Pages 18 -19
1.4 Earth as a System
The Earth System The Earth system has a nearly endless array of subsystems in which matter is recycled over and over. One familiar loop or subsystem is the hydrologic cycle. It represents the unending circulation of Earth’s water among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Water enters the atmosphere through evaporation from Earth’s surface and transpiration from plants. Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere to form clouds, which in turn produce precipitation that falls back to Earth’s surface. Some of the rain that falls onto the land infiltrates (soaks in) to be taken up by plants or become groundwater, and some flows across the surface toward the ocean. Viewed over long time spans, the rocks of the geosphere are constantly forming, changing, and re-forming. The loop that involves the processes by which one rock changes to another is called the rock cycle and will be discussed at some length later in the chapter. The cycles of the Earth system are not independent of one another; to the contrary, these cycles come in contact and interact in many places. The parts of the Earth system are linked so that a change in one part can produce changes in any or all of the other parts. For example, when a volcano erupts, lava from Earth’s interior may flow out at the surface and block a nearby valley. This new obstruction influences the region’s drainage system by creating a lake or causing streams to change course. The large quantities of volcanic ash and gases that can be emitted during an eruption might be blown high into the atmosphere and influence the amount of solar energy that can reach Earth’s surface. The result could be a drop in air temperatures over the entire hemisphere. Where the surface is covered by lava flows or a thick layer of volcanic ash, existing soils are buried. This causes soil-forming processes to begin anew to transform the new surface material into soil (Figure 1.16). The soil that eventually forms will reflect the interactions among many parts of the Earth system—the volcanic parent material, the climate, and the impact of biological activity. Of course, there would also be significant changes in the biosphere. Some organisms and their habitats would be eliminated by the lava and ash, whereas new settings for life, such as a lake formed by a lava dam, would be created. The potential climate change could also impact sensitive life-forms. The Earth system is characterized by processes that vary on spatial scales from fractions of millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Time scales for Earth’s processes range from seconds to billions of years. As we learn about Earth, it becomes increasingly clear that despite significant separations in distance or time, many processes are connected, and a change in one component can influence the entire system. The Earth system is powered by energy from two sources. The Sun drives external processes that occur in the atmosphere, in the hy.
This article presents how planet Earth was born, how it operates and how it is protected from threats coming from outer space. In addition to showing how the Earth operates as a dynamic system, it shows how our planet will disappear completely when the Sun migrates out of Earth's orbit in about 1 billion years.
(figure 15.18 The planets drawn to scale.)diameter of Neptu.docxjoyjonna282
(
figure 15.18
The planets drawn to scale.
)diameter of Neptune (the smallest Jovian planet) is three times larger than the diameter of Earth or Venus. Further, Neptune's mass is 17 times greater than that of Earth or Venus (figure 15.18).
Other properties that differ include densities, chemical compositions, orbital periods, and numbers of satellites. Variations in the chemical composition of planets are largely responsible for their density differences. Specifically, the average density of the terrestrial planets is about five times the density of water, whereas the average density of the Jovian planets is only 1.5 times that of water. Saturn has a density only 0.7 times that of water, which means that it would float if placed in a large enough tank of water. The outer planets are also characterized by long orbital periods and numerous satellites.
Internal Structures
Shortly after Earth formed, the segregation of material resulted in the formation of three major layers defined by their chemical composition—the crust, mantle, and core. This type of chemical separation occurred in the other planets as well. However, because the terrestrial planets are compositionally different than the Jovian planets, the nature of these layers differs between these two groups (figure is. i 9).
The terrestrial planets are dense, having relatively large cores of iron and iron compounds. From their centers outward, the amount of metallic iron decreases while the amount of rocky silicate minerals increase. The outer cores of Earth and Mercury are liquid, whereas the cores of Venus and Mars are thought to be partially molten. This difference is attributable to Venus and Mars having lower internal temperatures than those of Earth and Mercury. Silicate minerals and other lighter compounds make up the mantles of the terrestrial planets. Finally, the silicate crusts of terrestrial planets are relatively thin compared to their mantles.
The two largest Jovian planets, Jupiter and Saturn, have small metallic inner cores consisting of iron compounds at extremely high temperatures and pressures. The outer cores of these two giants are thought to be liquid metallic hydrogen, whereas the mantles are comprised of liquid hydrogen and helium. The outermost layers are gases and ices of hydrogen, helium, water, ammonia, and methane—which account for the low densities of these planets. Uranus and Neptune also have small metallic cores but their mantles are likely hot dense water and ammonia. Above their mantles, the amount of hydrogen and helium increases, but exists in much lower concentrations than those of Jupiter and Saturn.
The Atmospheres of the Planets
The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, with lesser amounts of water, methane, ammonia, and other hydrocarbons. The Jovian atmospheres are so thick that they do not show a clear boundary between "atmosphere" and "planet." By contrast, the terrestrial planets, including Earth, h ...
PLANET EARTH AS A SYSTEM THAT OPERATES LIKE A LIVING ORGANISM.pdfFaga1939
This article aims to demonstrate the functioning of Planet Earth as a system and to present how Planet Earth behaves according to the Gaia Hypothesis formulated by scientist James Lovelock, who describes Earth as a system that operates as a living organism. Like every system, planet Earth has feedback and control mechanisms, which is the set of responses produced by the system in the face of existing imbalances. Thanks to this feedback and control mechanism, it is possible to guarantee the harmony of the subsystems that make up planet Earth and, consequently, the balance of the internal environment of the Earth system. It is through the feedback and control mechanism that occurs, for example, the regulation and control of the temperature of the planet Earth, which is losing its effectiveness due to the increasing emission of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities. The British scientist James Lovelock developed the popular Gaia Hypothesis articulated with the collaboration of Lynn Margulis, to explain the systemic behavior of the planet Earth. The Gaia Hypothesis was heavily criticized at its inception, but over time its most essential elements have been widely accepted by the scientific community. Lovelock claims that a likely tolerable future awaits us, but it is unwise to ignore the possibility of environmental disaster. Something to be done to reduce the effects of the catastrophe, as Lovelock suggests, would be to write a guide to help survivors rebuild civilization without repeating the mistakes of the past. Such material composed of a philosophical and scientific compendium sufficiently complete, clear and respectable, that it could be spread in every home, school, library or place of worship, so that it would be within everyone's reach, whatever happens.
This article presents how planet Earth was born, how it operates and how it is protected from threats coming from outer space. In addition to showing how the Earth operates as a dynamic system, it shows how our planet will disappear completely when the Sun migrates out of Earth's orbit in about 1 billion years.
(figure 15.18 The planets drawn to scale.)diameter of Neptu.docxjoyjonna282
(
figure 15.18
The planets drawn to scale.
)diameter of Neptune (the smallest Jovian planet) is three times larger than the diameter of Earth or Venus. Further, Neptune's mass is 17 times greater than that of Earth or Venus (figure 15.18).
Other properties that differ include densities, chemical compositions, orbital periods, and numbers of satellites. Variations in the chemical composition of planets are largely responsible for their density differences. Specifically, the average density of the terrestrial planets is about five times the density of water, whereas the average density of the Jovian planets is only 1.5 times that of water. Saturn has a density only 0.7 times that of water, which means that it would float if placed in a large enough tank of water. The outer planets are also characterized by long orbital periods and numerous satellites.
Internal Structures
Shortly after Earth formed, the segregation of material resulted in the formation of three major layers defined by their chemical composition—the crust, mantle, and core. This type of chemical separation occurred in the other planets as well. However, because the terrestrial planets are compositionally different than the Jovian planets, the nature of these layers differs between these two groups (figure is. i 9).
The terrestrial planets are dense, having relatively large cores of iron and iron compounds. From their centers outward, the amount of metallic iron decreases while the amount of rocky silicate minerals increase. The outer cores of Earth and Mercury are liquid, whereas the cores of Venus and Mars are thought to be partially molten. This difference is attributable to Venus and Mars having lower internal temperatures than those of Earth and Mercury. Silicate minerals and other lighter compounds make up the mantles of the terrestrial planets. Finally, the silicate crusts of terrestrial planets are relatively thin compared to their mantles.
The two largest Jovian planets, Jupiter and Saturn, have small metallic inner cores consisting of iron compounds at extremely high temperatures and pressures. The outer cores of these two giants are thought to be liquid metallic hydrogen, whereas the mantles are comprised of liquid hydrogen and helium. The outermost layers are gases and ices of hydrogen, helium, water, ammonia, and methane—which account for the low densities of these planets. Uranus and Neptune also have small metallic cores but their mantles are likely hot dense water and ammonia. Above their mantles, the amount of hydrogen and helium increases, but exists in much lower concentrations than those of Jupiter and Saturn.
The Atmospheres of the Planets
The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, with lesser amounts of water, methane, ammonia, and other hydrocarbons. The Jovian atmospheres are so thick that they do not show a clear boundary between "atmosphere" and "planet." By contrast, the terrestrial planets, including Earth, h ...
PLANET EARTH AS A SYSTEM THAT OPERATES LIKE A LIVING ORGANISM.pdfFaga1939
This article aims to demonstrate the functioning of Planet Earth as a system and to present how Planet Earth behaves according to the Gaia Hypothesis formulated by scientist James Lovelock, who describes Earth as a system that operates as a living organism. Like every system, planet Earth has feedback and control mechanisms, which is the set of responses produced by the system in the face of existing imbalances. Thanks to this feedback and control mechanism, it is possible to guarantee the harmony of the subsystems that make up planet Earth and, consequently, the balance of the internal environment of the Earth system. It is through the feedback and control mechanism that occurs, for example, the regulation and control of the temperature of the planet Earth, which is losing its effectiveness due to the increasing emission of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities. The British scientist James Lovelock developed the popular Gaia Hypothesis articulated with the collaboration of Lynn Margulis, to explain the systemic behavior of the planet Earth. The Gaia Hypothesis was heavily criticized at its inception, but over time its most essential elements have been widely accepted by the scientific community. Lovelock claims that a likely tolerable future awaits us, but it is unwise to ignore the possibility of environmental disaster. Something to be done to reduce the effects of the catastrophe, as Lovelock suggests, would be to write a guide to help survivors rebuild civilization without repeating the mistakes of the past. Such material composed of a philosophical and scientific compendium sufficiently complete, clear and respectable, that it could be spread in every home, school, library or place of worship, so that it would be within everyone's reach, whatever happens.
Theory of Planetary System Formation The mass of the presol.pdfadislifestyle
Theory of Planetary System Formation The mass of the pre-solar molecular cloud played the
largest role in terms of how the solar system formed. It might have begun with a 100 solar mass
cloud approximately 1 to 2 light years in diameter. It's possible that mutual gravitational attraction
between cloud particles was too weak to start the process. When gravity is too weak, the only
other force strong enough to bring a significant number of particles together is the electromagnetic
force. Barring that, perhaps a nearby shockwave from a supernova explosion caused the initial
motion of material: but once started, gravity took hold, causing the inevitable collapse. The
process it underwent followed a pattern that scientists believe is mirrored everywhere a star exists.
In this activity, you will put the solar system formation process parts in order from the beginning. 1.
Planetesimals accreted material until they became large enough to form planets. 2. Gravitational
potential energy of the collapsing gas cloud was converted into thermal energy. 3. Collapsing gas
cloud rotated faster as the collapse continued due to conservation of angular momentum. 4.
Planetesimals were massive enough to have a gravitational field sufficient to attract additional
nearby objects. 5. The random motions of material in the collapsing gas cloud were reduced to the
final motion of the material rotating in a disk. 6. The inner parts of the continuing, flattening cloud
free fell into the growing object at the center. 7. Continued motions brushed smaller particle grains
against larger grains. As this electrostatic "sticking" occurred, the particle grains became larger. 8.
Cloud of molecular gas started to collapse due to gravity or other astrophysical process. Use the
number of the process to order them from earliest to latest (left to right).Temperature and
Formation of Our Solar System Temperature was the key factor leading to the state distribution of
various objects made of different elements and compounds. The graph below shows the
temperature (expressed in kelvins) at different distances from the Sun (expressed in AU ) in the
solar system during the time when the planets were formed. To produce a linear plot, in the usual
sense, the vertical axis is inverted so that temperature goes from high to low starting near the Sun.
Use Figure 1 to fill in Table 1 with the formation temperatures for each planet, including the dwarf
planet, Ceres.Aktranomy 1511 Laboratory Manua! Bond albedo refers to the total radiation
reflected from an object compared to the total incident radiation from the Sun. The geometric
albedo refers to the amount of radiation equally reflected in all directions at all wavelengths off an
object. It is clear that a wide range of planetary formation temperatures existed in the early solar
system. The temperatures at which different compounds form or for which elements have physical
state changes will vary. Since the majority of material in the molecular cl.
Geography class 11(Fundamentals of Physical Geography) Shivam Kapri
This file is made form NCERT class 11 book titled "Fundamental of Physical Geography". Will be of help to students and for competitive exam preparations.
Sun Earth And Moon Research Paper
Solar Power Essay example
Planets and Solar System Essay example
Saturn Essay
Moving Through The Solar System Analysis
Solar System Thesis
Our Solar System
The Formation of Solar System Essay
Solar System Research Paper
Essay On New Solar System
Lab Report On Solar System
Astronomy Essay
Solar System Research Paper
Essay about Solar System
Solar System: Chapter Analysis
Solar System Lab Review
jupiter Essay
Solar System Misconceptions
The Solar System Essay
The phenomenon of the super-Moon that occurs at the moment led me to elaborate this article to show the importance of the Moon for life on the planet Earth. The Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago, from the disk of gas and dust that formed the Sun and the other bodies of the Solar System. The Moon was formed about 100 million years after Earth, after a violent impact of a body of the size of Mars, called Theia. The fragments that resulted from the clash between Earth and Theia formed the Moon. The Earth-Moon system began to exert a mutual gravitational attraction. Such an attraction has produced (and continues to produce) the dissipation of an enormous amount of energy from the friction of the oceans with the seabed during the tides' comings and goings. As a consequence of such dissipation, the Earth's rotation speed was reduced from about 6 hours, which lasted the primitive earth day without Moon until the current 24 hours. What would happen to the Earth if the Moon were continually moving away? What would happen if the Moon suddenly disappeared? These issues are addressed in this article.
Your tasks will be to answer questions based on the indicators that .docxbunyansaturnina
Your tasks will be to answer questions based on the indicators that you have selected. Next, based on your research, (1) describe the current state of the city; (2) evaluate the current state of the city; and (3) prescribe changes for local conditions that are determined to be detrimental to residents of the city.
This assignment will require you to be resourceful in order to gather data to complete the assignment. You may have to gather data (via the Internet) from a variety of sources, including local planning agencies, political and economic institutions, health/medical institutions, financial institutions.
Be sure to use the proper citations and format when documenting your sources.
.
Your taskYou must identify a specific, local problem (eithe.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task:
You must identify a specific,
local
problem (either in Arizona or in your hometown) that you have personally experienced or witnessed. Your argument will take the form of a narrative that highlights how you have in some way been affected by an important societal issue, with further elaboration on the issue to help the audience understand its importance. The problem must be specific enough that your argument is something new and original coming from you, and broad enough that you can eventually research it in more depth and address it in a problem-solution proposal paper.
Some examples of topics:
A local public health issue that has affected members of your family
A problem in city infrastructure (e.g., lack of public transportation, or unsustainable forms of energy production) that has personally affected your life
A personal experience of discrimination that has made you or others close to you feel threatened
.
More Related Content
Similar to Pages 18 -191.4 Earth as a SystemThe Earth System The Earth sy.docx
Theory of Planetary System Formation The mass of the presol.pdfadislifestyle
Theory of Planetary System Formation The mass of the pre-solar molecular cloud played the
largest role in terms of how the solar system formed. It might have begun with a 100 solar mass
cloud approximately 1 to 2 light years in diameter. It's possible that mutual gravitational attraction
between cloud particles was too weak to start the process. When gravity is too weak, the only
other force strong enough to bring a significant number of particles together is the electromagnetic
force. Barring that, perhaps a nearby shockwave from a supernova explosion caused the initial
motion of material: but once started, gravity took hold, causing the inevitable collapse. The
process it underwent followed a pattern that scientists believe is mirrored everywhere a star exists.
In this activity, you will put the solar system formation process parts in order from the beginning. 1.
Planetesimals accreted material until they became large enough to form planets. 2. Gravitational
potential energy of the collapsing gas cloud was converted into thermal energy. 3. Collapsing gas
cloud rotated faster as the collapse continued due to conservation of angular momentum. 4.
Planetesimals were massive enough to have a gravitational field sufficient to attract additional
nearby objects. 5. The random motions of material in the collapsing gas cloud were reduced to the
final motion of the material rotating in a disk. 6. The inner parts of the continuing, flattening cloud
free fell into the growing object at the center. 7. Continued motions brushed smaller particle grains
against larger grains. As this electrostatic "sticking" occurred, the particle grains became larger. 8.
Cloud of molecular gas started to collapse due to gravity or other astrophysical process. Use the
number of the process to order them from earliest to latest (left to right).Temperature and
Formation of Our Solar System Temperature was the key factor leading to the state distribution of
various objects made of different elements and compounds. The graph below shows the
temperature (expressed in kelvins) at different distances from the Sun (expressed in AU ) in the
solar system during the time when the planets were formed. To produce a linear plot, in the usual
sense, the vertical axis is inverted so that temperature goes from high to low starting near the Sun.
Use Figure 1 to fill in Table 1 with the formation temperatures for each planet, including the dwarf
planet, Ceres.Aktranomy 1511 Laboratory Manua! Bond albedo refers to the total radiation
reflected from an object compared to the total incident radiation from the Sun. The geometric
albedo refers to the amount of radiation equally reflected in all directions at all wavelengths off an
object. It is clear that a wide range of planetary formation temperatures existed in the early solar
system. The temperatures at which different compounds form or for which elements have physical
state changes will vary. Since the majority of material in the molecular cl.
Geography class 11(Fundamentals of Physical Geography) Shivam Kapri
This file is made form NCERT class 11 book titled "Fundamental of Physical Geography". Will be of help to students and for competitive exam preparations.
Sun Earth And Moon Research Paper
Solar Power Essay example
Planets and Solar System Essay example
Saturn Essay
Moving Through The Solar System Analysis
Solar System Thesis
Our Solar System
The Formation of Solar System Essay
Solar System Research Paper
Essay On New Solar System
Lab Report On Solar System
Astronomy Essay
Solar System Research Paper
Essay about Solar System
Solar System: Chapter Analysis
Solar System Lab Review
jupiter Essay
Solar System Misconceptions
The Solar System Essay
The phenomenon of the super-Moon that occurs at the moment led me to elaborate this article to show the importance of the Moon for life on the planet Earth. The Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago, from the disk of gas and dust that formed the Sun and the other bodies of the Solar System. The Moon was formed about 100 million years after Earth, after a violent impact of a body of the size of Mars, called Theia. The fragments that resulted from the clash between Earth and Theia formed the Moon. The Earth-Moon system began to exert a mutual gravitational attraction. Such an attraction has produced (and continues to produce) the dissipation of an enormous amount of energy from the friction of the oceans with the seabed during the tides' comings and goings. As a consequence of such dissipation, the Earth's rotation speed was reduced from about 6 hours, which lasted the primitive earth day without Moon until the current 24 hours. What would happen to the Earth if the Moon were continually moving away? What would happen if the Moon suddenly disappeared? These issues are addressed in this article.
Similar to Pages 18 -191.4 Earth as a SystemThe Earth System The Earth sy.docx (20)
Your tasks will be to answer questions based on the indicators that .docxbunyansaturnina
Your tasks will be to answer questions based on the indicators that you have selected. Next, based on your research, (1) describe the current state of the city; (2) evaluate the current state of the city; and (3) prescribe changes for local conditions that are determined to be detrimental to residents of the city.
This assignment will require you to be resourceful in order to gather data to complete the assignment. You may have to gather data (via the Internet) from a variety of sources, including local planning agencies, political and economic institutions, health/medical institutions, financial institutions.
Be sure to use the proper citations and format when documenting your sources.
.
Your taskYou must identify a specific, local problem (eithe.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task:
You must identify a specific,
local
problem (either in Arizona or in your hometown) that you have personally experienced or witnessed. Your argument will take the form of a narrative that highlights how you have in some way been affected by an important societal issue, with further elaboration on the issue to help the audience understand its importance. The problem must be specific enough that your argument is something new and original coming from you, and broad enough that you can eventually research it in more depth and address it in a problem-solution proposal paper.
Some examples of topics:
A local public health issue that has affected members of your family
A problem in city infrastructure (e.g., lack of public transportation, or unsustainable forms of energy production) that has personally affected your life
A personal experience of discrimination that has made you or others close to you feel threatened
.
Your taskis to analyze and evaluate how various types of medi.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task:
is to analyze and evaluate how various types of media affect change, influence perception, or otherwise drive the narrative related to a specific topic of your choice.
Create an example that shows how you could use social or other media to influence public opinion or play a significant role in the public conversation. This could be a paper, a video/Prezi, or possibly a newspaper or magazine format.
Requirements:
Identify a topic that you think has been influenced by characteristics or use of the media. Consider whether various media, or media use, have:
Played a role in framing the key arguments related to the topic, and/or
Influenced how key arguments are (or were) discussed/debated, and/or
Shaped audience perception and interpretation or information, and/or
Affected particular actions or policies.
Analyze information gathered from multiple sources, being aware of the author’s intent, perspectives, audiences, biases, and credibility.
Write a clear thesis statement regarding your analysis of how the media characteristics and choices influenced the discourse.
Present well-reasoned arguments that support your thesis.
Support your analysis with compelling evidence.
Describe how you could use 21st century media to exert influence on the issues you discuss.
Provide a minimum or ten sources including at least two scholarly sources and a variety of media such as newspaper, radio, television, twitter, blogs, Ted Talk, You Tube, etc.
Format for a Written Paper:
280 points. Rough draft is worth 40 pts reviewed by peer/family
Paragraph #1 (25 pts) identification of your topic, abstract and thesis
Paragraph #2 (25 pts) How has your topic played a role in shaping audience perception/interpretation of information. What connections, wonderment and questions do you have concerning the media’s over or under involvement?
Paragraph #3 (40 pts) first scholarly source (author(s), titles of articles, background, claims, evidence, discussion/debates, and reasoning.
Paragraph #4 (40 pts) second scholarly source (author(s), title of the article, background/expertise of the scholar, claim, evidence, discussion/debates and reasoning)
Paragraph #5 (40 pts) one media source (author’s/speakers, titles or topics discussed, claims, evidence and reasoning, written/produced for what groups and why?
Paragraph #6 (40 pts) second media source (author’s/speakers, titles or topics discussed, claims, evidence and reasoning, written/produced for what groups and why?
Paragraph #7 (25 pts) What particular actions or policies are these authors/media trying to initiate or delineate and how successful are they? Do you agree or disagree and why?
Paragraph #8 (25 pts) Conclusion – how is 21st media used to exert influence on your topic and the views of society today? Is the media beneficial, or demonstrative in its coverage and what type of public policy do you believe needs to be invoked to provide “honest media for the future?
APA .
Your task this week is to check the internet and the Common Vulner.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task this week is to check the internet and the
Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) List
for networked IoT or IoMT devices with publicly known problems identified in the past six months.
Select two devices related that might be relevant to the organization setting and review what is known about the vulnerabilities of these devices.
For each device, include background information about the device, a description of the vulnerability, possible solutions that have been identified to fix the vulnerability, and your recommendation on whether the organization should avoid the product.
Use this
Memo Template
to record your work.
.
Your task is to take unit I Will Survive Ecosystems and Adaptations.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to take unit I Will Survive: Ecosystems and Adaptations,to create a 10-15 minute with PPT as a visual aid ( pictures and words) explaining the scientific concepts as they relate to one of the case studies presented. The case studies will be found inside the module.
–Summarize case study and point out observations. State how the major scientific concepts answer the question above (2 mins)
–Explanation of scientific concepts that build the framework for your answer (8-9 mins)
–Tie in specific elements of the scientific concepts to the answer to the question (1-2 mins)
.
Your task is to perform and document encryption of Thunderbird Email.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to perform and document encryption of Thunderbird Email. You will describe each step in the process and provide screenshots of the email involved.
The requirements for your work are:
Install Thunderbird Mail.
Use any Gmail account to encrypt an email message.
Capture each significant action in separate Word documents, including the following in each:
A screenshot of the unencrypted item.
A screenshot of the item encrypted.
A description of the steps performed.
Submit all of the files as a .zip file
.
Your task is to explain the process of the juvenile justice system a.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to explain the process of the juvenile justice system and possible dispositional outcomes and to address the adult court waiver process.
Earlier in the week, you reviewed the key procedures in the juvenile justice system.
Click here to learn about the structure and process of the juvenile justice system. The site gives a detailed view of the differentiation among the conferences, adjudication hearings, dispositional hearings, and dispositions.
Now, consider the following scenario:
Tom Jones is a sixteen-year-old repeat juvenile offender who has just been detained by the police for attempted murder.
Jennifer Smith is a fifteen-year-old first-time offender who has just been detained by the police for vandalism.
create a 4- to 6-page overview in a Microsoft Word document based on the aforementioned scenario.
In your overview, address the following aspects of the juvenile justice system:
Explain the juvenile court process for both Jones and Smith from the processing of the cases to the dispositions.
Provide a detailed dispositional recommendation for both Smith and Jones. Take into account the treatment options available for both offenders within the juvenile justice system.
Explain why there is a possibility that Jones could be waived to the adult court system.
Justify in detail whether Jones should or should not be waived to the adult court system for his current offense.
Submission Details:
Support your responses with examples.
Cite any sources in APA format.
.
Your task is to create a journalistic profile that focuses on a .docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to create a journalistic profile that focuses on a leader in your chosen profession.
Your profile should include all of the following elements:
An attractive cover page that indicates your name, the course and the date. Include a graphic as well.
Three, double-spaced pages.
Indent all paragraphs.
You may insert photos as long as they are aligned with the text.
.
Your task is to evaluate the available evidence on the social, emoti.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to evaluate the available evidence on the social, emotional, psychological, biological, and
behavioural changes that occur during adolescence and emerging adulthood that may explain their
increased vulnerability to specific problems and/or behaviour choices.
Of course, not all adolescents engage in problematic behaviour or make unwise life-style choices,
therefore, when discussing the possible causes of change occurring in this age group you should
consider any distinctive cultural practices or cultural beliefs that may act as protective mechanisms for
young people. Arnett (2018) argues that an interrogation of cultural beliefs and their influence is
necessary in order to gain a fuller understanding of developmental changes in adolescents and emerging
adults.
1 page
APA
2 Sources
.
Your task is to conduct research on the ways that universities p.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to conduct research on the ways that universities presents themselves as it relates to diversity and equity. Examining websites, brochures, and other materials of at least 5 different universities and colleges (including WSU), answer the following questions
What percentage of the images are of students of color? How does that compare to the numbers of faculty and staff of color (look at data)?
What percentage of the images are of faculty and staff of color? How does that compare to the numbers of faculty and staff of color (when available, you should look at data on the university website)?
How is the university represented in terms of diversity, equity, and justice? What sorts of programs, resources, and information are highlighted; what is not included? What are the messages provided regarded diversity and equity?
How does the image and message provided by the university compare with news reports, social media, and other forms of commentary regarding diversity at the university?
How do your findings fit within larger body of research?
Your task is to present both qualitative and quantitative information regarding each university in a systematic way.
Grading breakdown is as follows:
15 points – Answering of each question for at minimum 5 universities/colleges (3 points for each)
2 point – Overall Effort
Awesome Screenshot
.
Your task is to compare and contrast two artworks given Below.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to compare and contrast
two
artworks given Below:
#1 Night fishing at Antibes by Pablo Picasso.
#2 Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian
(the Artworks are attached below or you can just search it in google)
Consider using the visual elements and the principles of art to Analyse and contrast the Artwork.
This is a very standard compare and contrast paper and it should include
correct grammar and spelling.
The length of the paper needs to be 3 pages (minimum) of writing , maximum of 4 pages, 12pt Times Font, no greater than 1-inch margins-top,bottom, left, right .
Your paper needs to address the listed portions of the handout Below.
**The paper should be in a MS Word document format (.docx or .doc)
****OUTSIDE SOURCES need to be cited, either in the document or in a works cited page. --Information that is taken from the placard from the museum also needs to be cited.
HANDOUT
Follow the instructions below as an outline for your paper
.
Use this handout as a guide for recording information and composing your paper. Do not submit this form as your written assignment.
INCLUDE A COVER PAGE OF YOUR INFORMATION AND IMAGES OF THE TWO WORKS (IF AVAILABLE)
Thesis Statement should address compare/contrast of:
ARTIST #1_______________________________ TITLE_____________________________________ MEDIUM_________________________________ DATE_____________________________________ SIZE (INCHES)__________________________ LOCATION_______________________________
ARTIST #2_______________________________ TITLE_____________________________________ MEDIUM_________________________________ DATE_____________________________________ SIZE (INCHES)__________________________ LOCATION_______________________________
Body Paragraph(s) #1 of your paper should address:
VISUAL ELEMENTS:
Analyze the way the artists use the various visual elements in the work. Try to be specific. Is the color naturalistic or exaggerated? Are lines, colors or shapes used? Is the work characteristic of a particular region, style or culture? Note: Not all of the elements listed will apply to all artworks.
Do not include any opinions in this section. Opinions go in the conclusion.
SUBJECT: Who or what is represented? Artist#1________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________ Artist#2_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________
COMPOSITION: Describe the arrangements of the elements/principles. (Some of theses will apply: Line, Light, Color, Texture, Shape, Space, Emphasis, Scale Proportion, Rhythm, Unity, .
Your task is to create a personal essay that focuses on your per.docxbunyansaturnina
Your task is to create a personal essay that focuses on your personal attributes, strengths and desires in your chosen profession.
Your essay should include all of the following elements:
·
An attractive cover page that indicates your name, the course and the date. Include a graphic as well.
·
Three, double-spaced pages
·
Indent all paragraphs
·
You may insert photos as long as they are aligned with the text.
REMEMBER to create and submit your outline as well.
.
Your Task is to Carry out an independent research study (.docxbunyansaturnina
Your Task is to:
Carry out an
independent research study
(experiment)
written up as a four-page paper
using the template on Blackboard This research paper should include: ✓ A succinct abstract ✓ Introduction / Background literature (circa half a page with between 5 and
10 references) ✓ Research design ✓ Consideration of sampling, experimental design, the use of data ✓ Results ✓ Discussion ✓ Conclusion ✓ References You are encouraged to refer to the notes from Scott MacKenzie on writing up a research paper which are on the Blackboard pages
You will hand in
a four-page paper
as outlined above
.
Your Research Project is due this week. It must consist of1. 5 .docxbunyansaturnina
Your Research Project is due this week. It must consist of:
1. 5 source annotated bibliography
2. slide presentation with 12 or more slides
3. Summary or Abstract containing at least 750 words.
The topic must be appropriate for graduate level. Find a topic that we covered in the course and dig deeper or find something that will help you in your work or in a subject area of interest related to the course topic.
Use the
Research Databases available from the Danforth Library
not Google.
.
Your supervisor wants the staff to understand the importance of.docxbunyansaturnina
Your supervisor wants the staff to understand the importance of the legal issues related to business dealing in which an agent acts on behalf of a principal. To ensure that everyone comes prepared for the meeting your supervisor has e-mail each staff member the topics that will be discussed at the meeting. You are responsible for leading the discussion on the topics that you were e-mailed. To prepare for the meeting you decide to write down your thoughts and ideas on the topics that you were assigned. You include referenced information to substantiate your thoughts on the topics. The topics you were assigned to lead discussion on during the meeting include the following:
1.) Identify and discuss the 3 types of principals that can exist ( disclosed, undisclosed, and partially disclosed principals). Include a hypothetical example of situations that would include each type of principal.
2.) Identify and discuss some of the duties that an agent owes to the principal.
3.) Discuss your opinion on wheather you believe it is fair to the third party to have a situation in which there is an undisclosed principal and the third party believes he or she is dealing directly with the prinicpal party rather than a agent. Be sure to provide supportive reasoning for your opinion.
400-600 words and references.
.
Your supervisor has asked you to create a new entity-relationship di.docxbunyansaturnina
Your supervisor has asked you to create a new entity-relationship diagram for a company called Moonlight Distributors for what would be a customized shipment tracking system. Use the information below to develop the diagram.
Conceptual Model
Pickup Manifest
Customer information
Pickup details
Consignee information
Payment methods
Delivery Truck Details
Route number
Driver's name
Employee ID
Time logged out
List of delivery manifests
Delivery Manifest
Consignee information
Delivery details
Payment methods
Condition of goods delivered
Date of delivery
Consignee signature
Problems with delivery
Assignment Guidelines
Create an entity-relationship diagram using the conceptual data model located in the assignment description.
Paste your ER diagram into a Word document, and save it as U1A1LastName.
Your submitted assignment must include the following:
A Word document containing your entity-relationship diagram named U1A1LastName.
Deliverable Length:
1-2-page Word document
.
Your supervisor asks you to lead a team of paralegals in the office .docxbunyansaturnina
Your supervisor asks you to lead a team of paralegals in the office in a project to prepare a public service PowerPoint presentation to the community explaining the differences between each of the following court systems and its role in the government or the difference between courts:
criminal
civil
trial
appeals
courts of last resort
courts of general jurisdiction
courts of specific jurisdiction
Assignment Guidelines:
Each student should prepare 8–10 PowerPoint slides (including speakers notes) covering all of the topics above for inclusion in the presentation.
Please note that your “cover” slide and the slide containing your list of references do not counted in the 8-10 PowerPoint slides deliverable
Do not forget to include APA citation and references for your contribution.
.
Your research paper final must be written using APA style and incl.docxbunyansaturnina
Your research paper final must be written using APA style and include the following:
A Title Page
Main Body Pages (3 - 5 pages, not including Title Page and Reference Page)
A Reference Page
APA recommends using 12-point Times New Roman font and double-spacing throughout the entire paper.
.
Your submission should be a PowerPoint slide presentation with 1.docxbunyansaturnina
Your submission should be a PowerPoint slide presentation with 12-15 slides(Title and Reference pages are separate) with very comprehensive speaker notes for each slide.
The presentation should include all relevant information, including data analyses (charts, graphs), decision criteria, changes needed, and so forth.
.
your research must includeExecutive summaryAbstractP.docxbunyansaturnina
your research must include:
Executive summary/Abstract
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Problem Statement
Literature Review / Background of the study
Benefits of the study
Data: you have to make a table with all research you used in your literature review and show data frequency used (daily, weekly, monthly), data time span, data description.
Methodology; you have to make a table with all research you used in your literature review and show methodology.
Conclusion.
Recommendations.
Your work must be genuine and you have to use APA style in your referencing and citation.
.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Pages 18 -191.4 Earth as a SystemThe Earth System The Earth sy.docx
1. Pages 18 -19
1.4 Earth as a System
The Earth System The Earth system has a nearly endless array
of subsystems in which matter is recycled over and over. One
familiar loop or subsystem is the hydrologic cycle. It represents
the unending circulation of Earth’s water among the
hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Water
enters the atmosphere through evaporation from Earth’s surface
and transpiration from plants. Water vapor condenses in the
atmosphere to form clouds, which in turn produce precipitation
that falls back to Earth’s surface. Some of the rain that falls
onto the land infiltrates (soaks in) to be taken up by plants or
become groundwater, and some flows across the surface toward
the ocean. Viewed over long time spans, the rocks of the
geosphere are constantly forming, changing, and re-forming.
The loop that involves the processes by which one rock changes
to another is called the rock cycle and will be discussed at some
length later in the chapter. The cycles of the Earth system are
not independent of one another; to the contrary, these cycles
come in contact and interact in many places. The parts of the
Earth system are linked so that a change in one part can produce
changes in any or all of the other parts. For example, when a
volcano erupts, lava from Earth’s interior may flow out at the
surface and block a nearby valley. This new obstruction
influences the region’s drainage system by creating a lake or
causing streams to change course. The large quantities of
volcanic ash and gases that can be emitted during an eruption
might be blown high into the atmosphere and influence the
amount of solar energy that can reach Earth’s surface. The
result could be a drop in air temperatures over the entire
hemisphere. Where the surface is covered by lava flows or a
thick layer of volcanic ash, existing soils are buried. This
causes soil-forming processes to begin anew to transform the
new surface material into soil (Figure 1.16). The soil that
2. eventually forms will reflect the interactions among many parts
of the Earth system—the volcanic parent material, the climate,
and the impact of biological activity. Of course, there would
also be significant changes in the biosphere. Some organisms
and their habitats would be eliminated by the lava and ash,
whereas new settings for life, such as a lake formed by a lava
dam, would be created. The potential climate change could also
impact sensitive life-forms. The Earth system is characterized
by processes that vary on spatial scales from fractions of
millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Time scales for Earth’s
processes range from seconds to billions of years. As we learn
about Earth, it becomes increasingly clear that despite
significant separations in distance or time, many processes are
connected, and a change in one component can influence the
entire system. The Earth system is powered by energy from two
sources. The Sun drives external processes that occur in the
atmosphere, in the hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface. Weather
and climate, ocean circulation, and erosional processes are
driven by energy from the Sun. Earth’s interior is the second
source of energy. Heat remaining from when our planet formed
and heat that is continuously generated by radioactive decay
power the internal processes that produce volcanoes,
earthquakes, and mountains. Humans are part of the Earth
system, a system in which the living and nonliving components
are entwined and interconnected. Therefore, our actions produce
changes in all the other parts. When we burn gasoline and coal,
dispose of our wastes, and clear the land, we cause other parts
of the system to respond, often in unforeseen ways. Throughout
this book you will learn about many of Earth’s subsystems,
including the hydrologic system, the tectonic (mountain-
building) system, the rock cycle, and the climate system.
Remember that these components and we humans are all part of
the complex interacting whole we call the Earth system. 1.4
Concept Checks List and briefly describe the four spheres that
constitute the Earth system. Compare the height of the
atmosphere to the thickness of the geosphere. How much of
3. Earth’s surface do oceans cover? What percentage of Earth’s
water supply do oceans represent? What is a system? List three
examples. What are the two sources of energy for the Earth
system?
Page 20
1.5 Origin and Early Evolution of Earth Outline the stages in
the formation of our solar system.
Recent earthquakes caused by displacements of Earth’s crust
and lavas spewed from active volcanoes represent only the
latest in a long line of events by which our planet has attained
its present form and structure. The geologic processes operating
in Earth’s interior can be best understood when viewed in the
context of much earlier events in Earth history. Origin of Our
Solar System This section describes the most widely accepted
views on the origin of our solar system. The theory described
here represents the most consistent set of ideas we have to
explain what we know about our solar system today.
GEOgraphics 1.2 provides a useful perspective on size and scale
in our solar system. In addition, the origins of Earth and other
bodies of our solar system are discussed in more detail in
Chapters 2 and 24. The Universe Begins Our scenario begins
about 13.7 billion years ago with the Big Bang, an
incomprehensibly large explosion that sent all matter of the
universe flying outward at incredible speeds. In time, the debris
from this explosion, which was almost entirely hydrogen and
helium, began to cool and condense into the first stars and
galaxies. It was in one of these galaxies, the Milky Way, that
our solar system and planet Earth took form. The Solar System
Forms Earth is one of eight planets that, along with several
dozen moons and numerous smaller bodies, revolve around the
Sun. The orderly nature of our solar system leads researchers to
conclude that Earth and the other planets formed at essentially
the same time and from the same primordial material as the Sun.
The nebular theory proposes that the bodies of our solar system
evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula
4. (Figure 1.17). Besides the hydrogen and helium atoms generated
during the Big Bang, the solar nebula consisted of microscopic
dust grains and the ejected matter of long-dead stars. (Nuclear
fusion in stars converts hydrogen and helium into the other
elements found in the universe.) Nearly 5 billion years ago, this
huge cloud of gases and minute grains of heavier elements
began to slowly contract due to the gravitational interactions
among its particles. Some external influence, such as a shock
wave traveling from a catastrophic explosion (supernova), may
have triggered the collapse. As this slowly spiraling nebula
contracted, it rotated faster and faster for the same reason ice
skaters do when they draw their arms toward their bodies.
Eventually the inward pull of gravity came into balance with the
outward force caused by the rotational motion of the nebula (see
Figure 1.17). By this time, the once-vast cloud had assumed a
flat disk shape with a large concentration of material at its
center called the protosun (pre-Sun). (Astronomers are fairly
confident that the nebular cloud formed a disk because similar
structures have been detected around other stars.) During the
collapse, gravitational energy was converted to thermal (heat)
energy, causing the temperature of the inner portion of the
nebula to dramatically rise. At these high temperatures, the dust
grains broke up into molecules and extremely energetic atomic
particles. However, at distances beyond the orbit of Mars,
temperatures probably remained quite low. At –200°C (–328°F),
the tiny particles in the outer portion of the nebula were likely
covered with a thick layer of frozen water, carbon dioxide,
ammonia, and methane. The disk-shaped cloud also contained
appreciable amounts of the lighter gases hydrogen and helium.
SmartFigure 1.17 Nebular theory The nebular theory explains
the formation of the solar system. (https://goo.gl/dRZJBp) The
Inner Planets Form The formation of the Sun marked the end of
the period of contraction and thus the end of gravitational
heating. Temperatures in the region where the inner planets now
reside began to decline. This decrease in temperature caused
those substances with high melting points to condense into tiny
5. particles that began to coalesce (join together). Materials such
as iron and nickel and the elements of which the rock-forming
minerals are composed—silicon, calcium, sodium, and so
forth—formed metallic and rocky clumps that orbited the Sun
(see Figure 1.17). Repeated collisions caused these masses to
coalesce into larger asteroid-size bodies, called planetesimals,
which in a few tens of millions of years accreted into the four
inner planets we call Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars (Figure
1.18). Not all of these clumps of matter were incorporated into
the planetesimals. Those rocky and metallic pieces that
remained in orbit are called meteorites when they survive an
impact with Earth. As more and more material was swept up by
the planets, the high-velocity impact of nebular debris caused
the temperatures of these bodies to rise. Because of their
relatively high temperatures and weak gravitational fields, the
inner planets were unable to accumulate much of the lighter
components of the nebular cloud. The lightest of these,
hydrogen and helium, were eventually whisked from the inner
solar system by the solar wind.
Page 21
The Outer Planets Develop
At the same time that the inner planets were forming, the larger
outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), along with
their GEO Graphics 1.2 Solar System: Size and Scale The Sun is
the center of a revolving system trillions of miles across,
consisting of 8 planets, their satellites, and numerous dwarf
planets, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. Questions What is
the approximate distance between the Sun and Neptune? How
long would it take a jet plane traveling at 1000 km/hr to go from
Earth to Neptune? Figure 1.18 A remnant planetesimal This
image of Asteroid 21 Lutetia was obtained by special cameras
aboard the Rosetta spacecraft on July 10, 2010. Spacecraft
instruments showed that Lutetia is a primitive body
(planetesimal) left over from when the solar system formed.
(NASA) extensive satellite systems, were also developing.
Because of low temperatures far from the Sun, the material from
6. which these planets formed contained a high percentage of
ices—frozen water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane—as
well as rocky and metallic debris. The accumulation of ices
partly accounts for the large size and low density of the outer
planets. The two most massive planets, Jupiter and Saturn, had a
surface gravity sufficient to attract and hold large quantities of
even the lightest elements—hydrogen and helium.
Page 22
Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure
As material accumulated to form Earth (and for a short period
afterward), the high-velocity impact of nebular debris and the
decay of radioactive elements caused the temperature of our
planet to steadily increase. During this time of intense heating,
Earth became hot enough that iron and nickel began to melt.
Melting produced liquid blobs of dense metal that sank toward
the center of the planet. This process occurred rapidly on the
scale of geologic time and produced Earth’s dense, iron-rich
core. Chemical Differentiation and Earth’s Layers The early
period of heating resulted in another process of chemical
differentiation, whereby melting formed buoyant masses of
molten rock that rose toward the surface and solidified to
produce a primitive crust. These rocky materials were enriched
in oxygen and “oxygen-seeking” elements, particularly silicon
and aluminum, along with lesser amounts of calcium, sodium,
potassium, iron, and magnesium. In addition, some heavy metals
such as gold, lead, and uranium, which have low melting points
or were highly soluble in the ascending molten masses, were
scavenged from Earth’s interior and concentrated in the
developing crust. This early period of chemical differentiation
established the three basic divisions of Earth’s interior: the
iron-rich core; the thin primitive crust; and Earth’s largest
layer, called the mantle, which is located between the core and
crust. An Atmosphere Develops An important consequence of
the early period of chemical differentiation is that large
quantities of gaseous materials were allowed to escape from
7. Earth’s interior, as happens today during volcanic eruptions. By
this process, a primitive atmosphere gradually evolved. It is on
this planet, with this atmosphere, that life as we know it came
into existence. Continents and Ocean Basins Evolve Following
the events that established Earth’s basic structure, the primitive
crust was lost to erosion and other geologic processes, so we
have no direct record of its makeup. When and exactly how the
continental crust—and thus Earth’s first landmasses—came into
existence is a matter of ongoing research. Nevertheless, there is
general agreement that the continental crust formed gradually
over the past 4 billion years. (The oldest rocks yet discovered
are isolated fragments found in the Northwest Territories of
Canada that have radiometric dates of about 4 billion years.) In
addition, as you will see in subsequent chapters, Earth is an
evolving planet whose continents and ocean basins have
continually changed shape and even location during much of
this period. 1.5 Concept Checks Name and briefly outline the
theory that describes the formation of our solar system. List the
inner planets and outer planets. Describe basic differences in
size and composition. Explain why density and buoyancy were
important in the development of Earth’s layered structure.
Page 23
1.6 Earth’s Internal Structure
Sketch Earth’s internal structure and label and describe the
main subdivisions. The preceding section outlined how
differentiation of material early in Earth’s history resulted in
the formation of three major layers defined by their chemical
composition: the crust, mantle, and core. In addition to these
compositionally distinct layers, Earth is divided into layers
based on physical properties. The physical properties used to
define such zones include whether the layer is solid or liquid
and how weak or strong it is. Important examples include the
lithosphere, asthenosphere, outer core, and inner core.
Knowledge of both chemical and physical layers is important to
our understanding of many geologic processes, including
volcanism, earthquakes, and mountain building. Figure 1.19
8. shows different views of Earth’s layered structure. How did we
learn about the composition and structure of Earth’s interior?
The nature of Earth’s interior is primarily determined by
analyzing seismic waves from earthquakes. As these waves of
energy penetrate the planet, they change speed and are bent and
reflected as they move through zones that have different
properties. Monitoring stations around the world detect and
record this energy. With the aid of computers, these data are
analyzed and used to build a detailed picture of Earth’s interior.
There is more about this in Chapter 12. SmartFigure 1.19
Earth’s layers Structure of Earth’s interior based on chemical
composition (right side of diagram) and physical properties (left
side of diagram). (https://goo.gl/70au1N) Earth’s Crust The
crust, Earth’s relatively thin, rocky outer skin, is of two
different types—continental crust and oceanic crust. Both share
the word crust, but the similarity ends there. The oceanic crust
is roughly 7 kilometers (4.5 miles) thick and composed of the
dark igneous rock basalt. By contrast, the continental crust
averages about 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick but may exceed
about 70 kilometers (45 miles) in some mountainous regions
such as the Rockies and Himalayas. Unlike the oceanic crust,
which has a relatively homogeneous chemical composition, the
continental crust consists of many rock types. Although the
upper crust has an average composition of a granitic rock called
granodiorite, it varies considerably from place to place.
Continental rocks have an average density of about 2.7 g/cm3,
and some have been discovered that are more than 4 billion
years old. The rocks of the oceanic crust are younger (180
million years or less) and denser (about 3.0 g/cm3) than
continental rocks. For comparison, liquid water has a density of
1 g/cm3; therefore, the density of basalt, the primary rock
composing oceanic crust, is three times that of water. Earth’s
Mantle More than 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained in
the mantle, a solid, rocky shell that extends to a depth of about
2900 kilometers (1800 miles). The boundary between the crust
and mantle represents a marked change in chemical
9. composition. The dominant rock type in the uppermost mantle is
peridotite, which contains minerals richer in the metals
magnesium and iron compared to the minerals found in either
the continental or oceanic crust. The Upper Mantle The upper
mantle extends from the crust–mantle boundary down to a depth
of about 660 kilometers (410 miles). The upper mantle can be
divided into three different parts. The top portion of the upper
mantle is part of the stronger lithosphere, and beneath that is
the weaker asthenosphere. The bottom part of the upper mantle
is called the transition zone. The lithosphere (“rock sphere”)
consists of the entire crust plus the uppermost mantle and forms
Earth’s relatively cool, rigid outer shell (see Figure 1.19).
Averaging about 100 kilometers (60 miles) thick, the
lithosphere is more than 250 kilometers (155 miles) thick below
the oldest portions of the continents. Beneath this stiff layer to
a depth of about 410 kilometers (255 miles) lies a soft,
comparatively weak layer known as the asthenosphere (“weak
sphere”). The top portion of the asthenosphere has a
temperature/pressure regime that results in a small amount of
melting. Within this very weak zone, the lithosphere is
mechanically detached from the layer below. The lithosphere
thus is able to move independently of the asthenosphere, a fact
we will consider in the next chapter. It is important to
emphasize here that the strength of various Earth materials is a
function of both their composition and the temperature and
pressure of their environment. You should not get the idea that
the entire lithosphere behaves like a rigid or brittle solid similar
to rocks found on the surface. Rather, the rocks of the
lithosphere get progressively hotter and weaker (more easily
deformed) with increasing depth. At the depth of the uppermost
asthenosphere, the rocks are close enough to their melting
temperature (some melting may actually occur) that they are
very easily deformed. Thus, the uppermost asthenosphere is
weak because it is near its melting point, just as hot wax is
weaker than cold wax. From about 410 kilometers (255 miles)
to about 660 kilometers (410 miles) in depth is the part of the
10. upper mantle called the transition zone (Figure 1.19). The top of
the transition zone is identified by a sudden increase in density
from about 3.5 to 3.7 g/cm3. This change occurs because
minerals in the rock peridotite respond to the increase in
pressure by forming new minerals with closely packed atomic
structures.
Pages 740 – 742
24.2 Earth’s Moon: A Chip off the Old Block
List and describe the major features of Earth’s Moon and
explain how maria basins were formed.
The Earth–Moon system is unique partially because of the
Moons large size relative to other bodies in the inner solar
system. Mars is the only other terrestrial planet that has moons,
but its tiny satellites are likely captured asteroids. Most of the
150 or so satellites of the Jovian planets are composed of low-
density rock–ice mixtures, none of which resemble the Moon.
As we will see later, our unique planet–satellite system is
closely related to the mechanism that created it.
The diameter of the Moon is 3475 kilometers (2160 miles),
about one-fourth of Earth’s 12,756 kilometers (7926 miles). The
Moon’s surface temperature averages about 107°C (225°F)
during daylight hours and −153°C (−243°F) at night. Because
its period of rotation on its axis equals its period of revolution
around Earth, the same lunar hemisphere always faces Earth.
All of the landings of staffed Apollo missions were confined to
the side of the Moon that faces Earth.
The Moon’s density is 3.3 times that of water, comparable to
that of mantle rocks on Earth but considerably less than Earth’s
average density (5.5 times that of water). The Moon’s relatively
small iron core is thought to account for much of this
difference.
11. The Moon’s low mass relative to Earth results in a lunar
gravitational attraction that is one-sixth that of Earth. A person
who weighs 150 pounds on Earth weighs only 25 pounds on the
Moon, although the person’s mass remains the same. This
difference allows an astronaut to carry a heavy life-support
system with relative ease. If not burdened with such a load, an
astronaut could jump six times higher on the Moon than on
Earth. The Moon’s small mass (and low gravity) is the primary
reason it was not able to retain an atmosphere.
How Did the Moon Form?
Until recently, the origin of the Moon—our nearest planetary
neighbor—was a topic of considerable debate among scientists.
Current models show that Earth is too small to have formed
with a moon, particularly one so large. Furthermore, a captured
moon would likely have an eccentric orbit similar to the
captured moons that orbit the Jovian planets.
The current consensus is that the Moon formed as a result of a
collision between a Mars-sized body and a youthful, semimolten
Earth about 4.5 billion years ago. During this collision, some of
the ejected debris was thrown into orbit around Earth and
gradually coalesced to form the Moon. Computer simulations
show that most of the ejected material would have come from
the rocky mantle of the impactor, while its core was assimilated
into the growing Earth. This impact model is consistent with the
Moon having a proportionately smaller core than Earth’s and,
hence, a lower density.
The Lunar Surface
When Galileo first pointed his telescope toward the Moon, he
observed two different types of terrain: dark lowlands and
brighter, highly cratered highlands (Figure 24.6). Because the
dark regions appeared to be smooth, resembling seas on Earth,
12. they were called maria (mar = sea, singular mare). The Apollo
11 mission showed conclusively that the maria are exceedingly
smooth plains composed of basaltic lavas. These vast plains are
strongly concentrated on the side of the Moon facing Earth and
cover about 16 percent of the lunar surface. The lack of large
volcanic cones on these surfaces is evidence of high eruption
rates of very fluid basaltic lavas similar to the Columbia Plateau
flood basalts on Earth.
Figure 24.6 Telescopic view of the lunar surface
The major features are the dark maria and the light, highly
cratered highlands.
(Lick Observatory Publications Office)
By contrast, the Moon’s light-colored areas resemble Earth’s
continents, so the first observers dubbed them terrae (Latin for
“lands”). These areas are now generally referred to as the lunar
highlands because they are elevated several kilometers above
the maria. Rocks retrieved from the highlands are mainly
breccias, pulverized by massive bombardment early in the
Moon’s history. The arrangement of terrae and maria has
resulted in the legendary “face” of the “man in the Moon.”
Some of the most obvious lunar features are impact craters. A
meteoroid 3 meters (10 feet) in diameter can blast out a crater
50 times larger, or about 150 meters (500 feet) in diameter. The
larger craters shown in Figure 24.6, such as Kepler and
Copernicus (32 and 93 kilometers [20 and 57 miles] in diameter,
respectively), were created from bombardment by bodies 1
kilometer (0.62 mile) or more in diameter. These two craters are
thought to be relatively young because of the bright rays (light-
colored ejected material) that radiate from them for hundreds of
kilometers.
History of the Lunar Surface
The evidence used to unravel the history of the lunar surface
13. comes primarily from radiometric dating of rocks returned from
Apollo missions and studies of crater densities—counting the
number of craters per unit area. The greater the crater density,
the older the feature is inferred to be. Such evidence suggests
that, after the Moon coalesced, it passed through the following
four phases: (1) formation of the original crust, (2) excavation
of the large impact basins, (3) filling of maria basins, and (4)
formation of rayed craters.
During the late stages of its accretion, the Moon’s outer shell
was most likely completely melted—literally a magma ocean.
Then, about 4.4 billion years ago, the magma ocean began to
cool and underwent magmatic differentiation (see Chapter 4).
Most of the dense minerals, olivine and pyroxene, sank, while
less-dense silicate minerals floated to form the Moon’s crust.
The highlands are made of these igneous rocks, which rose
buoyantly like “scum” from the crystallizing magma. The most
common highland rock type is anorthosite, which is composed
mainly of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Once formed, the lunar crust was continually impacted as the
Moon swept up debris from the solar nebula. During this time,
several large impact basins were created. Then, about 3.8
billion years ago, the Moon, as well as the rest of the solar
system, experienced a sudden drop in the rate of meteoritic
bombardment.
The Moon’s next major event was the filling of the large impact
basins, which had been created at least 300 million years earlier
(Figure 24.7). Radiometric dating of the maria basalts puts their
age between 3.0 billion and 3.5 billion years, considerably
younger than the initial lunar crust.
SmartFigure 24.7 Formation and filling of large impact basins
(Photo by NASA) (https://goo.gl/9g1WUy)
14. The maria basalts are thought to have originated at depths
between 200 and 400 kilometers (125 and 250 miles). They
were likely generated by a slow rise in temperature attributed to
the decay of radioactive elements. Partial melting probably
occurred in several isolated pockets, as indicated by the diverse
chemical makeup of the rocks retrieved during the Apollo
missions. Recent evidence suggests that some mare-forming
eruptions may have occurred as recently as 1 billion years ago.
Other lunar surface features related to this period of volcanism
include small shield volcanoes (8–12 kilometers [5–7.5 miles]
in diameter), evidence of pyroclastic eruptions, rilles (narrow
winding valleys thought to be lava channels), and grabens
(down-faulted valleys).
The last prominent features to form were rayed craters, as
exemplified by the 93-kilometer-wide (56-mile-wide)
Copernicus crater shown in Figure 24.7. Material ejected from
these craters blankets the maria surfaces and many older,
rayless craters. The relatively young Copernicus crater is
thought to be about 1 billion years old. Had it formed on Earth,
weathering and erosion would have long since obliterated it.
Today’s Lunar Surface
The Moon’s small mass and low gravity account for its lack of
atmosphere and flowing water; therefore, the processes of
weathering and erosion that continually modify Earth’s surface
are absent. In addition, tectonic forces are no longer active on
the Moon, so quakes and volcanic eruptions have ceased.
Because the Moon is unprotected by an atmosphere, erosion is
dominated by the impact of tiny particles from space
(micrometeorites) that continually bombard its surface and
gradually smooth the landscape. This activity has crushed and
repeatedly mixed the upper portions of the lunar crust.
15. Figure 24.8 Astronaut Harrison Schmitt, sampling the lunar
surface
Notice the footprint (inset) in the lunar “soil,” called regolith,
which lacks organic material and is therefore not a true soil.
Harrison Schmitt was the only geologist to go to the Moon.
(Courtesy of NASA)
Both the maria and terrae are mantled with a layer of gray,
unconsolidated debris derived from a few billion years of
meteoric bombardment (Figure 24.8). This soil-like layer,
properly called lunar regolith (rhegos = blanket, lithos = stone),
is composed of igneous rocks, breccia, glass beads, and fine
lunar dust. The lunar regolith is anywhere from 2 to 20 meters
(6.6 to 66 feet) thick, depending on the age of the lunar surface
in that particular region.
24.2 Concept Checks
Briefly describe the origin of the Moon.
Compare and contrast the Moon’s maria and highlands.
How are maria on the Moon similar to the Columbia Plateau in
the Pacific Northwest?
How is crater density used in the relative dating of the Moon’s
surface features?
Summarize the major stages in the development of the modern
lunar surface.
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G245/GLY1000 Section 01 Introduction to Geology
- Online - 2017 Fall Quarter
Week 01 - Beginnings
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G245/GLY1000 Section 01 Introduction to Geology - Online -
2017 Fall Quarter
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MessagesToolsTutoringSyllabuseText - Earth: An Introduction
to Physical Geology, 12th ed.Getting StartedDiscussionsWeek
01 - BeginningsWeek 02 - MineralsWeek 03 - Igneous
RocksWeek 04 - VolcanismWeek 05 - Folds and FaultsWeek 06
- EarthquakesWeek 07 - Geologic TimeWeek 08 - Plate
Tectonics and the OceansWeek 09 - Plate Tectonics and the
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