively. Humans can be infected by eating undercooked meat containing the larvae. Hydatid disease is caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus found in dogs. The larvae form cysts in humans that can cause serious health issues. Leishmaniasis is transmitted by sandfly bites and affects the skin or internal organs. It is caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania and is endemic in many tropical and subt
Similar to Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in Turkeys - IP372 (20)
This document provides a sustainability checklist for beef cattle farms. It includes questions about farm resources, management priorities, herd health, reproductive management, forage programs, grazing management, soil and water quality, energy and economic efficiency, quality of life considerations, and goals for improvement. The checklist is intended to help farmers critically evaluate the sustainability of their operations and identify areas for potential enhancement.
Garden Therapy: Links to Articles, Books, Profession Groups, DVDElisaMendelsohn
GARDENING THERAPY Resource List of Articles, Books, Manuals, DVD's, Training Programs and Professional Associations
TOPICS COVERED:
Horticulture Therapy
Healing Gardens
Sensory Gardens
Garden Therapy
Garden Therapy for the Disabled
Garden Therapy for the Mentally Challenged
Garden Therapy for Alzheimer’s Disease
Garden Therapy for Depression
Garden Therapy for Autistic Children
Garden Therapy for the Blind and the Visually Impaired
Garden Therapy for Hospitals
Garden Therapy for Nursing Homes
Garden Therapy for Seniors
Garden Therapy for the Handicapped
Garden Therapy for Prisons, Jails and Correction Facilities
Garden Therapy for Botanical Garden
Garden Therapy and Community Gardens
Garden Therapy for Single Mothers
Garden Therapy for Stress
Garden Therapy for Veterans
Garden Therapy at Veterans Facilities
Garden Therapy for Soldiers
Garden Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorders
People Plant Connections
Gardening and Physical Fitness
Greenhouse and Garden Therapy for Disabled People
Accessible Gardening
Wheelchair Gardening
Vertical Gardening and Garden Therapy
Container Gardening and Garden Therapy
Adaptive Garden Equipment for Garden Therapy
Tools for Garden Therapy
Urban Trees and Mental Health
Parks and Garden Therapy
Nature and Learning
Greening School Grounds by Design
Garden Therapy for Schools
Plants in the Classroom for Enhanced Learning
Garden Therapy for Pre Schools
Garden Therapy for Daycare
Garden Therapy for Elementary School Bullies
Garden Therapy and Community Development
Garden Therapy and Food Security
Garden Therapy for Low Income People
Garden Therapy for Homeless People
Garden Therapy and Crime Reduction
Garden Therapy and Neighborhood Security
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Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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2. The Life Cycle and Infectious Blackhead does not kill the infected bird, and the
disease requires a secondary bacterial infection to
Pathway of Blackhead be virulent and eventually fatal. Escherichia coli,
Blackhead occurs when the causal agent, the Bacillus subtilis, and Clostridium sp. are some of
protozoan Histomonas meleagridis, gains access the bacteria noted in the secondary infections
to the ceca, or blind pouches of the intestines. that caused death (McDougald, 2005).
Blackhead infects poultry using three separate
pathways that will be examined in detail in
this publication:
Poultry Species as
• Ingestion of soil or earthworms
Blackhead Reservoirs
containing eggs of the cecal worm Among poultry species, there are varying
Heterakis gallinarum, infected with degrees of susceptibility to Blackhead. Some
Related ATTRA birds, such as pheasants, ducks, and geese, are
publications H. meleagridis
nearly immune to the effects of Blackhead.
Parasite Management • Uptake of H. meleagridis directly into Chickens are somewhat resistant to the disease,
for Natural and Organic the lower digestive tract through the while turkeys and peafowl are extremely vulner-
Poultry: Coccidiosis process of “cloacal drinking” able and have high mortality rates when infected
• Oral ingestion of live H. meleagridis with H. meleagridis. Experiments have shown
protozoa when stomach is not acidic that infected pheasants and chickens are capable
enough to kill the pathogen of transmitting Blackhead to young turkeys
(Lund and Chute, 1972).
Once access into the digestive tract has been
achieved, H. meleagridis multiplies in the ceca Traditional wisdom dictating that chickens and
and attacks the tissues of the cecal walls. As the turkeys not be raised together is most likely
disease progresses, a cheese-like, foul-smelling, based on experience with Histomoniasis. Chick-
yellow substance fi lls the ceca. Th is substance ens are excellent hosts for the cecal worm that
can vary in form from a hardened plug to more H. meleagridis uses as a vector. It is not unrea-
liquid in nature, and is composed of dead cecal sonable to assume that the majority of Black-
cells and blood. In highly susceptible birds such head outbreaks, especially among small, diver-
as turkeys, the Blackhead protozoa then enter sified farmers, can be traced back to chickens.
the bloodstream through the damaged ceca and
are deposited into the liver, where they do even Among chickens, laying hens and breeding
more damage, creating signature “bulls-eye” roosters have the potential to shed many more
zones of necrosis (dead tissue). Occasionally, cecal worm eggs than broilers due to age dif-
H. meleagridis also enters into other organs ferences in production—a broiler is usually
such as the kidneys, lungs, heart, and brain. slaughtered at six to 12 weeks (six to eight weeks
for Cornish cross; 12+ weeks for slower-grow-
ing breeds), while a hen may be kept for two or
Figure 1. Turkey Digestive Tract. By Terrell Spencer, NCAT.
more years. The cecal worm in question, H. gal-
linarum, takes approximately a month to mature
and begin shedding eggs. This time frame, cou-
pled with the two to four weeks chicks spend in
the brooder, allows little to no time for a broiler
to contaminate the soil with cecal worm eggs.
On the other hand, a hen in production for sev-
eral years can seed tremendous amounts of cecal
worm eggs into the soil during her lifetime.
Blackhead Transmission
through Cecal Worm Eggs
and Soil
The indirect ingestion of Blackhead protozoa
through consumption of earthworms and cecal
worm eggs is the most commonly known means
Page 2 ATTRA Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in Turkeys
3. Figure 2. Blackhead life cycle by By Terrell Spencer, NCAT.
of contracting Histomoniasis. When exposed Horizontal Spreading
to the elements, the Blackhead pathogen is
short-lived, being highly susceptible to envi- of Blackhead through
ronmental stresses—sunlight, wind, and tem- Turkey Flocks
perature extremes. H. meleagridis has over- The contraction of Blackhead disease by
come this limitation through infecting cecal turkeys has traditionally been attributed solely
worm eggs, as these eggs are extremely hardy. to the vectoring of the disease through cecal
The eggs can remain viable up to three years worm eggs and earthworms. However, recent
in the soil; in addition, cecal worms are very research has shown that turkeys can infect other
common in many poultry species, especially members of the flock directly through a process
chickens. Contaminated cecal worm eggs are known as cloacal drinking (Hu et al., 2004,
consumed when birds ingest soil either inten- McDougald and Fuller, 2005).
tionally or during foraging. Earthworms also
act as an intermediate vehicle for spreading
Cloacal drinking is the reflexive intake of fluids
the disease, as the earthworms consume soil through the cloaca in order to inoculate the
containing the infected cecal worm eggs. The young bird’s immune system with the micro-
earthworms, in turn, are readily consumed by bial flora of the surrounding environment.
all types of poultry.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3
4. Unfortunately for both the turkey and the ically, the proventriculus—due to the stomach
farmer, the turkey immune system has little to acids produced. Therefore, Blackhead is typi-
no defense against Blackhead, and the Black- cally not transmitted orally (Hu et al., 2004).
head protozoans that enter through the cloaca When a turkey feeds, acid is produced to aid
multiply unrestricted. Uptake of H. meleagridis in digestion, and this acidification destroys
through the cloaca occurs when a turkey’s clo- H. meleagridis. After six hours of not feeding,
aca comes into contact with contaminated fecal however, the lack of stomach acid allows the
matter, most likely while resting. The patho-
turkey’s gastrointestinal tract to go from being
genic protozoa are then drawn into the digestive
acidic to neutral in pH, and this change can
tract through the cloacal drinking process and
migrate to the ceca, where infection occurs. allow H. meleagridis to survive oral ingestion
(McDougald, 2010).
Historically, contraction of Blackhead through
cecal worm eggs has explained the begin-
ning of outbreaks in poultry f locks, but Diagnosis and Symptoms
failed to account for the rapidity with which of Infected Turkeys
Blackhead spreads throughout the flock. The
lack of an explanation for the continued trans- Physical Symptoms of Blackhead
mission of Histomoniasis through a f lock, • Mustardy, yellowish colored stool—
despite the exclusion of earthworms and soil varies from a watery, foamy diarrhea
containing cecal worm eggs, has been a source to a dry, solid black stool with waxy
of frustration and setback for farmers. Now, yellowish streaks
thanks to recent research findings, this gap in • Bulls-eye-shaped necrotic pitting
the basic understanding of the Blackhead life-
on liver
cycle has been closed.
• Ceca filled with yellow, cheesy substance
Oral Ingestion and Behavioral Signs of Blackhead
Contraction of Blackhead • Lethargy
When the turkey is given a constant supply of • Drooping wings
food, experiments have suggested that H. melea-
gridis ingested orally is not capable of surviving • Dry, ruffled feathers
the passage through the stomach—more specif- • Suppressed appetite, increased thirst
Regular (on left) and Blackhead-infected (right)
An ill turkey showing classic signs of sickness: lethargy (as seen by the closed eyes), turkey droppings. The tell-tale sulfur colored droppings
lack of inquisitiveness, retracted neck, and drooping wings. Photo by indicative of a Blackhead infection are clear.
Terrell Spencer, NCAT. Photo by Terrell Spencer, NCAT.
Page 4 ATTRA Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in Turkeys
5. On farm dissection showing characteristic liver necrosis due to Enlarged cecum filled with yellowish necrotic tissue in a Blackhead
Blackhead. Photo by Terrell Spencer, NCAT. infected turkey. Photo by Terrell Spencer, NCAT.
• Decreased/lack of f light distance in chickens often are undiagnosed, though
(distance the turkey keeps between in chickens the impact of Blackhead has
itself and humans) been described as being at least as severe as
• Decreased/lack of inquisitiveness coccidiosis, and in some broiler breeder flocks,
mortality may reach as high as 10% (McDou-
Blackhead infections vary in the time required
gald, 2005). Bobwhite quail farmers have also
to manifest signs, depending on the path-
occasionally experienced outbreaks of Black-
way and initial amount of infection. Signs
head disease, especially when these growers
of infection begin to appear seven to 14 days
utilize old chicken houses.
after exposure. In turkeys, the yellow-col-
ored fecal matter is the definitive symptom of
Blackhead disease. From personal experience, Prevention and Management
when behavioral symptoms become apparent, of Blackhead Disease
mortality usually occurs in one to three days.
Prevention is the key to successful Blackhead
Positive diagnosis of dead birds can be easily management. Due to the previously mentioned
obtained through a post-mortem dissection banning of the antihistomonal medicines used
(necropsy) by the farmer. The abdominal cavity to treat outbreaks, there are no established treat-
can be opened and the cecum examined. The ments for turkeys once they are infected and
chest/breast can then be split down the middle symptomatic. It is imperative that any truly
using heavy duty shears or tin snips to reveal sustainable turkey operation have a Blackhead
the liver. Once the ceca and liver are exposed, prevention plan.
the organs can be inspected for necrosis as
described above.
Preventative and
Despite the descriptive name of the disease,
Blackhead rarely, if ever, causes the head of
Post-Infection Measures
the infected bird to darken or turn black, so The most economical and sustainable method of
the common name is somewhat of a misnomer Blackhead management is complete avoidance
(Davidson and Doster, 2010). of the disease through preventive treatments.
Turkeys demonstrate the most severe symp- • Separation of poultry flocks by species
toms of any poultry from H. meleagridis infec- and age – separation of susceptible
tion and, consequently, the highest mortal- (turkeys and peafowl) and resistant
ity rates. Indeed, expectations of 80-100% (chickens, pheasants, quail, etc.) poultry
mortality are plausible in turkey Blackhead species has been the principal means of
outbreaks. Chickens are usually able to stop Histomoniasis prevention since the
the disease before destruction of the ceca and cecal worm role in disease transmission
degradation of the liver take place. Infections was identified in the 1930s. Separation
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5
6. should also include ground that has been Whites, heritage turkeys can be selected
used for different poultry species. Land for resistance to Blackhead. If a Black-
that has been used to house/pasture head outbreak occurs in a heritage
chickens or gamebirds should not be flock, the surviving individuals may
used for turkeys or peafowl production. have some trait, either genetic or behav-
• Fallowing of contaminated ground or ioral, that increases their chance of sur-
houses – Cecal worm eggs are viable up viving or avoiding a Blackhead infec-
to three years in the soil and litter, and tion. These birds could be saved and
research has shown that H. meleagridis bred to obtain next season’s poults, and
harbored inside of the eggs remains at least some resistance to Blackhead
infectious even after 150 weeks. There- could be bred into a producer’s flock.
fore, three years should be the mini- • Preventative feed additives:
mum time considered for fallowing. – Histostat™ (active ingredient is Nitar-
• Selecting for resistance – while this strategy sone) is an effective preventative feed
is not plausible for Broadbreasted additive and can be premixed into
feed. It is a non-organic additive that
contains arsenic and is the only drug
Breeding Resistance approved for the prevention of Black-
into the Flock head. At the time of this writing, Blue
Nature’s Harmony Farm Seal Feeds™, located in the Northeastern
Located in Elberton, Georgia, and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United
Nature’s Harmony Farm is a 126- States, sells a pre-mixed medicated
acre diversified meat and dairy turkey feed containing Histostat.
farm built by Tim and Liz Young.
Raising pasture-based pork, poul-
Other than within the Blue Seal prod-
try, cattle, sheep, and rabbit, as uct, the use of Histostat is difficult at
well as running a grass-fed dairy, best for a small producer. The drug is
the Youngs have taken a holistic only sold in 55-pound bags – enough
approach towards the manage- Histostat to mix more than 65 tons of
ment of their farm. Tim and Liz again.’ We said no, we’re going to feed. Additionally, the drug can only
examine all of their endeavors build resistance to Blackhead, and be purchased by registered feed mills,
with an eye towards long-term all the other diseases. We raise tur- and Histostat must be mixed into the
biological sustainability. One criti- keys with our chickens, we don’t ration as the feed is milled. Finally, at
cal objective of Nature’s Harmony worry about any of these things, approximately $15/pound, Histostat
Farm’s holistic planning is breeding and we just let nature sort it out.”
is a costly drug to buy in bulk. Histo-
disease resistance into their live-
stock, including Blackhead resis- Liz adds, “We find the strongest stat cannot be fed to actively produc-
tance in turkeys. birds, those are the ones we breed ing layers and has a short withdrawal
and their offspring have proven to period (5 days) to allow the arsenic
“Now that we’re breeding our own be so much hardier than all the ingested by the bird to be flushed
animals on the farm”, says Tim, other animals on the farm. It will from the system. In addition, Histostat
“we worry a lot less about disease take a number of years to get where is toxic to dogs, ruminants, and water-
mortality problems. We had such we want to be, but the results so far
huge issues with pastured poul- fowl. The toxicity to other species is an
give us a lot of hope.”
try two years ago with Blackhead, additional burden to mills that must
sinusitis, mycoplasm, etc., which “This was a huge, calculated risk thoroughly clean their feed machinery
we either don’t see any more or we took as new farmers a couple of before mixing non-poultry feeds.
see drastically less of. Our birds years ago,” Tim acknowledges, “but
look so healthy now, but just a we were so convicted in our values – Natustat™ is a plant-based additive
few years ago, we had depressing that we felt it was the right thing to manufactured by Alltech, Inc. that,
mortality rates among birds that do, even though it was counter to just like Histostat, is mixed into the
were shipped in from commer- all the advice. We’re really happy ration when the feed is milled. Natu-
cial hatcheries. We’d have experts with the decisions we made back stat promotes poultry well-being
come out, and they’d say ‘Just burn then, and with the health of the and discourages Blackhead by act-
your entire flock and start all over birds we have today.” ing as an immune system booster
that stimulates good health. The
Page 6 ATTRA Parasite Management for Natural and Organic Poultry: Blackhead in Turkeys
7. company’s research trials have shown • Good biosecurity techniques – infected
that it is comparable to Histostat in cecal worm eggs can be transported
the prevention of Blackhead when on the bottom of boots/equipment
birds are exposed to infected litter, into brooders, clean pastures, land,
but it is not effective in preventing and poultry houses. On small farms,
Blackhead when poultry are exposed where multiple poultry species are often
to the parasite directly (as through kept, pay particular care when incor-
cloacal drinking). porating new stock from off the farm
into the existing operation. When pos-
Natustat is available to small growers
sible, chores and farm activity should
directly in 55-pound bags. During the
be planned around dealing with sus-
summer of 2010, the price per bag was
$175, enough to treat 25 tons of feed. ceptible poultry first and dealing with
Natustat doesn’t have the legal purchas- resistant species later when Blackhead is
ing restrictions that make Histostat so suspected or a concern. The American
difficult for small producers to access. Livestock Breed Conservancy (ALBC)
There is no withdrawal time, and there has excellent resources for addressing a
is no secondary toxicity threat to other farm’s biosecurity needs. The resources
animal species. can be viewed on their website at
www.albc-usa.org/EducationalResources/
Feed additives are effective only if biosecurity.html.
administered before a Blackhead infec-
• Encouragement of roosting behavior –
tion occurs. Once signs of infection are
getting poultry off of the ground and
present (yellow fecal matter, behavioral
onto roosts reduces the chance of cloa-
signs), preventative drugs are no longer
cal contact with infected fecal matter.
effective. There are no legal drugs or
Turkeys and other poultry will huddle
substances to treat Histomoniasis once
together and sleep on the ground in
the infection has occurred.
absence of a suitable roost. The direct
– Dimetridazole was a low-cost, highly contact from huddling greatly increases
effective drug that was once used to the chance of Blackhead transmission
cure infected turkey flocks and regen- as the birds defecate through the night.
erate liver damage. The drug was Heritage breeds of turkeys will roost
banned in 1988 in the US and the instinctively. Broadbreasted Whites
late 1990s in Europe and Bronzes have difficulty flying onto
– Capsicum from hot peppers (i.e., Cay- roosts due to their size, but can be
enne) has anecdotal success as a natural coaxed into roosting by providing a lad-
treatment for Blackhead disease. How- der or some type of plane.
ever, the effectiveness of treating Black-
head with Capsicum has not been veri- Management During Infections
fied through documented research. • Frequent movement to fresh ground –
once a flock has been infected with
• Promotion of good health and robust
Blackhead, frequently moving the flock
immune systems – generally, a stressed
to fresh pasture minimizes the amount
animal is more susceptible to any dis-
of manure and exposure time that the
ease, so reducing the stresses (by pro-
birds are subject to the pathogens shed
viding adequate shelter, balanced feed,
proper stocking densities, clean water in the infective manure.
access) in turkeys and other poultry can • Isolation of sick birds – isolation of
help develop robust immune systems less sick birds removes the source of direct
susceptible to Blackhead. As mentioned transmission from the flock. Identifica-
before, running out of feed can allow tion of sick birds before behavioral signs
establishment of H. meleagridis through develop can occur by spotting the birds
oral ingestion, so care must be taken to that expel the yellow manure characteristic
assure that feeders are never empty. to the disease.
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