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OXFORD lJNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade ma¡k ofOxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries @ Oxford University Press 2013 The moral rights ofthe autho¡ have been asserted First published in zor3 2077 201.6 zo1.s 2014 2oa3 10987654327 AII rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, sto¡ed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate repro$aphics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope ofthe above should be sent to the ELT Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this sarne condition on any acquirer Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Photocopying The Publisher grants permission for the photocopying ofthose pages marked 'photocopiable' according to the following conditions. Individual purchasers may make copies for their own use or for use by classes that they teach. School purchasers may make copies for use by staffand students, but this permission does not extend to additional schools or branches Under no circumstances may any part ofthis book be photocopied for resale rsBN: 978 o 19 454126 8 Printed in China This book is printed on paper fiorn certified and well-rnanaged sources. AC I(NOWLE DGE ME NTS The authors cmd ptblisher are grar,efuI to those who hqve given permksion to reproduce the following extracts and adaptations oJ copyight material: p.77 Extract from Language Delelowent and Language Disorders by Lois Bloom and Margaret Lahey (1978). Macmillan Publishers; p.47 Figure Ílom'Some issues relating to the Monitor Model'by Stephen Krashen, On TESOI (1977). Reprinted by permission ofTESOL International Association; p.49 Extract from 'Constructing an acquisition-based procedure for second language assessment'by Manfred Pienemann, Malcolm Johnston, and Geoff Brindley irt Studies in Second Longuage Acqu$üofl , Volume 10/2, pp.277-a3 1988). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; p.53 Extract Ílom 'speeding up acquisition ofhisfter: Expücit L1/L2 contracts help' itSecond Language Acquisition and the Younger Learner: Child's Play? by Joanna White (2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohn Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia; p.54 Exhact ftom 'Second language instruction does make a diffe¡ence'by Catherine Doughty in Studies in Se.

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OXFORD lJNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade ma¡k ofOxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries @ Oxford University Press 2013 The moral rights ofthe autho¡ have been asserted First published in zor3 2077 201.6 zo1.s 2014 2oa3 10987654327 AII rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, sto¡ed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate repro$aphics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope ofthe above should be sent to the ELT Rights Department, Oxford University Press,
at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this sarne condition on any acquirer Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Photocopying The Publisher grants permission for the photocopying ofthose pages marked 'photocopiable' according to the following conditions. Individual purchasers may make copies for their own use or for use by classes that they teach. School purchasers may make copies for use by staffand students, but this permission does not extend to additional schools or branches Under no circumstances may any part ofthis book be photocopied for resale rsBN: 978 o 19 454126 8 Printed in China This book is printed on paper fiorn certified and well-rnanaged sources. AC I(NOWLE DGE ME NTS The authors cmd ptblisher are grar,efuI to those who hqve
given permksion to reproduce the following extracts and adaptations oJ copyight material: p.77 Extract from Language Delelowent and Language Disorders by Lois Bloom and Margaret Lahey (1978). Macmillan Publishers; p.47 Figure Ílom'Some issues relating to the Monitor Model'by Stephen Krashen, On TESOI (1977). Reprinted by permission ofTESOL International Association; p.49 Extract from 'Constructing an acquisition-based procedure for second language assessment'by Manfred Pienemann, Malcolm Johnston, and Geoff Brindley irt Studies in Second Longuage Acqu$üofl , Volume 10/2, pp.277-a3 1988). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; p.53 Extract Ílom 'speeding up acquisition ofhisfter: Expücit L1/L2 contracts help' itSecond Language Acquisition and the Younger Learner: Child's Play? by Joanna White (2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohn Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia; p.54 Exhact ftom 'Second language instruction does make a diffe¡ence'by Catherine Doughty in Studies in Second Language Acquisiüon, Volume 13/4, pp.431-69 (7991. Reproduced by permission of Carnbridge University Press; p.1 36 Reprinted fr om In t ern ati on al J ournol of E duc aüonal Research, Volume 37 by Merrill Swain and Sharon tapkin'Talking it through: two French immersion learners' response to reformulations' Pp.285-304 (2002)with permission from Elsevier; p.139 Exüact from 'Corrective feedback and learner uptake' by Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta in Studies in Second Longuage Acquisition, Volume 7917 pp.37 -66 (7997). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.
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AEIAAJd Sururea¡ aten8ue¡ puores Sulpear rar{unJ ;o3 suorrsaSSn5 lmurung rusrpn8ung pooqplll{J sle¡ap pur sraprosrp aSen8uel sa,rn:eds¡ad ¡eruaudolarrap/lsluoIlfEJaruI a¡'rpads¡ad lsltBuur eql a,upads¡ad lsrJnol^Eqeq aql uoltrslnb¡¿ aSen8ue¡ rsrg Surure¡dxg s-real loorps aq1 sreal ¡ooqes-a-rd aq1 sa¡uanbas ¡eruarudo¡a'reP PuE """t"tlsrililt::'g"T;tJ,Tr" ,{AAIAAJd pooqp¡¡qc,(¡rua ur 8u¡urea¡ aSun8uel I "'ur8aq a^4. aroJag uonrnPoJlul uoDrPa wJnoJ a{l or orsJard sruarua8paf"roulcv IIF IX SINflINOf
vlll Contents Individual differences in second language learning Preview Research on learner characteristics Intelligence Language learning aptitude Learning styles Personality Attitudes and motivation Motivation in the classroom Identiry and ethnic group affiliation Learner beliefs Individual differences and classroom instruction Age and second language learning The critical period: More than just pronunciation? Intuitions of grammaticality Rate of learning Age and second language instruction Summary Suggestions for further reading Explaining second language learning Preview The behaviourist perspective Second language applications: Mimicry and memorization
The innatist perspective Second language applications: Krashen's'Monitor Model' The cognitive perspective Information processing Usage-based learning The competition model Language and the brain Second language applications: Interacting, noticing, processing, and practising The sociocultural perspective Second language applications: Learning by talking Summary Suggestions for further reading 75 75 77 79 BO 83 84 87 88 B9 90 o') 92
94 95 96 96 99 100 103 103 103 103 t04 106 108 108 110 111 113 t13 118 119 120 t2l 6t27, LLL EIT, ZIZ
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uJrltysulSr¡o asoqr ruo{ r"J pella^¿rl ^ou eABr{ >looq arp Jo suorrrpa aargl 's;eaf lueru rol pe>lro./v qroq alrr eJar{ 'EpEuEJ 'cegan} ur sJer.lf,Bat .to3 sdoqslro,,'t ruarudo¡a,rap ¡ruorssajord Jo sarras E sE tno pelrtrs (fVfH) paufia7 atV sa&an&ua7 moH NOIIICIfl HIUNO{ flHI OI flf,V{ilud 'Sururea¡ (¿1) aSen8uel puoras or uorreler ur >loog aqr ur rarel parlsr^er a.re faqr pue rardeg: sr{t ur patuasard are Sulurea¡ (11) atenSue¡ rsrg rnoge sarroarp IEre aS 'a8rn8ue¡ tsrg rrar{r a¡mb¡¿ uerpllql noq3o SulputtsJapun Jno lq pa:uangur uaeq ar'eq Sulqcear a8enSuel puocas put r{f,Jeasar a8en8ue¡ puooes r{1og asnef,eg ruerrodul sl punorSl:Eq slql 'pooqpplr l¡.rea ur Suru:ea¡ a8en8ue¡ uo ;ardeqr E qlr^ sur8ag 1ooq eql 'pJuJEal e¡¿ sa8en8uel ,/vor{Jo Sulpuersrapun Jno r{tr^ tuelsrsuof, eJoru eJe leql slerr,r. ur uaqt rdepz or osp rnq sprJJtBru pue $looq -txal Surlsrxa aten[E^a or l¡uo rou ruaqr dlag leru rrr{r l{f,Jeesar uo¡usnbre a8rnSuq ar{rJo aruos ot-peouarredxa pue af,r^ou qroq-sJar{oral arnpoJrul
ot sr looq srr{Uo ¡eo8 aq1 'spograu Sulql¿ar a8enSue¡ snoIrEAJo sluauodo¡d fq aperu srurelf, alenlele ol sJarlrBel Suld¡aq ur elqenl"^ osl¿ aJ¿ uorlrsrnb¡e a8en8ue¡ puof,as ul f;oagl pue qf,J"esal luoJj u,&EJp wapl r¿qt e^elTag a1)N 'sluapnls rrar{l Jo sanllge pur spaeu eqr Jo Surpuetsrapun Jlar{l sE lleff sE 'sluaruturoddrslp ro sassaoons snol^erd qtvtr ecual¡adxa u¡rro ¡Iaql $ suorsloep (sJar{feel uo ef,uengu¡ turuodul rsotu eqr 'aJns eq oI ¿sa3n3eJd ¡euorr -fnJlsur rueJe5rpJo ssaue nfaga p¡ruarod aql et¿np e ol sJer{3eel eJE.1voH 'tuetuoJ f,nuapef,E ar{r uo snf,oJ sluepnrs se l¡rruaplf,ul peureal eq il¡,l 3¡asrr eBenBuEI arp ter{} uondu¡nsse aqr qrvy laueru rralgns I{JEal ol runlperu eqr se pasn sl a8rn8uq puof,es ar{l 'sruooJsselc auos u1 'a8en8url ^eu eql Sulsn a¡qz'r spalo¡d ¡o slser ul l¡er'lle¡adooc a8e8ua laqr sE sluepnts uea^teg uonef,runruuro: (l¿Jnleu, sa8utnocua Jeqloue ra¡'san8o¡e¡p aJrlua ezlJoluaru pue seouelues tf,eJJof Jo las e aslr¡e.rd pue alellrm sluepnls 8ur,rerl3o an¡ert aqt sazseqdua reglouv 'slxJl lreJatl¡ 3u¡re¡suerl uI esn or fre¡nqtcort jo slsr pue reururer8jo sJlnr uJeal ot stuapnts seJlnbeJ q:eordde auo 'paruaru
-a¡drur pur pasodord uaag a,req Surgceat aSen8uq or saqceordde lue¡¡ l¡a,rrrcaga ueql esn ol lsag rrer{r op or a Er{ oqtll sJal{rrar or parnqlJ}slp pu¿ paJepJo l¡durs are lagr 'sJrullatuos 'uolleluarua¡drul laqr ul 8ururc¡l alrsuetxa JoJ senrunlJoddo qrmt aruof, slEIJalEIu.lvou aql 'sauJllaurog 'uolSar Jo loor{f,s E ur uorletuaua¡dul a}Blporurul JoJ paglJf,se¡d a.¡e saqceo:dde ^au aqt 'sase¡ furru uI 'aJoJaq auo8 aaeg rel{r asoqr u"ql a^Ipüa aJoul aq illrr'laqr regr plor erE srrr{r"3J 'lSo8epad ¡o 's¡rlslnSuu 'l3o¡oqcfsd ur qf,Jeasar rsarel er{t uo pJS"q eq ol pIES ueuo are laqr 'parnpo¡tur e¡e 8ul -qreel a8en8ue¡ u8laro3 pup puores roJ qooqrxal pur spoqraur ldau uaql¡ NOIIfNCIOUINI Innoduction In Chapter 2 we look at second language learners' developing knowledge, their abiliry to use that knowledge, and how this compares with Ll learning. In Chapter 3, we rurn our attention to how individual learner characteristics
may affect success. In Chapter 4, several theories that have been advanced to explain second language learning are presented and discussed. Chapter 5 begins with a comparison of naturd and instructional environments for second language learning.'We then examine some different ways in which researchers have observed and described teaching and learning practices in second language classrooms. In Chapter 6, we examine six proposals that have been made for second language teaching. Examples of research related to each of the proposals are presented, leading to a discussion of the evidence available for assessing their effectiveness. The chapter ends with a discussion of what research findings suggest about the most effective ways to teach and learn a second language in the classroom. In Chapter 7, we will provide a general summary of the book by looking at how research can inform our response to some'popular opinions' about lan- guage learning and teaching that are introduced below. A Glossary provides a quick reference for a number of terms that may be new or have specific technical meanings in the context of language acquisition research. Glossary words are shown in bold letters where they first appear in
the text. For readers who would like to find out more, an annotated list of suggestions for further reading is included at the end of each chapter. The Bibliography provides full reference information for the suggested readings and all the works that are referred to in the text. 'W'e have tried to present the information in a way that does not assume that readers are akeady familiar with research methods or theoretical issues in second language learning. Examples and case studies are included through- out the book to illustrate the research ideas. Many of the examples are taken from second language classrooms. le have also included a number ofactivi- ties for readers to practise some of the techniques of observation and analysis used in the research that we review in this book. At the end of each chapter are 'Questions for refection to help readers consolidate and expand their understanding of the material. Before we begin ... It is probably true, as some have claimed, that most of us teach as we were taught or in awaythat matches our ideas and preferences about howwe learn. Take a moment to refect on your views about how languages are learned and what you think this means about how they should be taught. The statements in the activity below summarize some popular opinions about
language 'seuo xelduo) eJolaq seJntrnJls a8en8ue¡ a¡durs qJeel Plnoqs sJeqf,eal | | 'Jaqloue ol uo 3uto3 aJoleq euo qf,ee ¡o sa¡dr,uexa as¡Dad plnoqs sJeuJeel Pu€'eutl e lp euo selnJ lellleuue"r8 luasa.ld PlnoLls sJeq)€al Ol 'sra¡eads el!}eu ql!^ suotl€sJeluof, ut ated¡r¡ued ,ftsea uer laqr'e8en8u€l e ,o ernDnJN ilseq eql Pu€ sPJo^ 000'l ^ oDl sJeuJeal a)uo ó 'aSenBue¡ puof,as eqt u! spunos lenpr^rpu! aql ¡¡e erunouord ol alqE eq ol sJeuJeal Jo, l€lluassa s! rl I '3utpea.t q8no.rqr sr ,fue¡nqero,r /veu uJ€el ol ,(e¡,r lseq eql ¿ 'a8entue¡ m-rg Jleqt uo4 elueJeFetu! ol anP aJ€ 3)eu sJeuJ€el e8en8ue¡ puof,as teqt selelslu eql ro lso¡ 9 '3uru;ea¡ ur ssaf,f,ns ,o pooqrle¿!l aql rateelt eql'seuu€J3o-rd ¡ooq:s ur pe)npoJtut st aten8ue¡ Puofes P JallJeo eql S
'uolle^ltour st uortlslnb¡e a8en8ue¡ Puof,es u! sse)fns ¡o ;ontpard lusuodLul rsou aql t 'sJeuJeal a8en8ue¡ poo8 a"re a¡doad rueS¡¡¡aru¡ llq8lU e 'sJoJJe ¡er¡teuue;3 a¡eu ,(aqr ueq,r,r ueJpltql Sunol }¡a.l'¡or ,!¡ensn sluaJed Z 'uolletlru! q8no-rqr l¡ureu PeuJEel a;e sa8en8uel ¡ osovvs aar8esrp l¡Suorrs-q5 teq^ euos aa-r8esrp-6 leq^ euos aa-r8e-Y ae.r8e ,!3uo;rs-y5 :uoruldo rnol qlrr* Peletf,osse xoq eql ul ¡ ue Suqreu lq tuaualets q)ea qr!^A aa.l3e nol q)lq/v 01 luelxe aqt elerlPul sluoruolels aseql uo uoluldo JnoÍ eAlD Arl^lrcv 'Sulurea¡ a8en8ue¡ Puoias ul ,Goaql Pue q3Jeasal luoJJnf, rnoge Pear nol sr punu ul rrJegl or suopf,EeJ rnol pue sluaruel?ls asaqr daal 'uorurdo gr", qri^ aarSeslp ¡o aa¡8e nol raqtaqr'r rnoqe lun{I 'Surgrear pue Sulurea¡ uo4Jnpo4uI
Introduction Photocopiable @ Oxford University Press l2 Learners'errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. l3 Teachers should use materials that expose students only to language structures they have already been taught. l4 When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair activities), they copy each other's mistakes. l5 Students learn what they are taught. ló Teachers should respond to students'errors by correctly rephrasing what they have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error. l7 Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their second language. l8 Classrooms are good places to learn about language but not for learning how to use language. ¿a8en8ur¡ auo ueqr a¡otu a¡rnb¡e uerPllql tenSut¡t9 oP ./roH ¿PIro1( eql Punor¿ l¡re¡u¡s do¡a,rap eSenSur¡ PInp
seoc ¿sasod -¡nd lsour JoJ lryssaDns sI uolleflunluruof, a¡duls f¡rea -uaqr g8noqr ua,ra a8en8uq ¡erlteruutr8 xa¡duro:8urdo¡a,rap uo oB ol uerPlrql seqsnd rer¡6 ¿salueluas ¡ry3ulueau ul raqlaSor ureqr rnd ol lnq 'sProlv uJml ol l¡uo rou pI,{¡ " salgeua r"qrh ¿srgr gsr¡druorre uarPllqr oP.u'oH 'suorle¡aua8:o3 srs¡8 -o1oqilsd pue stslnSullJo uonuaue er{r Parf,EJrlB seq lEI{l auo- tta; Sulzeure ue sl a8en8ue¡ e Sulurea¡ 'paapul ',alq-elq, rsJg al{l PaJaDn seq p¡o-reaf-auo asor{1rr sruarrd3o fol pur aprrd aqr ur arBl{s el/ PuE 'sargeg rrPloJo Sullqqrq ,Eq-¿q-Eq, IEuoltesrs^uof aqr (re.¿!suB, pue gSne¡ a¿¡ dqeq Plo-qruou-e3rr{1 e lq apeul spunos eqr or arnsea¡d qlIA uetsll a¿¡ 'ruaurdole^aP u"runl{ Jo spadse 8u¡reutoseS pue a,rtssardlul lsolu eqr Jo auo sr uorlrsrnbre o8enSuel uonrspbce a8entuel rsrl¡ 'looq slglJo snf,oJ aqr sr r{f,rr{1vr ,(WS) uorlrslnb¡e a8enSue¡ puof,asJo uorssnf,srp el{r JoJ uollsr -eda¡d e se f¡ruulud ,I{iJEasaJ sII{l ur slutod uleru dal E uo l{f,nol or s¡ rardrqr sII{l ur asod¡nd Jno .ile^ sE r{fJessJJ I"Jntlnf,-ssoJf, puE
f,nsrnSur¡ssor:3o lpoq qru E sr erarp 'serllureJ umdorng PuE uEf,IJOlrtV I{lJoN ss"ll-alPPltu ul euop ueaq s"q qf,J"asar sII{r Jo qcnur g8noqr¡y 'aBenBuBI PIIqr uo l{rreesar Jo lunolue asuarurur uB sr aJer{I .peuJEal sl aSenSue¡./vor{ JoJ suoneueldxa s" paraJo ueeq e Br{ tEqr serroar{l IErrAes rePlsuof, ueqr ilI^ a4N 'uarPllql Sunol3o rueurdolalop aSrn8uq aqr re fgarrq lool ill1r ar* terdeqc slq] uI ^.er^eJd COOHCITIHf,,TfUVE NI DNINUVfl-I flDVNDNVf Language learning in early childhood Tbef.rst three years: Milestones and deu e lopmental sequences One remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the high degree of similariry in the early language of children all over the world. Researchers have described developmental sequences for many aspects of first language acquisition. The earliest vocalizations are simply the involuntary crying that babies do when they are hungry or uncomfortable. Soon, however, we hear the cooing and gurgling sounds of contented babies, lying in
their beds looking at fascinating shapes and movement around them. Even though they have little control over the sounds they make in these early weeks of life, infants are able to hear subtle differences between the sounds of human languages. Not only do they distinguish the voice of their mothers from those of other speakers, they also seem to recognize the language that was spoken around their mother before theywere born. Furthermore, in cleverly designed experiments, researchers have demonstrated that tiny babies are capable ofvery fine auditorydiscrimination. For example, they can hear the difference between sounds as similar as pa'and'ba'. Janet'ü7erker, Patricia Kuhl, and others have used new technologies that allow us to see how sensitive infants are to speech sounds. tü7'hat may seem even more remarkable is that infants stop making distinctions between sounds that are not phonemic in the language that is spoken around them. For example, by the time they afe ayear old, babies who will become speakers of Arabic stop reacting to the difference between pa' and'ba'which is not pho- nemic in Arabic. Babies who regularly hear more than one language in their environment continue to respond to these differences for a longer period ('Werke¡ 'Weikum, and Yoshida 2006) . One important finding
is that it is not enough for babies to hear language sounds from electronic devices. In order to learn-or retain-the abiliry to distinguish between sounds, they need to interact with a human speaker (Conboy and Kuhl 20II). The Internet abounds with remarkable videos of infants reacting to language sounds. rMhether they are becoming monolingual or bilingual children, however, it will be many months before their own vocalizations begin to refect the characteristics ofthe language or languages they hear and longer still before they connect language sounds with specific meaning. However, by the end of their first year, most babies understand quite a few frequently repeated words in the language or languages spoken around them. Theywave when someone says 'bye-bye'; they clap when someone says pat-a-cake'; they eagerly hurry to the kitchen when 'juice and cookies' are mentioned. At 12 months, most babies will have begun to produce a word or two that everyone recognizes. By the age of two, most children reliably produce at least 50 different words and some produce many more. About this dme, they begin to combine words into simple sentences such as 'Mommy juice' and I
I ( l I Í : t ? Puz aql salf,rlr? (lddrg sz furuoyt¡) e¡ndoo (req slppeq) s- a,rrssessod (tuam Áqeg) suro; rsed rep8arl (qooq ozvrr) s- prn¡d (Suruunr furuo¡lq) &ur aqssat8o¡d luesa¡d 'parpnls fagr saruaqd -roru rr{t Jo eruos s.l$,oqs (11ooq g.L6l su^&org ruor3 pardepe) .vro¡aq tsIT eql 'aruanbas JEInuls t ur pa;lnbce eJalv sauragdroru ¡ecneruruer8 Vl ñqt PunoJ laqr (qereg pue 'elg 'ur"py pa¡ec) ue¡P¡gr oerqrJo tuaurdola,rap a8en8ue¡ aqr3o.,(pnrs purpn¡l8uol e uI 'sruaPnrs PuE san8ea¡or slq PuE u^org raSo¿ fq rno paur¿f, se,/v serpnrs úvoul-lsaq eI{Uo auo 'qsrÉug u¡ saruagd.roru ¡rr -neruu¡¿¡8 a¡mb¡e uarpllql .&oq uo Pasnf,oJ sJatlf,JEesar FJs
es '<s096I el{r uI seuer{dJoru IBf, lreuur"Jc 'sreal looqrs eqr ¡run IoJruof Japun llara¡druor aq rou deru PuB erull aJolu ua a saler (,laa3, se grns) s¡ern¡d re¡nSarrr Jo asn Darro3 'sunou or s8urpua p.rn¡d ppe l¡qertar larp ero;aq 3uo1 ¡ern¡d pue .rt¡n8urs uea urq qsrn8urrslp utr uarPllql 'a¡duexa JoC 'arun Suoy r roj SurpuersJapun a,rnruSoo suaJPIIr{o ut luasa¡d uaag a^¿q r¿qr s¿epl Sulssa¡dxa JoJ sluauela :lrsm8ut¡ 3I{r Jo uorllsrnbce ¡enprr8 aqr tf,egal ot rr¡eas sa¡uanbas ¡eruaudolartap agl 'saser Jar{ro uI 'arullJo Surpurrs -Japun auos do¡a,rap daqr Ipun ¡aa^ lsEL Jo r!oJJoulot, sE l{f,ns sgJs PE ¡e.rodruar esn lou op ueJpllqr'a¡druexa ro¿ 'tuarudo¡arrap arrrrluSol s,ueJPIIql ot palEIeJ eJB uoltlslnbce a8en8uz¡ ur saSels esaql 'lualxa euros QT.',sa8els, ¡o sa¡uanbas ¡rruauldo¡a^epJo sturat uI PaqIJf,saP ueaq e^EI{ surauzd asaql 'sarnl¿al a8rn8uz¡ eruos roú '8uru;re¡ art faqr a8en8ue¡ aqrJo saJnrBai lueur 3o ruaudo¡a ep pue acuaS¡au¡a eql ur su¡au¿d a¡qerclpard are eraqt 's-real aarr{r tsJg Jleql ur a8en8ut¡ 1o lra,rorslp aqt r¡8nonp ssa¡8o¡d uaJPIII{3 ry ,'de¡ rnolgo au do.rp or puaratd nol a-reqztr Sulqr
luury teqr op asee¡d {pp"C, ue^a ro ,Sutqtaruos paddorp ÍPP"C, ro üz'roP ¡a3lpprq, ueau rq8¡ru ,qo-qn lpP"C, (uolltnlls eqr uo Surpuedaq ,'ule8r aplstno oB ol luezrr I, utetu &ur ,aptslno a.lotu, 'a¡dtuexe Jo{ 'sPJolv aulgluof, l¡a,rnrar: uer fagr regr su8rs ,&oqs sefuetues PJod-aaJI{l PUE -o^l JIaI{I 'pJEJrl a,req laqr teqr* SuneIurr fFcaSradull uBI{l arou Sutop aJE uerPIIIir ler{t saJueluas l¡rea eseql ur ue^a 'afuePl^a aes osp aA 'llqelreura¡ ',ssr1 fgeg, se Sulgr arues eqr u€eru tou seoP fqeq ssu, 'PIIql Suqeads-qst8uE uE JoJ'snql'spro,,'r jo rsIT e rsnl ueqr aJou Iueql salelu reqr dlgsuone¡ar ¡nj8uluearu e eAEq spro r. paulqruof, al{r Pue Suueag arr laqr e8en8ur¡ arir Jo JJPJO PJoa al{l slJJUeJ JaPJo PJolv agt '8u¡ssnu a;e saruaqdrou TEJIleIu -uer8 pur spJo.lrauoprury gSnoqt ua^e ,asnefaq seouetues sE tual{t azruSora.t a/N 'sgJa^,ftenxne PuE 'suolllsodard 'sa¡r¡rre se s8ulqt qf,ns lno a,rea¡ laqr esnef,eg ,:tgdtr8a¡al, pallrf, seuneuros oJE sef,ueluos asaql '(u- 1vop ¡e3 lqeq, ?ooqfl lqr [1taa ut Sututoal a7anSuaT ( I
l J Language learning in early childhood regular past -el(she walked) third person singular simple present -s (she runs) auxiliary be (he is coming) Brown and his colleagues found that a child who had mastered the gram- matical morphemes at the bottom of the list had also mastered those at the top, but the reverse was not true. Thus, there was evidence for a 'developmen- tal sequence' or order of acquisition. However, the children did not acquire the morphemes at the same age or rate. Eve had mastered nearly all the mor- phemes before she was two-and-a-halfyears old, while Sarah andAdam were still working on them when they were three-and-a-half or four. Brownt longitudinal work was confirmed in a cross-sectional study of 21 children. Jill and Peter de Villiers (1973) found that children who correctly used the morphemes that Adam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired late were also able to use the ones thatAdam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired earlier. The chil- dren mastered the morphemes at different ages, just asAdam, Eve, and Sarah
had done, but the order of their acquisition was very similar. M-y hypotheses have been advanced to explain why these grammatical morphemes are acquired in the observed order. Researchers have studied the frequency with which the morphemes occur in parents' speech, the cognitive complexity of the meanings represented by each morpheme, and the difficulty ofperceiving or pronouncing them. In the end, there has been no simple satis- factory explanation for the sequence, and most researchers agree that the order is determined by an interaction among a number of different factors. To supplement the evidence we have from simply observing children, some carefully designed procedures have been developed to further explore chil- drent knowledge ofgrammatical morphemes. One ofthe first and best known is the so-called 'wug test' developed byJean Berko Gleason (1958). In this 'test', children are shown drawings of imaginary creatures with novel names or people performing mysterious actions. For example, they are told, 'Here is a wug. Now there are tvvo of them. There are two -'
or 'Here is a man who knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing. Yesterday, he -'. By completing these sentences with'wugs' and'bodded', children demonstrate that they know the patterns for plural and simple past in English. By gener- alizing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they show that their language is more than just a list of memorizedword pairs such as'book/ books' and'nod/nodded'. AcrtvtrY Try out the'wug' test A web search for'wug test' will turn up many examples of the pictures and the text created for this landmark research. lf you know some English-speaking children under the age of five years, try using the test with them. '.e9, PUE (oP, s3 qsns sgJe^ lrer¡xne;o ruJoJ lf,JJJoJ al{l ot lueue¡a arttteSau tql qf,Ettr or
ur8ag uarPIIq) V a8atg 1l tu31( luoP aH 'rr oP r,u?J I 'sesuat ¡o suos¡ad ruaJ3JIP JoJ stuJoJ asagr,{:ert ral rou op uerplrr{r ta,rellol-1 'qJO^ Iepour ro lreqtxne aqr or arr¡rz8eu eqt Surgrerre 3o uraued qsn8ug tf,arroo eIF ArolloJ or ¡¿add¿ seouetuas aseql '(luoP, PUE ,r¡ref,, 3{ll sPJolv Sulpn¡:ur ',ou, uEql raqro arure8eu el{rJo sruro; ppe leu uaJplrqJ 'efualuas xa¡duoc oJorrl E olul pelJasul sI luaruelo arrne8au aq¡ g aSatg ¡tel{t qlnor t,uoq 'rIBI{ qruoJ ou IPP"C '.luoP, asn ueuo uouqlgord ¡o uouoala¡ Sulssa¡dxa sef,uelues 'gJa^ aqt aJoJag lsnl s¡radde PJo^ a^n¿ -8au aq1 'pepnloul eq leu rrafgns eJuelues aql PuB ra8uo¡ ntor8 saruerau¡ 7 a8a6 'rIEr{ gluof, oN'aDloof, oN'oN 'af,uBJalln eql uI PJoll rsJU Jqt sE Jo Juol" IIE Jaqtla ',ou, pJodr agr fq passardxa f¡¡ensn sl uolte8a¡ ¡ a8ug
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10 Language learning in early childhood You didnt have supper. She doesnt want it. Even though their language system is by now quite complex, they may still have dificulty with some other features related to negatives. I dont have no more candies. Questions The challenge of learning complex language systems is also illustrated in the developmental stages through which children learn to ask questions. There is a remarkable consistency in the way children learn to form ques- tions in English. For one thing, there is a predictable order in which the 'uh-words' emerge (Bloom 1991). ''$7hat' is generally the first wh- question word to be used. It is often learned as part of a chunk ('(hassat?') and it is some time before the child learns that there are variations of the form, such as ''$7hat is that?' and'lhat are these?'. 'lhere' and 'who' emerge very soon. Identifying and locating people and objects are within the childt understanding of the world. Furthermore, adults tend to ask children just these types of questions in the early days of language learning, for example, 'lheret Mommy?' or ''Whot
that?' 'Why' emerges around the end of the second year and becomes a favourite for the next year or two. Children seem to ask an endless number ofquestions beginning with why', having discovered how effectively this little word gets adults to engage in conversation, for example, 'Why that lady has blue hair?' Finall¡ when the child has a better understanding ofmanner and time, 'how' and'when emerge. In contrast to 'what', 'where', and 'who' questions, chil- dren sometimes ask the more cognitively difficult why', when, and 'how' questions without understanding the answers they get, as the following con- versation with a four-year-old clearly shows. cHrLD tü7hen can we go outside? PARENT In about five minutes. cHrLD l-2-3-4-51Can we go now? The ability to use these question words is at least partly tied to children's cog- nitive development. It is also predicted in part by the questions children are asked and the linguistic complexiry of questions with different wh- words. Thus it does not seem surprising that there is consistency in the sequence of their acquisition. Perhaps more surprising is the consistency in the acquisi- tion of word order in questions. This development is not based
on learning new meanings, but rather on learning different linguistic patterns to express meanings that are already understood. l ! I I q f A n .¿8url.r: aq sl ft¡¡r, tou tnq ,¿Sutfrc ag s1, 'a¡druexa.ro3) qtoq rou tnq 'PJo,r -qmE rouorsJalur Jaqtlo asn or alg" ruaes uaJplll{J 'JeAa^oI{'a8els slql tr ue,tg ¿u?erf, acr e>lrl sSop oq 'ef,uatuas er{l1o uorsJe e^neJelf,ep aqt ut lrcqtxne ou aq ppo^ aJar{r r{rrrf'.r ur suonsanb ul .op, ppe ue^a uel ueJPIIqr 'a8ers slqr rtrr ¿aru quz'rle¡d or 3ulo3 nol ary
'rrafgns aqt aJoJaq ¡eadde ]Er{l sJIr -Erlrxnr arp ur lrarre^ eJoru sr aJagl rng 'E a8trg jo asoqt elqruasal suonsanb JrlI 'uolsJelul l¡erTrxne-t:algns lq pauro3 are suoltsenb auos '7 a8er5 ly yaSwg ¿tr par{f,ref, no,( lq¿¡ ¿euo e eq r uop nol fqr¡1 ¿ar¡oor E a^Br{ uel I oC ¿prrll $ lppar aqr s1 'ruJoJ lualuelEls sll uI afuelues arpJo rsal aql Surrtea¡ 'esualues BJo (luo{, aqr re (protvi uonsanb ro gra,r e) Sunpauros Surrrnd lq PauroJ art suousanb teqr eq or srueas alnJ s,pllql eqt asnef,aq ,3urluor3, a8ers qgr IIEI alN :euurer8 tppe equo arrn¡ads¡ad eqr ruo{ uEI{l rer{rrr a,rncads¡ad EPIIqT eql ruo;3 urarred eqt aas ot peau alr'slql aglJf,seP oI'uosreJ 8uo¡rtr aqr ro3 lq8rr aq &u faqr 'uraued llnpr aqt qrtetu a8zrs str¡r te suorlsanb aruos q8noqr¡y ¿lddeq nol ary ¿o3 1 ue3 :sr l{f,ns suorlsanb acnpord or uÉag pue ruaJaglp sr suoltsanb 3o arnnnrrs aql leqr e3llou uarPllql 'f¡enp-erg g aSatg 'suortsanb pateaJf u,{o JIaI{l eprs8uo¡e ,¿reqr s.rerltr, sE r{f,ns sruJoJ peuJeel->lunql loerrof, aqr aonpord ol
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( ( a II T2 Language learning in early childhood Therefore, we may find inversio n in yes/no questions but not in wh- ques- tions, unless they are formulaic units such as "ü7'hatb that?' Stage 5 At Stage 5, both wh- andyes/n questions are formed correctly. Are these your boots? íhy did you do that? Does Daddy have a box? Negative questions may still be a bit too difficult. X/hy the teddy bear cant go outside? And even though performance on most questions is correct, there is still one more hurdle. tWhen tuh- words appear in subordinate clauses or embedded questions, children overgeneralize the inverted form that would be correct for simple questions and produce sentences such as: Ask him why cant he go out.
Stage 6 At this stage, children are able to correctly form all question types, including negative and complex embedded questions. Passage through developmental sequences does not always follow a steady uninterrupted path. Children appear to learn new things and then fall back on old patterns when there is added stress in a new situation or when they are using other new elements in their language. But the overall path takes them toward a closer and closer approximation of the language that is spoken around them. Zhe pre-scltoolyears By the age of four, most children can ask questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones, using correct word order and grammatical markers most of the time. In fact, it is generally accepted that by age four, children have acquired the basic structures of the language or languages spoken to them in these early years. Three- and four-year-olds continue to learn vocabulary at the rate of several words a day. They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures such as passives and relative clauses.
Much of children's language acquisition effort in the late pre- school years is spent in developing their ability to use language in a widening social environ- ment. They use language in a greater variery of situations. They interact more often with unfamiliar adults. They begin to talk sensibly on the telephone to invisible grandparents (younger children do not understand that their telephone partner cannot see what they see). They acquire the aggressive or I I & 1 c o ú IlI oI TI nel rez 'ca iss of InL
rid d¡¡rue3 pue spuerrj rrar{r qlrrvr, aJeqs or ar'o¡ feqr qlrq./$ '.salpplJ pue 'suonsenb >1cur 'sa>1ol pror* ot ssef,f,E uaJplrr{f, sa¡.r8 Suru¿aru a¡dnpu a ¿r{ uEf sefualues puE spJolv reqr Sumou;¡ lrlnSlque se s8ulqr r{f,ns Jo &ertoosrp eqt sapnlf,ur osle sseuar?1(E cnsm8ul¡elary ¡Jeuor{s l¡rnuersgns sr stuasa¡da¡ rl rralgo egr q8noqr uaAe ',urBJJ, uer{l pJolvr Je8uo¡ e sr ,re¡¡ldralec, teql puetsJepun laql 'sr (asnor{, se lsnl 'prorrr e sr (ar{l, ter{t pu"rsJepun p¿aJ uer or{ uerplrgr 'sp¡o-reaf-aarr{r eTlun 'stuasa¡da¡ u Sulqr egt ruo{ etEJ -¿das sl (pJo1r, e rtqr SulpuetsJapun aqt sef,Jo3urer Sulpta¡ '8ulu¿aru s¿ ila^ sB ruJoJ seg a8en8url regr SuryurtsJapun .&eu E ot ueJplrql spea¡ a8ed e uo s¡oqruls rer.llo pue sJouel lg paruasardal spJoa Sulaag 'sseuaJr^re rnsrn8url -Eleru ol rsoog;ofuur ¿ sa¡tr8 peeJ or Sulureal 's^r'ro¡8 pue spuedxa lr¡lqe srgl 's;eal ¡ooqcs aql ut pue 'sreaf loogcs-ard agt ur s8urueeru u1ro rraqt ssardxa ol pue srar{lo puelsJepun or aSen8ue¡ asn ol lrlllq" aqr do¡a,rap uaJpllr{f sffia[ Iooqrs aql 'luarudo¡ar'ap a8enSuel JoJ sonrunlJoddo ¡'rau s8u¡rq pur e8en8uel
Sulsn 3o s&¡rr ¡'rau sa.rrnba¡ Suuas Iooqls aql (asn a8en8ue¡ pue a8enSurl roJ sllDIS pur a8pa¡r'tou¡ xa¡duo: a¡rnb¡e uarplrr{r ¡oor¡cs-ard q8noqr¡y 'looqls or oB fagr arun eql lg aroru ro srnor{ 000'02 JoJ tuau¡uoJr^ue JrerFJo a8en8ue¡ eqr qrr^ tf,¿luof, ul are larp ltr{l eterurlse l¿ru a¡r' 'lep e srnoq e la r Jo uat JoJ a>p./vE arc uaJplll{f, JI 'stuaruuoJl^ua qolr-a8en8ue¡ ul puads uerplrqf, snoq lurur r'rog rsnl nof zvroqs III^ esllraxe I¿f,ntuer{reru >1:rnb y 'fta 'uorsr^elar Suryrreztr 'ol pear Surag 'suoltesrarr -uo3 (sJJqlo uo Sulddorpsalea 'suonesJa uof, ur Sull¿dlrlrred- a8en8ue¡ qrvn SunceJerul srnor{ Jo spu"snor¡r ruads a^¿q ueJpllqr reql lgr.ror'r -alou osle sr lI 'elrssaJdrur sl s:eal ¡oorl:s-ard eqr ur uolllslnbce a8rn8url '(punoJe ft¡rr 3uo¡¡tr aqt, sr Jarpo eqr rnq lillt, tl auo l"ql nol ¡ar uec lagl '(l?a er{l e>pf,, ruo5 le,rn tuareglp ¿ ul 8uo¡¡'¡. sr (Jrer{J aql {uIJp, rEI{r r'rortl 'pueq raqto eqt uo 'sp¡o-reaf-arrr{ 'suearü rr r"q.ü puersJapun uec faqr rrrp 13BJ rr{r uo l¡urcu sncoS ¡lrv' laqr rnq 'ppo llq e s,u .r*ou1 lagr reqr rrroqs leur leql 'l qrwr Suorrvr, Sulqrlue s erar{l reqr aJns ssel eJE lagl ',lea aqt a1to, fes Ja^au ppol'r faqr g8noqrp ta e./úoH 'asuas a>pru r,usaop tI asn"f,eg ',JIBqf aqt >lurrp, fes or f¡ls, s,rr rerp nof ¡ar uEf, uarpllqr p1o-.real- aarq¡ 'sla,ruo:
tr Suru¿aru eqr ruo5 ete¡edas roalqo ue sr aBenBuEI r"oJr or óITr9e al{l 'sseu -a¡e¿rre:nsrnSu[elau do¡a,rap or ulSag os[B ueJplrr{J 'sreaf ¡ooqcs-ard aqr u¡ 'sarJel a8en8ue¡ lgr'.r put lroq pu"tsJepun or ur8aq pur aroldxa larp 'ftrvr sr¡r uI '(se3ro^ ruaJ$lp asaqr 8u¡sn asnce;d faql r{3ll{,/v ur &¡d puarard arerogele ur a8pa¡.,'ron1 srql asn laqr pue laqro q:ea or lpr fagr mog pue serqsq or lpr srlnPe ^/yoq ue3.&tag ef,uaJaJIP aqr Paur?al ar'rq laqr 13Ip /{ogs faql 'punor8le¡d aql ur sfor rregr puaJap or pepaau sI rrr{r e8en8ue¡ 8ur¡ofu: ?ooqflltf [lraa wSutunal aSan&uaT J( JI ar 3l -I SI S: o. SI aÍ
P J: 1J u s: & ll ,l l: P el tr t4 Language learning in early childhood One of the most impressive aspects of language development in the school years is the astonishing growth ofvocabulary. Children enter school with the ability to understand and produce several thousand words, and thousands more will be learned at school. In both the spoken and written language at school, words such as 'homework' or'ruler' appear frequently in situations where their meaning is either immediately or gradually
revealed.'Words like population or'latirude' occur less frequently, but they are made important by their significance in academic subject matter. Vocabulary grows at a rate of between several hundred and more than a thousand words e year, depending mainly on how much and how widely children read (Nagy, Herman, andAnderson 1985). The kind ofvocabulary growth required for school success is likely to come from both reading for assignments and reading for pleasure, whether narrative or non- fiction. Dee Gardner (2004) suggests that reading avariety oftext types is an essential part of vocabulary growth. His research has shown how the range of vocabulary in narrative texts is different from that in non-fiction. There are words in non-fiction texts that are unlikely to occur in stories or novels. In addition, non-fiction tends to include more opportunities to see a word in its different forms (for example, 'mummy', 'mummies', 'mummified').Th. importance of reading for vocabulary growth is seen when observant parents report a child using a new word but mispronouncing it in a way that reveals it has been encountered only in written form. Another important development in the school years is the acquisition of dif- ferent language registers. Children learn how written language
differs from spoken language, how the language used to speak to the principal is different from the language of the playground, how the language of a science report is different from the language of a narrative. As Terry Piper (2006) and others have documented, some children will have even more to learn if they come to school speaking an ethnic or regional variety ofthe school language that is quite different from the one used by the teacher. They will have to learn that another variety, often referred to as the standard variety, is required for suc- cessful academic work. Other children arrive at school speaking a different language altogether. For these children, the work of language learning in the early school years presents additional opportunities and challenges. 'W'e will return to this topic when we discuss bilingualism in early childhood. Explaining first language acquisition These descriptions of language development from infancy through the early school years show that we have considerable knowledge of tahat children learn in their early language development. More controversid, howeve¡ are questions about how this development takes place. rVhat abilities does the child bring to the task and what are the contributions of the
environment? ¿(>pnn ar{t) ll or Pauaddeq leqAt ,srvrr (rerr¡) '1cnrr dunq 'slaarl[ ]f,nrr dtunq dirrild plf,nJt dunp eqr ul sleeq/( e¡ou¡ lnd euuo8 ar¡o sIo'I 'aJorü laD utrrad 'uo lool <sIoT pue lsrr¿ 'sr¡npe o^r alr{^/$, >l3nrr dulnp e qrl^ Surlqd sr (sqruou V7) nta¿ 'enSoprp Surirro¡o3 aqr uI r1npe aqt sat¿llurl Jalad ^{'oI{ sfllou 'eloqe suouusaP aqr Surs¡ 'r¡npt Surlrsln ¿ qrl¡l pa&¡d laqr se peprof,er arar* laqr usrr{ plo sqtuoru ,zfioqe ¡¡e aram,{aq1 'uÁqru¡ pur 'lpul3 telad luoU sldr¡¡sue¡l aql eulluBxa ^oN 'SlOJJ¿f, rre I{roq legl'storref, lea auo Jal{ro Jr{I 'sloJref, lea aH ,{cNIc 'urJoJ Jo uonelndrutu ar'¡rpadal :af,Itf,EJd s¡op qrrn'fe¡¿ ,cn'I ¿slloP aqr grv"' fe¡d er II?I{S uaHrol I
.ef,ueJaltn s esla euoerüos3o rrrd ro IIEJo uonnedar prortr-ro1- PJo1v :uollelllul raprsuof, 'srulal o u asagr rq r""r* r;]'rlllff;{I;11*i:il?J"qJtü ur sasse¡o¡d l¡¿ul¡d eqt sE lxlJvtd pue uotlaluat Pa/'/'JL srsIJnoI^EI{3q eI{I $ldut?tca ?u? suo?qu{aq :qcaads s,uaty¡tqe Sutst1auy .uJ"el or spaau pF{l egr Surqrf-ra^aJo ef,Jnos aql sE luauuoJl^ua aql ol e3uEl -¡odu¡l rze¡8 sa,tl3-froal{r slgl'rnolleqeq a8en8ue¡ s,P¡ql aqr adeqs PFo^ ,luauluoJr,rua aql q sJJr{to lq pa-rago lualuef,JoJuleJ JIII Jo fcuats¡suoc ar¡t s" II3./$ sE'sreallPltll 3q1 a8en8ut¡ sqrJo ó¡rurnb pue.lrnrnb aql'^eI^ ,rqio,8.rrp:o:ry:asn a3en8ue¡ DerJof,Jo ,sllq'I{, PeurroJ fagr ¡run su¡aued pu? spunos eseql asnf,BJd pue arrr¡urr 01 anurluol pFo^, UaJPIII{3 'luatuuoJ -rrr,rrlrr,{r,{q pafurnorua snql .uoneorunrurüoJ InJssaf,f,ns lsnl ro aslerd3o urJoJ 3I{r e{81 PInoJ slrll '(luauef,JoJulal a,rrlrsod,,partraf,eJ PJ"3I{ larp reqm ,r.tiorárr ór riá*ru" rraql ,uaqr punorc asoqr,(q pacnpord a8en8uq aql pal?lnul usrpllqr uaq.& rEqr pazsaqrodlq slslrnol^El{e3 IBuolllPBJJ '(Ls6l) rauuDIS c .g sB,/ü lroaqr ¡etlSoloqrlsd srql3o tuauodo¡d u¡¿olDl-lseg agl ,3.trurla¡ r3*3,r"1 or prrfiar qlrlN 'sarers perrun aql uI f¡rroadsa 's0l6l
pue s076I aqr ur ltrluangur se/'r rsgr Sulurra¡3o lroaqr B sI IusIJnoI eqeg a nur a ds"ta d $t¿not a? q a q a qI 'sa¡tpads¡ad ¡eruarudo¡a,reP/lsuolrf,EJalul puE (ls¡euur ,tsl:nor,reqaq :ruarudolartap a8en8ue¡ ule¡dxa or PaJUB^P? uaaq aAEII suousod prlraroaql ultru earqr'&nruel q10Z 3r{rJo slPPIlu srir muIS Sl Footl?lltlr f,ltaa ut nurutaa1 aSan&uaT ¿r JI AJ u A1 il a1 II t. SI e'l SJ SI
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sl a' I( T6 Language learning in early childhood nETER (looking under chair for it) Lose it. Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall! LoIs Yes, the dump truck fell down. IETER Dump truck fell down. Dump truck. (Unpublished data from P M. Lightbown) Ifwe analysed a larger sample of Petert speech, we would see that 3040 per cent of his senrences were imitations of what someone else had just said. 7e would also see rhat his imitations were not random. Thar is, he did not simply imitate 3040 per cent of everything he heard. Detailed analyses of large samples of Petert speech over about a year showed that he imitated *otá, and sentence structures that were just beginning to appear in his sponraneous speech. Once these new elements became solidly grounded in his language system, he stopped imitating them and wenr on to imitate others. unlike a parror who imitates the familiar and continues to repear
the same things again and again, children appear to imitate selectively. The choice of what to imitate seems ro be based on something new that they have just begun to understand and use, not simply on what is available in the environ- ment. For example, consider how Cindy imitates and practises language in the following conversations. Cindy (24 months, 16 day$ is looking at a picture of a carrot in a book and trying to get Patsy's attention. cINDY Kawo? kawo? kawo? kawo? kawo? pATsy 'ülhat are the rabbits eating? crNDY They eating ... kando? PATSv No, thatt a carrot. cINDy Carrot. (pointing to each carrot on the page) The other ... carrot. The other carrot. The other carrot. (A few minutes later, Cindy brings Patsy a stuffed toy rabbit.) pATsy ü/hat does this rabbit like to eat? cINDy (incomprehensible) eat the carrors. (Cindy gets another stufFed rabbit.) crNDy He (incomprehensible) eat carrors. The other one eat carrots. They both eat carrots. (One week later, Cindy opens the book to the same page.)
crNDy Heret the carrors. (pointing) Is that a carrot? PATSY Yes. (Unpublished data from P. M. Lightbown) '$uatuJltl3 Jo suonsenb sJe>[Eads JeTro eqr uo sal?Joq?Ia PuB suollsanb sJ3^sLrB Put $lse er{s'pealsul 'Ja)Frds Jaqto aql salellrul l¡arer aqs tnq 'safueluas a:r¡:¿¡d parelaJjo sarJas e sacnpord roj¡asraq sreadal seulltaruos uf;qte¡ 'fpur3 a1ry G€]:gLGI lr.lrT puu uroo¡g tuoglil .ureJl oor{f oor{J e sr sql (ulerr;o u¿d tno 8ur¡er) ¿ooI{J ool{l Y N,uHrlrx 'xoq aqr uI s,rl 'ePrsul sIo-I ¿urEJl oor{f, ool{f, aJolu ¿ aJJqra ¿aJJqrN '>pnrr ulrqre¡ (1cnrr rno 8ur¡er) lf,nJr ta) 'uIEJl oor{3 oor{f, aJoru oN 'eJoru B leD 'aJou ra8 1 (xoq ut Sutgcreas) N,runrvx (:agraSor l srnd sro.1¡ 'r*og nol r'roqs II<I >loo'I 'lr op uEf, noÁ 'll op uer noÁ ';4O sIo'I 'srqr op I 'sn{r op 1 (raqraSor urc¡l tnd ot 8uú-u) 'slqr op rue,& I 'srqt oC (ulerr3o sJ33 o-1rl tno 8ur¡er) N,uHrvx
('roog eqr uo epIIS aqr stnd ulrgru¡) 'srqr oP I 'sFlL'roou uo u1(oP rnd N,)rHrvx 'sI rEI{r rBIl!^oDl nol qg sIo'I ¿srql EtErL['le¡d rue¿6 (epls tno Stqtt) 'ulerl ool{3 ool{f, I{11.& &¡d ruem I 'urerr ool{f, ool{f, qrv't le¡d turt I (8eq ro3 Surqeee-r) 'urerl ooqr oor{f, al{r rr¡8norq sIo'I'sa ¿urrrl ooqr ool{l eqr rq8norq sIo-I ¿ool{r ooq3 ¿s,{or 8ur-rq 1 ¿rqSnorq 1 slot aqr aas nof pl6l (sqruour V7)uthqYY 'sro-I PuB urirgrr¡ uJJ leq uollssJa^uo:8urno¡o; aql ut arnorrd pue uonerrrul 3o saldruzxa al{l TJPISuoJ'luaf, rad 91 ueql ssal rE Parelm -lm uaaq seq tered pue lpur3 Jo rEI{r or a¡geredurof, elrr e re papaacord luaudo¡autap esoq,/ra 'uaJPIItls JaIPo Jo q:aads eql uI uollelllul Jo lunour¿ aql 'p¡p fprlf put rared se I{f,nru se asrlcr¡d PuE ele}llil uarPllqr IIE roN 'tuaruuorr^ua aqr lq uErF ral{}Er pll{c aqt aplst{ Surgtauos fg paulrurarep peruaes asrlce¡d Pue alelllul ol ]Erl^Uo alrol{o aIP '/lres a^ se 'os ue,rg 'uoltlslnb¡e e8en8ue¡ 3o uorreue¡dxe lslJnoll?qaq eW or r¡oddns oruos pual ot ruaes lPttl PuB rered ruorj qraeds jo sa¡dues aq1
'¡oBuuroru, lpuarrnr $ aqs teq,t uo pasnroJ aq or .readde a¡lpe¡d PuE uoIlelIIUI JaI{ lared e{ll ,teql sl 8ur¡ns lsouI sI IP(LA'IISI^ lsel slsle¿ efuls uaas lou PEII aqs 1ooq agr ul aSed aqt or rq8le.tts suJnl Pue ralsl >lea^ E üossel aSenSue¡, aql sJaqruaueJ el{s letlt sr Surlsa¡alul lsolu sdeqra¿ isessElf, a8en8ue¡ u8ra;o; eruos uI tuepnrs E a>lll spunos reqr lem e uI saJnlJnJls PUE sPJo/( dau sasll -cerd aqg 'uotllsrnbrr a8tn8ue¡ req uo preq Suurortr aq or sreadde fPtlf, ?ootl?l?qr lpaa ut &urutua1 a8anSuaT NTUHII'}I SIO'I NA)THIYX SIO'I Pr UI -u lsI af, eu aB Snr
sP. a3. Át, qx Je( LI 18 Language learning in early childhood Thus, children vary in the amounr of imitation rhey do. In addition, many of the things they say show that they are using language creativel¡ not just repeating what they have heard. This is evident in the following e*ampl.r. Patterns in knguage The first example shows a child in the process of learning pamerns in lan- guage, in this case the rules of word formation, and overgeneralizing them to new contexts. Randall (36 months) had a sore on his hand. MoTHER M"yb. we need to take you to the doctor. RANDALL 7'hy? So he can doc mylittle bump? Randall forms the verb 'doc' from the noun 'doctor', by analogy with farmers
who farm, swimmers who swim, and actors who act. fNor l putd.- W"!,1!brrrysetÍ ! Focus onmeaning Even older children have to work out some puzzles, for example, when famil- iar language is used in unfamiliar ways, as in the example below. vhen David (5 years, 1 month) was ar his older sister's birthday parry, toasrs were pro- posed with grape juice in stemmed glasses: FATHER I d like ro propose a roasr. Several minutes later, David raised his glass: DAvrD I d like ro propose a piece of bread. only when laughter sent David slinking from the table did the group realize that he wasnt intentionally making a play on words! He was concentraring ( I I d { ts k lllfr
¿5 g m d( let the ptates oo t *¡c tatle ! /Yon ,q¿a,^, I n+E the ptates oitte'te.btc.,- 'uollrsrnbfe a8en8ue¡ JoJ suoneueldxa ruaraglp JoJ >lool ol sJar{rJresal pel suonelruJrl asaql 'arlnbf,E ueJplrr{f ter{t JEruruE.rB xa¡duroo eJotu ar{lJo uog -rsrnbrr erlt JoJ uoneue¡dxa,ftotcrSsnrs r tou sr rusrJnor^Er{eq lrf,rsself, '.a>fertr ueiplrql t"ql uonpzrprauaSra,l,o Jo slJos aqr Surureldxa ot ,(rr'r, aruos saoB rusrrnor^Eqaq q8noqr¡e puv 'tol ? eletrurr oq,/! asoqr se l¡prde.r pue f11ry se a8en8ue¡ a¡lnb¡¿ uouetrulr IJJ^o elurl op oq,& ueJplrql 1a^eaoH 'saSets tsar¡ -rea aqr re fllelcadsa 'a3en3ue13o slradse aulrno: pur re¡n8eJ eqrJo aruos uJ?el ueJplrr{f,./(oq Surpuersrapunjo lem alqruoseal E JeJo ot sruees rusrJnorler{eg 'lf,eJJof, uauo pue a¡qrsuegarduroc l¡ensn aJE seouatuas,/!au Jraql 'spJo,s
JO SaSn 1veu JO STuJOJ l1eu atearc feql 'slxaluof, 1veu ol ueql azrlEJauaS pw su¡aued lno >pld or ;raddt uarplrql 'reqre¡ 'stlnpe ruoU preaq a,reg laqr r¿{¡ saf,ualuasJo suortnada¡ l¡a.rau lou tre laql'uarp¡¡¡r lq parea-rr sruJoJ Jrp Jo aruos urc¡dxa louuer euole rfnfe.rd pue uonelnul '8ulurca¡ a8en8uel 3o ssa:o¡d aql uo l'ropuuvi E g1r^ sn aplrro;d q:aads suarplrqrJo saldruexa asaql 'lf,aga pue asnef Jo JapJo ar{t se8uego <asnEfeg, Jo (aJo3ag, e>[l pro^ E.&oq pu"tsrapun raf rou prp eH 'rsr5 pres aq r"g./ü ErEI{r os 'sPueq srq Áp or parduaue IIEpuEU ero1ag pereaddesrp sla^ol eqt <eser srql uI 'muar -JnJJo Jraqr Jo JapJo arp ul stue a uonualrl or puer tuarudo¡a,rap a8en8ue¡ 3o a8ers srql re ua:plgC 'rsJg sauof, asn"lo qrlq¡ rnogt a1€lsrru E ep€tu eq rnq 'lervre sle,lot Jr{r IIB loor nol asnereg spueq ftu f-rp luer I, luearu eH 'spueq Áu lrp ruec I asntrag lene s¡azrrot eqr IIE >loor noÁ 'le or e roj Suqoo¡ servr (sqruoru I 'sreaf E) Ippus¿ vuanato np.rg 'luaurdo¡a,rap uonsanb ul g aSrrgSo sa¡durexa poo8 are suoltsanb sIH 'aJuelues elpJo SuruulSaq arp te ?re,rnd or se,/r suorlsJnb Suuse3o >lrlJr al{r rEI{t papnpuol p"q IFpusU
¿roq sr sql arv ¿sroog fru arc asoql erv ¿slr"r rraqr a133ln uec sSop ary 'lep e ¡o asJnof, ar{1 Ja o suorl -Enlrs snorJBA ur suonsanb Surmo¡oj al{r pa>lse (sqruoru 6 'sfte/ Z) IIEPuBU uo4au"toluo?rsanÓ ',peaJgJo acard e, 'rur(uoufs-¡tau lua¡edd¿ srr qlv'r paoe¡dar aq rou plnoJ pu¿ lseor ewBS aqt lou stl't- (tsror -^au>I Jq rq8noqr arl pro^{ aq1 tEIp azrlear or pelle3 aI{ rEI{r ,' ' ' asodord or aTI p(I, uols -sa¡dxa f,r¿lnruroJ ar{r pue a¡nlsa8 rvrau SuneurcsE agr Sunurol¡ad uo pr"I{ os 6I pooqpl?tp f,1wa utBuruwal a3an3ua7 3u ez) -o, PI 1I I
IUi -u lsl lu 20 Language learning in early childhood 7h e innatist p ersp ectiue Noam Chomsky is one of the most infuential figures in linguistics, and his ideas about how language is acquired and how it is stored in the mind sparked a revolution in many aspecrs of linguistics and psychology, includ- ing the study of language acquisition. The innatist perspective is related to Chomsky's hypothesis that all human languages are based on some innate universal principles. In his 1959 review of B. F. Skinnert book Wrbal Behauior, Chomsky chal- lenged the behaviourist explanation for language acquisition. He argued that children are biologically programmed for language and that language devel- ops in the child in just the same way rhar orher biological functions develop. For example, every child will learn to walk as long as adequate nourishment
and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. The child does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age, and walking is essentially the same in all normal human beings. For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar. The environment makes only a basic contribu- tion-in this case, the availabiliry of people who speak to the child. The child, or rather, the childk biological endowment, will do the rest. Chomsky argued that the behaviourist theory failed ro account for 'the logical problem oflanguage acquisition'-the fact that children come to know more about the structure oftheir language than they could reasonably be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear. The language children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete sentences, and slips of the tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. He concluded that childrenk minds are not blank slates to be filled by imitating language they hear in the enyironment. Instead, he hypothesized, children are born with a specific innate abiliry to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language sysrem on the basis of the samples of a natural language they are exposed to. This innare endowmenr was seen as a sort of template, containing the principles that are
universal to all human languages. This universal grammar (UG) would prevenr the child from pursuing all sorts of wrong hypotheses about how language sysrems might work. If children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which the language they are acquiring makes use of these principles. Consider the following sentences, from a book by Lydia X/h ite ( 1 9 8 9). These English sentences contain the reflexive pronoun'himself'. Both the pronoun and the noun it refers to (the antecedent) are printed in italics. (An asterisk at the beginning of a sentence indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical.) a John saw himself b *HimselfsawJohn. I { I I i I ir
n I h ir si a( oi qr w 'ureqr qrl^ rf,Eralul aldoad qrq.r ur sluaruuorrlua ur dn rq8no.rq are laqr3l srualsls a8en8ut¡ xa¡duroc armb do¡e,rap ór¡lge e,urruSor parnul¡,Ga,r qtl{ ueJp¡qr ua^g 'a8enSue¡ ualods3o uolusrnboe s¡a-rp¡gc SurJEer{ ot Jelrrurs sl ruetsls aSenSur¡ regr3o uortrsmb:u aqr ur ssa¡3o¡d Jraqr pu" 'fruejur ur tr ol pasodxa are faqr 3r a8rn8uel u8.rs ureel llrlvJEap llpuno3ord arc oqz'r ua¡pllgf, 'ólunruruor ¡en8ur¡r¡nur e m a,rr¡ fagrSl a8rn8ur¡ auo uer{t eJoru ro-e8rn8ue¡ a nru rlaqr armbce I¡¡S -sseflns uaJplrql il" rsotule r¿qr rrEJ aqr sazlseqdrua a,rn¡ads¡ad tslteuul aq1 'uo¡r¡s¡nbre a8en8uq ro3 lla,rrsn¡cxe pasn sI usruer{f,eru ateum er{r rer{r aJoruJaqunJ azrsagtodlq faql 'rndul Jr{lJo suon¿trurT
Jo alds m xeruls xalduo: qf,ns relof,srp ot uaqr s olle reqt a8pe¡mou>l ro rusruer{rarrr al¿uur eruos e^Er{ rsnu laqr 'tuaruuoJrlua Jrar{} jo a8en8uq aqr a.rmbru uarplrqr IIE erurs trr{r ezr$qrodlq laq¡ 'lndur eqt ur alqelr¿,rr secualuas 3w -sn¡e.rd pue SunernulJo srseq eqr uo l¡a.rnd paur"al aq Ja au p¡nor reruure-6 xa¡duroc r{Jns terir an3¡e a¡.rtcads¡ad lsneuur ar{l ruo{ uonrsrnbf,E a8rn8uu¡ lpnrs oqru. sreqoreesa¿ 'srar{lo aql Jo ólTe¡neurue;8un aqt azuSorer pun saf,ualuas ¡ecrreruurerS aqr ra.tdratur lpcauoc or alqe aq plno^ uarpllq: e8e-¡ooqos lsour 'taÁ 'ler'r aqr 8uo¡e sror;a e>leru op uerpllql pue 'uJEal o¡ p.leg lra,r aq plno tl suaes l 'ólxa¡duol Jo pury sryr rE >lool a^{ uaqlil 'tlasunr¡ ¡o a¡nt¡rd e ¿qft{ pa,&oqs ¿utlo[ l :lllg ro uqof raqrta ol reJar Plnos a^Ixaua¡ er{r eJar{^ (>1) ur se 'a¡glssod sr luepaf,etue euo u€ql aJoru 'sasef, aruos uI ' (asnr¡r alug) rua8t¡arur sr.!1 a sutt t¡ *tp sarayTag utl of * ( '(asne¡c auug-uou) rua8r¡arur aqotllasuttc¡ sa€Ileg u7o[ t '(f) ul tou lnq (l) ur uorlrsod rcalqns eqr ur aq uEf, a^Ixegar eql 'eJourJal{unJ '(q) "l se 'slervr¡e lou tng '(p) pu¿ (e) ur se luapaf,elue otp sB esnrlr aIUES atp
ur aq tsnru e rxegal aqr l¡ens¡ 'r¿qr ueql parecr¡duoc eJoru ua^a Erl puy 'fiasru1q qser'r ot IIIS pesFuorduqof q :Jar{lra >lJo l rJo alnJ sII{r tegt s tol{s (g) 'ra,razvro¡1 'luaPef -alue aqr sr unouo¡d elrxageJ aql or rsesolf, unou aqr rrr{r epnl3uoJ rq8lru a,n lasryr¡ qsr.l$olrugplol urlof* t tlasu,nq qsel,l'otlltg p¡or ugof ¡ tlasu,ttr1 peTI porC rer{r prcs uqof* a t1asryr¡ p¿1;lr.ati ter{t ples ur{o[ p :s" qf,ns safueluas JePrsuos eaJJ ' ur.1 of satoq!1a sruxq relJe 3ur¡oo1 r :srqr sar'ordsp (c) tng 'ot sra;ar ll unou arF ^/olloJ lsnur unouord ar'rxagar er{rJr sE $lool ll '(q) pur (e) u1 ?ooqnltp tltaa ut Sututaal a3on3uo7 (.IB: >ISIJ unc esat aser
01 e suJ: PIrJ orl lUer eql Ja^( .P?: lut PUI rdr a?e PAI eJo F]I elE orl -Pr Pul Pu1 eqI -nq e8v 3.tI a^E
1U3 'do -lal lEI{ .I3I IZ 22 Language learning in early childhood Children acquire the basic syntax and morphology of the language spoken to them in a variety of conditions, some ofwhich would be expected to enhance language development (for example, caring, attentive parents who focus on the childb language), and some which might be expected to inhibit it (for example, abusive or rejecting parents). Children achieve different levels of vocabulary creativiry social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve the abiliry to use the patterns of the language or languages spoken to them. This is seen as support for the hypothesis that language is somehow separate from other aspects ofcognitive development and may depend on a specific module of the brain. The Critical Period Hypotltesis The innatist perspective is often linked to the Critical Period
Hypothesis (CPH)-the hypothesis that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skill at specific times in life. Beyond those 'critical periods', it is either difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities.'S7'ith regard to language, the CPH suggests that chil- dren who are not given access to language in infancy and early childhood (because ofdeafness or extreme isolation) will never acquire language if these deprivations go on for too long. It is difficult to find evidence for or against the CPH, since nearly all children are exposed to language at an early age. However, history has documented a few'natural experiments'where children have been deprived of contact with language. Two of the most famous cases are those of 'Victor' and'Genie'. ln 1799, a boy who became known as Victor was found wandering naked in the woods in France. His storywas dramatized ina1970 film by Frangois Thuffaut called L'enfant sauuage (TheWild Child). 'Whe n Vctor was captured, he was about 12 years old and completely wild, apparently having had no contact with humans. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, a young doctor accustomed to working with deaf children, devoted five years to socializing Victor and
trying to teach him language. Although he succeeded to some extent in devel- oping Victort sociabiliry memory and judgement, there was little progress in his language abiliry. Neárly 200 years later, Genie, a I3-year-old girl who had been isolated, neglected, and abused, was discovered in California. Because of the irrational demands of a disturbed father and the submission and fear of an abused mother, Genie had spent more than 11 years tied to a chair or a crib in a small, darkened room. Her father had forbidden his wife and son to speak to Genie and had himself only growled and barked at her. She was beaten when she made any kind of noise, and she had long since resorted to complete silence. Genie was undeveloped physically, emotionall¡ and intellectually. She had no language. lEr{l pepnlfuof, sJar{f,rEasal aql'dno;8 arsT arp ueqr l¡ruarsrsuof, sJotu Il¡aqt pasn 'uJnl uI 'oq^ dno.l8,(¡reg aqr uegr.{¡ruarslsuor Jrolu sJa>lr¿lu eql Pasn dno¡8 a^IIBN ar{t 'sJa>lJ?ru p:ntruruer8 uo SutsnroS sls31 uo larta,"log 'a8pa -prou¡ f-rqng"f,ol ur a¡durexa.lo3 ,.ISVJo asn rIeI{rJo stf,eds"
eluos uI sdno¡8 eql uea^rag af,ueJeJlp ou PunoJ lt,1¡ '(Zt a8e lar3e 15y Sururea¡ ue8aq or¡,,v'.) s.reu8rs arET pue '(a8e 3o s¡eal xrs Pue JnoJ uaa^lJq 15y 8u¡sn ue8aq oqm) srauSls fl.rrg '(,{rtlq urorj TSV or pasodxa aram, ogrvr,) s¡au8rs a^IleN pareduroc laql 's.raryru I¿f,Iterururr8 puaqarduos PUE acnpord 01 'ISVJo srasnJEaPJo lrnlqB al{r PaIPnrs san8ea¡oc rel{ PuE (Oee t) rrodrv'a¡ rssr¡g 'sfuarua,roru fPoq Jo pu"q cg¡rads q8no;gr passardxa are sJe1Jelu asaql 'Jequnu put (asual rt"á ,r¡á*"*a ro3) ault se s8urqr r{fns attf,rpur ot sra>lJeru ¡m¡reuruer8 3o asn sa>lpru (15y) aEun8uul uSrg ueJrJerrrv'sa8en8url uatllJ/t PUE PJo ell-I 'Hdf al{i ol Par¿ler l{f,rEasar lueuodrut atuosJo rcalqns agt uaaq seq aSen8ue¡ u8ls Sururea¡ ul acuauadxa ralEl s,uarpllqr esaql'PIql aql ol rlqlssaf,f,e sI lBr{r aSrnSue¡3o PIo^eP lnq sfe,vr tsotu uI Flurou aq leru pouad PooqP¡ql f¡rea arp 'sng1 'lzr* Frurou fpua.redde uE ur lfEJalur 01 sssues Jer{lo sasn pln{t eql asnBf,eq JEaq louuef, pplr rlaqt lrr{t ozllear tou feru stua¡ed Sutreag 'I{uIq ruory'ISV ol pasodxa áq ór l¡at¡¡ eJE uerplll{r asaqr l¡uo pue 'sluarzd1"aP or urog srEJeaP f¡puno3
-ord aqr Jo luer rad g1-g l¡ug 'slualed Sulreaq a^EI{ oq.,'r _uarPIII{l JEáP f¡punoSoid oruos roJ asrr agt sl slql .aru' Iensn ar¡r re aBenBuEI or ssrrrr ri"q ro,, op ral ,slua¡¿d Jrarp ruog aJef, pue JAol a^Ief,al lagr araqn saruoq 1¡ou euros oq,/ú uarplrqf,Jo asm eql sI HdJ olpJo rser arel¡do¡dde aro.'' v .uonf,eJelur uerunr{ IEruJou ruog PereJedas a;arrr faqr aJoJag uela 'luetu -¡ledrur a8en8uq rgnads e ro ,sle¡ap ¡eruaudo¡anaP 'aBBtuEP uIEJg luory PsreJns uraql Jo JeI{rIa Jaq]3q,/v suI(UJJleP o1 elglssod rou sl r1 'a8tn8ue¡ .rr"q or lr¡¡qeul Jrar{l ol pernqrrruof, a,req tgSnu lrrJnleur ¡rer3o¡orq saPISaq sJolf,?J Jaqro req /(ouI louuB3 al|t 'seseJ lBnsnun IPns tuog ef,uaPl^a Jo srs€g aqt uo peurguor sl sseqrod,,(q aqr reqr an8;r ol lFlgJIP sl ll 'HdJ ,qr jo i¡oddns .rt ,r,rtpt,tt apv.,'ord ot ¡eadde alua9 PuE rolf,I¡ g8noql¡y 'qraads aultnoJ pu? f,rElnluJoJ pesnJe^o pue fFuarsrsuosur stuJoJ pcrrru[ue;8 Pasn eqs 'uolr ltttpotá put-uolsuaqa¡duoc uae leq dr8 purou uer¡r 1a3rc1 E se,r eral{I .p¡ó reaf-a,rg pordlr eJo tEr{l aIII rou ser'r a8en8uel s,alua) 'a8en8_ue1 ol arns
-'od"r jo tr"rf r,tg JaUE ,ssalaqlJa^eN 'stIBJl PuE selsel IEnP_I^lPul SuoJls Pu¿ sdqsuonr¡a.r puosrad daap pado¡a^ap aqs 'arE.&rB fla,rruuSoc PuE PazllBlf,os Sulurocag ul ssa¡8o¡d alge>IJ¿tueJ sPrru elua) 'slooqrs ¡rtcads PaPueuE PUE auoq JatsoJ ¿ uI Pa^II eqs 'erlua3 uoIlElITIqEqaJ 3 uI po¡rad JaIJq E J3!V .(LL6l) ssunJ .t"*g Snrpr¡rul ,slsrderaql pue srar{f,Eet lueur3o uoltedl¡lt -red aqr qtl^ Palef,nPa PII? roJ PeJEf sE,& eluaD 'POraAof,sIP sEl( aqs JeUV PooqPl ltp,Qna ur Sututaa. aSanfuuaT 87, 24 Language learning in early chi ldhood their study supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first lan- guage acquisition, whether that language is oral or gestural. Another line of research that has given new insight into the importance of early language experience comes from studies of international adoptees.' These aré children who were adopted at an early age by families who did not speak the language rhe child had heard during infancy. In their review of rtudi.r of international adoptees, Johanne Paradis, Fred Genesee, and Martha Crago (201 1) concluded that cognitive and linguistic outcomes were
generally veiy positive. Some comparisons of their language with that of .hildr.tr the same age who had always heard the same language showed that subtle differences persist even after seyeral years, but these are not the kinds of differences that most people would notice. Here again, of course, one cannot know whethef something other than a late exposure to the language spoken in the adoptive environment also contributed to differences between these children and others who did not experience an abrupt change in their Ianguage environment. Nevertheless, with continuing research on childrent linguisiic behaviours and intuitions, as well as the neurological studies of infánts' speech perception that we saw above, it is becoming clearer that lattguageácquisition begins ar birth, and possibly even before, as the child's brain is shaped by exposure to the language(s) in the environment. The innatist perspectiye is thus partly based on evidence that there is a criti- cal period foi l"ngu"ge acquisition. It is also seen as an explanation for 'the
logical problem oil"ng,r"g. acquisition', that is, the qu_estion of how adult rp-."k ri come to know the complex structure of their first language on the basis of the limited samples of language to which they are exposed. Interactionist/ dea e lop m ental p ersp e ctiu es Developmental and cognitive psychologists have focused on the interplay b.t*..r, the innate learning ability of children and the environment in which they develop. Th.y "rg,r. th"t the innatists place too much emphasis on the 'final state' (th..o-p.t"nce of adult native speakers) and not enough on the developmental aspects oflanguage acquisition. In theirview,language acquisi- tion istut one example of the human childt ability to learn from experience, and they see no needto assume that there are specific brain structures devoted to language acquisition. They hJpothesize that what children need to know is .rr.rály ",raifable in the language they are exposed to as they hear it used in
thousanis of hours of interactions with the people and objects around them. Psychologists attribute considerably more importance to the environment than the lnnatists do even though they also recognize a powerful learning mechanism in the human brain. They see language acquisition as similar to and infuenced by the acquisition of other kinds of skill and knowledge, rarher than as something that is different from and largely independent of 97 '7 raldEr{J ur aes III¡ a¡vr se 'tuarudo¡a,rap a8en8uel puofas uo r{fJBaseJ ur IEJtuef l¡Sursea;:ur aluofeg a^?q s./rrar^ slrsto8l¡ 'uorlJeJatur lElf,os ul pa8rarua qcaads pue 'qcaads pazr¡eu;arur l¡enuassa srr'rrg8noqr .Alsto8l¡roC 'plro^ IEclsfgd aqr qll uonf,Ererur g8norgl paJrnbre e8pa¡non1 ssa¡dxa ol pesn eq plnof, ter{r u¡elsls ¡oqruls e s¿ a8¿n8ue¡ rtr,es ra8el¿ 's.re8el¿ ruog sJa5rp,r*al,r sÁ1sto8l¡ 'a8pa¡zrroul ¡'rau a¡lnbce ot osle pue e^Eq lagr a8pa¡zrroul aWJo
lsoru Jr{t arytu uaqr sdlaq reqr ernlf,nJls a,rnroddns3o pur¡ e .sr trgl ,8u¡p¡o3 -J"f,s r{rr.& plql or1r apr,rord suonesra^uor ag1 'rq8noqt pue a8en8ue¡ qroq 3o sulSrro eqt suonrsJJ^uor esaqt ur 1rBs pue uarplrq) reqto qrv( pue sllnpE qrr^ a^Er{ uerplrr{J ler{t suontsreluof,Jo e¡uet¡odrul eqr pe rJsqo l¡sro8l¡ 'KJ¿n luaudo¡a,rap purxord¡o auoz aqt se f¡ruapuadapur Surop3o alqedec aq p¡nomfaqr utqr eroru op plnof, uarplrrir r{llqr ul arr¡d ¡e:lroqderaru e or perreJer llslo8l¡ 'erueurro3red pur a8pa¡ru,oul Jo slar'a1 rag8rq 01 arue pB or alqe aJ¿ ueJplrr{J 'luJruuoJrrrua e^nfeJetul a,rn¡oddns E ur ter{t panSre aH 'uonrererul lurf,os ruor3l¡reuud sdo¡a,rap a8en8uel rErF papnpuor eH 's0€6I Pu¿ s0z6l eqr uI uorun lrr^os eql ur sloor{f,s ur stlnpE pue uarplrql uaa.r.]ag osle pue ua.rp¡qc Suoure suonf,Brarur pa^rasgo eH '(g/6 I ) flsro8l¡ z'a1 rsr8o¡oqclsd aqr sen' tuarudola ep plr{r Jo rurpnls lBnuenHur rarFouv 'lueuruoJrlua eqt qrrd uonf,eralur ¡errslqd g8norqr palnbre J^Er{ uaJp¡ql reql a8pa¡moul ruasarder ol pasn aq um aSen8uel 'pooqplql ul pado¡az'ap eJB lrr{t srualsfs loqrufs 3o Jagunu B Jo euo sezrr a8en8ue¡ 'ra8el¿ JoC 'perel -ndrueru.ro pe lasqo ag um reqt s8ulqr eql pue pllql Jql uea^taq uonJ€retur aql uo rlnq sr Surpuersrapun a,rrtruSor Surdo¡a,rap aql 'ruasarda.r laqr srdar -uof ar{t 3o SurpuetsJapun suaJpl¡lo arp uo spuadap (aJoru, ro
.ra88rg, se r{Jns suJal ureuaf,Jo esn aqt 'eldurrxa.tog 'a8en8ue¡ arrnbce leqr rvrog aulru -rarap l¡rred ppo,/vl ruaudo¡a,rap artuuSoc suaJplrql r'roq eas ol lsea sl 11 '(rarer'r uo lBoH ol sJaqlo put lurs ol spoJ auros asn?J ('rre '¡e¡tateru 'rg8¡a,,'r'azls rlaql) spoJJo tas eJo salr¡ado¡d qrlq^ rno Sulrn8g) Surcuara3ul ¡erl8o¡ pue'(aur¡ pazaanbs l¡rq8p e ur saruuad 0I u¿ql snorerunu erour tou aJE aurl 8uo¡ e uJoJ ol rno peards saruuad 0I ier{r Suml,oq) a:u¿.lraddr rrerp ur sa8ueqrSo ssa¡pre8ar sapnuenbSo ó¡¡qrts agr'(araqr ¡ps are rq8rs ruog ueppl{ s8ulqr regr 8ultllou>1) acuaueurad roafqo se s8ulqr q:ns jo 8ur -PuetsrePun a,ulluSoc Jrar{t jo ruaurdo¡alap aqr a3eJr or elqE sE,/$, aH 'a¡doad pue srcalqo glr^. uorreJelur Jrar{l ur puB íe¡d.naqr ur uarplrr{J put s}ueJur pe^rrsgo ra8er¿ ',(¡ntuec qrgz ar{Uo saperap l¡ree aqr uI '(I 16I) raSer¿ ueaf 'tslSolotualsldaTrsSo¡oqcfsd ssrrtg eqt sE ruarudo¡arrap azrlr¡u8oc Jreql uo rlmg $ a8en8ue¡ suaJplrr{r tBr{r ^or^ or{r jo srueuodo¡d lsJrlJea ar{rJo auo llslotl¡pue ra8erd 'a8en8ue¡3o uonrsrnbfr Jrar{r pue tuarudo¡arrap ar'nluSoc s,ueJplrqr
uea.l*teg drqsuone¡ar esop eqr pazrsrqdua 8uo¡ a,req (gL6D ulqols ueq sE r{fns sJar{f,Jeaser 'paapul 'tuarudo¡a-r'ap e,urruSoc pue a:uarradxe s pIr{J ar{r ?ooqpllqr r(1na ut Sututaal a7an&uaT 26 Language learning in early childhood Cross-cultural research Since the 1970s, researchers have studied childrent language learning envi- ronments in a great many different cultural communities. The research has focused not only on the development of language itself, but also on the ways in which the environment provides what children need for language acquisi- tion. Between 1985 and 1997, Dan Slobin edited five volumes devoted to research on the acquisition of 28 languages, providing examples and analyses ofchild language and the language-learning environment from communities around the world. One of the most remarkable resources for child language researchers is the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES), where researchers have contributed child language data in dozens of lan- guages in recorded and transcribed forms that are available as electronic files from the CHILDES website (Macflhinney2000).
One feature of cross-cultural research is the description of child-rearing pat- terns. Catherine Snow (1995) and others have studied the apparent effects on language acquisition of the ways in which adults talk to and interact with young children. In middle-class North American homes, researchers observed that adults often modify the way they speak when talking to little children. This child-directed speech may be characterized by a slower rate of delivery higher pitch, more varied intonation, shorter, simpler sentence pat- terns, stress on keywords, frequent repetition, and paraphrase. Furthermore, topics of conversation emphasize the childt immediate environment, picture books, or experiences that the adult knows the child has had. Adults often repeat the content of a childt utterance, but they expand or recast it into a grámmatically correct sentence. For example, when Peter says, 'Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall!', Lois responds, 'Yes, the dump truck fell down.' Ha ,he not Cons;dere¿ 1'1c efr.cE9 of Stt¿t"' B¿l go bf' 'ffi
'fem prldlr aJoru E ul a8en8ue¡ do¡amp 01 uuJID Pa./dollr uollf,EJalul asol{^{ ¡auued IEuorlESraA -uof, B se l¡ruerrodrul arorrl 'lng '¡apour e se lluo lou-Jar{lorq JaPIo sI{ PEq aq :s.ru1f IuoS ruaJeglp se,r,r lualuuoJl^ua :nsnSul¡ s,uualD fe¡ap e8en8ue¡ 3o adlr erurs ar{t feldsrp tou PP uuelD reglorg ¡e8unol s¡u¡f 'a8e srri jo pcldlr e¡oru aSrn8uel fq pace¡dar 'pareaddesp Peq su¡aued graads Fnsnun aqrJo rsoru sqluoru o^r puB s.leal;noi3o a8e aqr lg 'a,rordur or ue8aq san -lllqe a^lsserdxa srq 'r¡npe ue qll^ suolssas leuorlesJaluor ue8ag ulf uaq¿¡ 'JapJo pJo,& ¡eclteruruer8un '¡ensnun Pasn aq 'a8e slq or atet¡do¡dde szapl ssa¡dxa or parduane ag qSnoqr¡y .a3en3ue13o stredse IIE ur la^el a3r r'ro1aq IIa,^ se.ü eq lpr{l pJlBf,IpuI sqtuoru aulu pue uraf aeJl{l l" luJlussasse a8enSuel y .a8en8ur¡ uSrs ¡o IEJO Jarpre ul rulq qlr^t parbrunruruof, lua;¿d E r{f,rrr( ur lueuruorrlua lerurou e ur lueudo¡a.tep olrsln8ul sH ur8aq lou plp rulf f_o3 perrr IIa^ se,l.r aq slcadsa¡ reqlo ur q8noqrp 'snql 'rul[ qrur a8en8uel u8ls asn lou plp srua.red eql IEI{I uI lEnsnun ser'r fllueJ ag1 f¡ruanba5 PaI{3rBr aq qllqlr 'uolsl^elal q8norgr s¿z'r a8¿n8uel IEro I{1I^ lf€luof,
l¡uo srq puz 'siuared3eapJo plqr SuliEaI{ E s",l eH 'urf pa¡¡m laql PII{I Elo ruaudo¡a,rap aSeffiurl eql perpnts (Ig6i) san8ea¡or rer{ puB sqf,ES eullenbref 'Sutssnu sr uorrf,erarur r{f,ns araq^ seser lq Peteulrunlll sl PIIqI aqr ol spuodsal oq^ Jol -nf,olJetu uE pu¿ p¡lqc 3uru.rca1-a8en8ue¡ E uaa,lleg uollJeJalulJo elor agl uollf,sJelul Jo eJu"uodul eq¡ 'uerplrqr or passarppe graads uI eletu srFP? aruos teql suonef,glpotu el{l Jo rraJa urat-8uo1 aqr a8pnl or lFrUglP sl }I 'snql .a8en8uq Álunuuoc agl a;mbce fagr puv'luauruoJr^ua rreql ur ruaql ol p3Suruuau sr lEr{l aSenSuq reag laqr r{JIqlA ur suoDBn}rs ur _aJE ueJPlrqs i,{irrrot l¡a,re ul ;ssa¡rgrra,tr¡ .uJJpp{f, Jrerp grr^.r tf,BJa}ur sdno¡8 fruqra puE f,[uouof,aorsos luaJeJrp u¡ s]ua¡ed sfer"r arp ur sDuaJaJIp lErluasqns peruatunf,op a^EI{ sreqro PuB (886I) r{leaH acrrg lalrrq5 'solels Pallun aqr urqlr^{ ua,rg .sre,lr8aref, Jraql sE a^ras oqm s8u¡¡qls Jeplo q¡m l¡r.reru¡.rd r:e -Jelur uJJpllqc Sunol'sJltellos Jtuos uI reqr Pa^Jesqo e^el{ sJaI{IJEJSaJ Jaqro 's¡us e8en8ue¡ pado¡a,raP aJoru e^¿g puE Jeplo arz faqr llun srppe qtr/ú suorlEsJa^uof, ur elEdrf,rl -¡ed or peSrrnotua ro parcadxa lou are leql 'sr¡npr 01 uals{ puE qf,rE^ or
parrad*a are uerpllq) 'ltanos lrnul IEuoIrIP"rl uI lsqr Pa^lasgo (ZeeD o8er3 er{uery .s¡au¡zd IEuoIIESJa^uo¡ al¿udo¡ddz ag or uaJPIIql rlsl{l raPlsuof, rou PrP ¿auln9 r'r,a¡ ende¿ uI srsqtou IInIE) lEI{l Punoi (066I) uneJell{f,S Iqrutg ,a¡druexa roC 'uaJpllqo Sunof ,ftal qrrn' fe¡d ¡tqra,r Jo uolltsra^uof, ui a8e8ua tou op srlnp' ,sa'arf,os eruos uI 'l'SJa^run su?auJ ou fq sl sauoq u€rrreurv ssEIl-elPPItu uI Pe^rasgo qoaads ParserIP-PF{r Jo Pur>t aqr rEI{r puno1 e^¿q >lJo arueg cuolrezllelsos a8rn8uel, ¿ ul 3ur¡¡o1( sJal{fJeaseU ?oot/?l lqr Qna m Sututaal a8anSua'¡ LZ 28 Language learning in early c h ildhood Jim showed very rapid acquisition of English once he began to interact with an adult on a one-to-one basis. The fact that he had failed to acquire language nor- mally prior to this experience suggests that impersonal sources oflanguage such as television or radio alone are not sufficient. One-to-one inreraction gives chil- dren access to language that is adjusted to their level ofcomprehension. tü7hen
a child does not understand, the adult may repeat or paraphrase. The response of the adult may also allow children ro find our when their own utterances are understood. Television, for obvious reasons, does not provide such interaction. Even in childrent programmes, where simpler language is used and topics are relevant to younger viewers, no immediate adjustment is made for the needs of an individual child. Once children have acquired some language, however, television can be a source of language and cultural information. Usage-based learning As more and more research has documented the ways in which children interact with the environment, developmental and cognitive psychologists find further evidence that language acquisition is 'usage-based'. In this view, language acquisition is possible because ofchildrent general cognitive capac- ities and the vast number of opportunities they have to make connecdons between the language they hear and what they experience in their environ- ment. Sophisticated electronic recording devices have been used to track and count words and phrases children hear in their daily lives. Deb Roy documented his son's acquisition of words, showing the frequency and the contexts for the occurrence of language. Most remarkable, perhaps, is the
demonstration of the power of interaction between the child and the adults and how adults focus on rhe language the child has begun to use (Roy 2009). The usage-based perspective on language acquisition differs from the behav- iourist view in that the emphasis is more on the child's ability ro create networks of associations rather than on processes of imitation and habit for- mation. Referred to by various names, including cognitive linguistics, this view also differs sharply from the innatists' because language acquisition is not seen as requiring a separare 'module of the mind' but rather depends on the child's general learning abilities and the contributions of the environ- ment. As Elena Lieven and MichaelTomasello (2008) put it, 'Children learn language from their language experiences-there is no other way (p.168). According to this view, what children need to know is essentially available to them in the language they are exposed to. Some of the eady research in this frameworkwas done in the context of con- nectionism and involved computer simulations in which language samples were provided as input to a fairly simple program. The goal was to show that the computer could 'learn' cerrain things if exposed to enough examples. The program was found to be able to sort our the parterns from
the input and even generalize beyond what it was actually exposed to. It even made the ol uonualtE f,n¿uals,{s eluos saPnlf,ul leql uollf,nJlsul <UaJPIII{3 lsolu Jq{ 'uonf,nJlsur rfaJrP slurT r{lr1v rulJd Jo salJelslu aqr Suue^ocslP (3I3EE fq rsour¡r Sulprar uÉaq or u¡eas uarplll{r eruos 'uleruop leql uI rua¡qod rgnads E sr aJer{t regr rsaSSns feu¡ SuluolrunJ e pluSoc ¡eralo s,pf-Ip t qrv'r SurdaalJo tno ruees ter{l p¿er or Sulura¡ ul sle¡ap '.uerPllql rePlo rql '8ur¡eads rou sI aqs -ro a{JI uala puE}sJapun or s¡raddr pue a8en8uq o spuodsar ppp ar{r rer{ler{lr auluJanp ot $ aSuer ¡eurrou eqt urpv'r ef,ueJa#P lenpl^pq ue lldruls ro rua¡go;d e srraga; a8en8ue¡ pale¡ap .raqlal{^r aulrureurP ot f¿,n auo 'ua.rp¡qr Sunof ,{-ra,r u1 'sreal aarqr3o a8e aqr aro3aq >¡eads tou ftro eruos 'sqluour ZI lg spro rs.lg a¡qrauSocar acnpord uarPllqr rsoru eF.tU[ 'paapul epl sl (leruJou, roj a8uer aW rES puru ur Burdaal 'l¡¡erurou a8rn8ue¡ Suldo¡a,rap rou $ pII{r " rerp ¡ae3 farpy arr^p€ puolssa3o.rd leas ol pa8e:nocua ag sJar{reat pue stuared
reqr l"nuassr $ 1I '>looq srqrJo adors eqr ePlsrno s¡ ruarudolaztap aSrnSue¡ rfeJE serurlettro$ ttrp (uo os pue 'exa¡sfp 'f,usnnr 'srua¡gord frole¡nr¡rrc 'ssauJrep Sulpn¡ru¡¡ sJrlrlrqesrp 3o sadó snorJe aqr Jo uolssnlslp V 'eser arlt rou $ slqt ruoq,,f, roJ uarplrrlf, aruos er? a;aqt 'fr¡ap ro lr¡n:g3tp ruelgluSls tnoqll^ turur -do¡e,rap aSrn8uq 3o sa8ets agr qSno.rr¡r ssa¡8o.ld uerplll{f, rsoru gSnorp¡y sfe¡ap pue sreprosrp atenturl 'aruar¡adxa q8norgr paurcJl l¡enrce are 'p¡ag ¡ensut Jno ur srralqo Suna¡d¡alul pu¿ uo SulsnooS 'e¡duexa ro3 'paruelS JoJ e{E¡ e^,l' r¿qr serrrlrge Fnsr^ aqr 's¡ reql '(aes, ol Sulural Surpn¡rul 'Sururea¡ pnr -da¡¡ad pue a,ruuSor rrr{lo ol ll a¡rdruoc lagl 'p¡nll eql lq paqstdruorrt rEaJ alqDlJ¿uar ,{¡uo egl rou sl 'a¡rtssa¡dtul eIq¡A 'a8enSut¡ 3o uolrlslnb>t 'stsuoer{l paseg-a8esn .rog 'dn rlng ert sruroj a8tn8ue¡ Suorue pue Sulueau pue a8en8url uaa^¡og siullJo Jagrunu ar¡r se 'l¡enper8 ece¡d saler Sulurer¡ 'sasergd pur spro.,'r ureal ol sauunl¡oddo Jo sputsnoqr lueu or pasodn ar¿ uerpllql rrr{r rf,EJ eqr $ slsaqlodÁ1 srqr ol a¡ueuodul re¡ncrrred ¡g 'sssuel qra^ r{f,rr{^|. qu¡'r o8 sgra Ps ¡troduar qllq,& ureel osp far¡1 '(a>¡¡¡ am¡ suouut? snou pur (sa>¡t aq) aunu p-taqunu pue uosrad ¡reru reql suroJ grel
eqt qrrn sunouo¡d alelf,osse ol ureal ,{aqr (¡re¡nuls '(Iooq) atnq '¡ull. oB un pue al pua (leq:) asxoqr qtlw oB aun pue q reql urtal laqt 'qrua.rg Sulurea¡ eJB uerPIIr{f,JI oS 'sunou qlra sIuJoJ arr.tDah¿ PuE elf,Iue arer¡do¡dde aqr elE -rf,osse ol uJeal repua8 ¡erpeuurrr8 aA?I{ sunou I{JII{1v ur sa8en8ut¡ Sulurea¡ ueJpllql 'a¡druexa JoC 'uraqt qtlzvr Jnf,f,o reqr saruegdJoru lef,neurue.rS qrp spJo,4.l ro 'rueql qtr^{ Jnrf,o ler{r saserqd pue spro,,'r Jeqto aqt qrIA seserqd pw spror*Sulterf,ossrJo ssaf,ord r osp sl t1 'r0qear leuJarxaJo sluaruela qll^ sPJo^t Suner:osse f¡uo rou sa lo^ul uolllslnbf,¿ aSen8ue¡ 'lapour peseg-a8esn e u¡ 'palua 'aldutexa JoJ 'qrazr rc¡nBarJI uE uo Sutpua pa- re¡n8ar e Surund s¿ r{f,ns'a1eru ueJplrqt let{l (sJ>lelsru, a IlBaJf,Jo sPuD{ erues ?ooq?llqr Qtaa wEututaal a7unSuaT 6Z 30 Language learningin earfi childhood sound-letter correspondences allows them to unlock the treasure chest of reading. Both groups fall within a normal range. For some children, however, reading presents such great challenges that they need expert help beyond
what is available in a typical classroom. Childhood bilingualism The language development of children who learn multiple languages during childhood is of enormous importance throughout the world. Indeed, the majority of the worldt children are exposed ro more rhan one language. Some children learn multiple languages from earliest childhood; others acquire additional languages when they go to school. The acquisition and maintenance of more than one language can open doors to many personal, social, and economic opportunities. Unfortunatel¡ as Jim Cummins (2000) and others have pointed out, chil- dren who already know one or more languages and who arrive at their first day of school without an age-appropriate knowledge of the language of the school have often been misdiagnosed as having language delays or disorders. This includes immigrant and minority language children who do not speak the school language at home and children who speak a different variety of the school language. These children's knowledge of a different language or language variety is often incorrectly interpreted as a lack of normal language development and a lack of background knowledge for school subjects. They may be placed in remedial or special education classes because
schools are nor equipped to provide an adequate assessment of childrent abillry to use rheir home language or of their general cognitive abilities or their knowledge of school subjects, learned through another language. Researchers have recendy made important progress in providing guidelines that can help educators distinguish between disabiliry and diversiry (Paradis, Genesee, and Crago 20II), but much practical rvork remains to be done so that children can make the most of their cognitive and linguistic abilities. Children who learn more than one language from earliest childhood are referred to as 'simultaneous bilinguals', whereas those who learn another lan- guage later may be called 'sequential bilinguals'. 'W'e sometimes hear people express the opinion that it is too difficult for children to cope with two lan- guages. They fear that the children will be confused or will not learn either language well. However, there is little support for the myth that learning more than one language in early childhood is a problem for children who have adequate opportunities to use each one. There is a considerable body of research on childrent ability to learn more than one language in their earliest years. Although some studies show minor early delays in one or both languages for simultaneous bilinguals, there is no evidence that
learning two '(OOOZ sururun3) uoltf,Eralul fep-or-fep3o a8en8uel ¡eru -JoJur aqt ueqr arlnbre ot uaJplll{f, Jo3 t¡nr$P eJotu sI esJnof,slP f,IluePm¿ roJ pepaeu a8en8ue¡ aqr reql 'razrerrroq 'paar8e flap¡ru, sI lI 'TBISJa^oJluof, uleruaJ uonf,urlsrp aqr3o srcadse auJos Pu¿ 'tueqt guru oB ol Pual teql sulaned uon -JEJalur aqr pue e8un8ut¡3o saIlaIJE^ oser{l sezIJe}JPJeI{f, rEI{l $ u fpcexa req,n re orsrp ol rg8nos a^¿q srer{}o pue (7002) ¡a.r8adda¡r1c5 frryq 'passardxa s uorleruJoJur fer'r aqr ul osle tng sarmbar I{rBa r¿ql lre¡nqecorl3o a8ue; agr u¡ lsnl lou <s$ueJaglp lueuodut aJE eJaql lnq 'luelxe uIElJa3 e ol de¡ra,ro san -erJ¿A o1rt aqlJo sf,IlsIJer3"JEI{J '(lruarcgord a8tn8ue¡ fIIuaPE3E a,rrrruSor) dTVl pue (s¡rls uoll¿f,Iunruruol leuosJedraru¡ crseq) 5319 saIleIJeA o r¡ aseqr pellrr sulrurunJ urf 'ursr¡en8unlq PooqP¡qr uo l{rreaser l¡rea srq u¡ 's8unras rrruepme ur pesn sI reqr Áal¡r,r aql Pu" (sr¡npt JEIIIIuEJ qrul sSun -res leruro3ur ur pue) sa^lesuaqr Suoue asn uerPllql reqr a8en8ue¡3o fiarre.r aqr qloq urcal ot peau laqr 'lool{f,s re a8en8uel Puof,as E uJeal uarPIII{3 ry '
GOOZ>1orsl¡ug) a3¡¡ rnoq8norr¡ ól¡rqlxag a,ulluSor or Sunnqlnuor sE PagIluaPI uaeq seq sef,Ior{r 8ur{¿u ur acuar¡adxa srqr 'peapul 'a¡qerclpard uaryo PuE paurarred sr Surq:urtrs apor teqt pue sa^lasuaql sse¡dxa or loq lnoqe sef,Ior{¡ Suqeru lpuetsuoc are a8en8url euo uEI{l arou Jo sra>pads lEI{l u1üoqs azteg srsrSo¡orpls¿ 'a1of u Suqeru ot lrlrep¡¡os Sulssa¡dxa ulorS 'suolte^Iloul rueJeJIP lueru a,l,rq leu r1 lcual:go.rd3o 1or¡ e3o af,uaplla lou sI txatuoJ ¡enSullg e urqrrr'r sa8rn8ue¡ r{loq3o rsn aql 'sa8enSuel qroq .&ornl osp oII r srar{lo or leads lagr uaqm r{frr^[s apof osle spnSur¡rq rFp¿ tuarf,goldl¡q8rg .sasod¡nd Fuorrr€raturJo Áal¡e¡ e ro3 a8en8utl Jagro eqr tuoq Pro^l' EJo asn leuoltuelur aqr ag ua5o se lsnf uEf, lr lnq 'uorssa¡dxa Jo PJo,/vr lre¡nqerort rc¡nrllred E Jo af,uasgr aIP lrageJ seuJnauros leru saBtnBuEI uaa^teg Surqrru,rs qJnS '<naaryqJ al qr Surleld tu,1, '&s rg8ru gslSuE Pu¿ r{ruarC qroq s¡eads oI{ ^, PIqr r 'alduexa Jo{ 'uortBsJa^uor E ulr{ll^ a8en8ur¡ euo ueql eJolu luo{ saserqd Jo sPJo-/vJo asn aqt-8ulr{Jtr¡as epoo sE ot pJJJeJaJ sl asn a8en8ut¡ ¡rn8ulrq3o rradse aug .Jaqto eqt .ot af,ueJeJaJd ul ¡o ,u"tp Jenag pasn eg f¡¡enrua,ra
frtu a8en8ue¡ rerp 'Árunutuof, al{l uI PanP^ IHBH a.Ioul sI ro Jel{lo eql ueql ueuo aJoru r{Jnur pJ"eq sr a8rn8uel euoJl 'Jldur¿xe roC 'a8en8url auo uBI{l aroIIJ uJeel 01 ólc¿de¡ uErunq eql uI uorlEtrul¡ lur or ueql peuJeal sr aSenSuq r{33a qlrq,/rl ur se3uetsulnfrrf, ar{t or perEIeJ eq ot llalll JrouI eJE slBnPI^IPur ¡rn8unlqlo aSrnSuq 3r{r ur pa^Jesqo eq,&ur rrqr suorlclnur-I .sseuaJt^E rnsrnSur¡rtau s¿ qf,ns ,ssaf,¡ns f,rulapme or PaleleJ 3Je leq] saIlIIIgB uo slf,üe a,uusod a,reg um .{cualcgord ¡en8u¡¡¡q Sultalqoe t€qr ef,uaPpe 8ur:ul,ruo¡ PunoJ e Bq srsrSo¡ogcfsd ¡zruarudo¡a^aP PuE e,r¡ttuSor rel{ro PuE (tOOZ) lorsfprg ua¡g 'sa8tn8ue¡ qroq uI loualrSord Jo sls al q8rq urtur uarPIrI{: lueru 'paapul 'tuaurdola,rap a,urruSoc grtr'r seJaJJalur Jo tuaudo¡a,up rttsn8rnT;Ier{r uaoP sztro¡s l¡¡znue}sqns sa8en8uul ? o o tln ? q r [1ta a ut Suruta a1 a3rn3ua7 rc, 32 Language learning in early childhood Children entering school with little or no knowledge of the language spoken
there may acquire BICS within a relatively short time-as little as a year or two. They learn from watching and imitating interactions among their peers and ben¡¡een teachers and students. They make connections between fre- quently heard words and phrases and the routines and recurring events of the classroom, cafeteria, and playground. For this reason, students are sometimes perceived as'fuent' in their second language. This can lead teachers to assume that any difficulties in academic tasks are not due to limited language skills but to other sau5s5-frsrn lack of motivation to learning disabilities. More careful observation shows that the students, while fuent in social settings, do not have the CALP skills needed for academic tasks such as understanding a problem in mathematics, defining a word, or writing a science report. Virginia Collier (1989) found that, for most students, acquiring age-aPPro- priate CALP takes several years. As the second language learner tries to catch up, the children who came to school already speaking the school language are continuing to learn hundreds of new words every year and to learn the conc€pts that these words represent. If second language learners have limited
knowledge of the school language and do not have opportunities to continue learning academic content in a language they aheady know, it is not surpris- ing thai they fall behind in learning the academic subject matter that their peers have continued to develop. Children need time to develop their second language skills. Many people assume that this means that the best approach is to start learning as early as possible and to avoid the use of the child's previously learned languages. Ceitainl¡ it is important for children to begin learning and using the school language as early as possible, but considerable research suggests that contin- ,r.d d.rr.lopment of the child's home language actually contribures in the long term to more successful acquisition of the school language. Researchers and edu."tors have expressed concern about situations where children are cut offfrom their family language when they are Yery young, spending long hours away from their families in settings where the home language is absent or even forbidden. Lily'Wong Fillmore (2000) observed that when children are 'submerged' in a different language for long periods in pre-
school or day care, their development of the family language may be slowed down or stalled before they have developed an age-appropriate proficiency in the new language. Eventually they may stop speaking the family language altogether, "nd thii loss of a common language can lead to significant social and psycho- logical problems. 'Wallace Lambert (1987) called the loss of one language on the way to learn- ing another subtractive bilingualism. It can have negative consequences for childre.rt self-esteem, and their relationships with family members are also likely to be affected by such early loss of the family language. In these cases, children seem to continue to be caught between two languages: they have not eeJql uee/vteq uaJPllql ro, Paqsllqnd eJe lEql qooq ul Pesn ,fuPlnqElo^ eqr le ¡ool Pu€ elols)ooq ro lJ€rqll P jo uolDas quaJPlltl) eqr 01 09 z ¿SurpuU reql
r{11/v elql}eduof, sl }€tl} JardEqs sltll u! ueas nol e^eq teLlM'sJa^l8aJ¿f, Jaqlo pu€ sluaJed Jreql {q ulaq} ot PassaJPP€ asenBue¡ ,o lunou€ aqr s¡ qu,ro-r3 l.re¡nqe:o,r queJplrql ,o roDlpard lsaq eql reql Puno, seq q)Jeesal eLuos I uol})eEeJ Jo, suollseno .sJauJEel aSrnSur¡ puosesJo aSrnSur¡ Suldola,rap agt Sulunuexa rpreasaJJo s8urpug arpJo auos te >lool III¡r atr ¿ rardeq3 u1 'uortlsnbre a8en8ue¡ rsrg 8ulurc1dxa ro3 sa,rncedsrad ¡mnaroaqr PBoJg eeJl{r P3qIJ3saP a^"q 3l[r'uonls -mb¡e a3en3..r"1p.romr.ro rlf,J?aseJ peJuangur ser{ teqr tuaudo¡artap aSrnSur¡ l¡rea s,uarp¡lql uo r{f,JEaser er{} Jo eluos uo pasnfoJ e "r{ 3 rarder¡r sryr uI lreururng 'uoJa pue aoua¡ted rrar{l PrB,4(er III/[ luslFn8ullq a^ppP¿ Jo slSeuaq lueu eqr^tel{l ^otDI or paeu stuapnfr p,r" .slua¡rd ,sJal{Jpal rng 's;eal salzr aBenSuEI Puof,as E Suldo¡a.rrap ,uaas a,req ar![
ry'a¡doad Suorue uoll?Jedoof, slllIouoss Pue uoll -Ef,runruuroo ltJnlln3-ssoJf, JoJ salllunl¡oddo eseaJf,ul osle uef, a8en8ue¡ auo uer{r aJoruJo a8pa¡mou¡ 'saITIIU"J Jlaqr PUE ueJPilql 3q1 ol enJDE rer{r esoqr puolaq of tuaudo¡arr,ap ¡zn8ul¡nlnru ro pn8urlq3o sDa'a a¡rlrsod raqro 'a8en8uel puoras aqt Sururea¡ filrs a-re lagr e¡gr'r l¡rsea pu¿lsrapun fagr aSenSur¡ e Sursn tuaurdola,rap a^lr3eJ¿ pur arrnruSos r{roq ,rr,rn.lo, ot filunr¡oddo aqr ruo5 rgauag laql 'aBznBuBI l'rau aqr ltads rou op oq.& sa^nelal ro sruarcdpuzrS qrvrr suorlf,euuof, f1¡rur; urclar 01 uaJPIrr{J s.&olp os¡r a8enSuel f¡¡rurJ aqt 3u¡urcrurc¡,,r¡ 'lrlunruuof al{l uI Jo '>lJo1t lE .,*o.1 aqr ePISrno aSenSur¡,/deu eql qrrrn sa¡88nrls u1to JIeI{r 3^3q,{eur leql r" l¡piraisr ,ruealsa-j¡as u,/vo Jrarp ureturpur ot stua¡¿d roj lernrt os¡e^sl s8u¡r -rrr'i¡r-"j ul a8en8ue¡ u^o Jrar{t Surs¡ .lla1v sE l'rorDl tou op lar{r a8en8ue¡ " ,r, ,h",r"* urc laqr ue{p etBJogEIa eJou pue Jaqf,rJ aJB ler{} sler'r ut seap¡ pue aSpaytroDl JIaI{1 ssa¡dxa ol alqB a-re fagr 'uarp¡rqc:laql qll'/r't' lsag ,^tou>I
faqr regr a8rn8ut¡ aqt asn ot enulluos sruarrdSl 'a8rnSur¡puooes ar{lJo sJa -.rrL¡ ot1" ,r" '.rtt"á eqtJl anrl l¡¡enadsa q slql 'Peureel Suleg sr a8enSuel p.rorit eqr allq,{ a8en8utlaruoq aI{Uo e3u¿ueluleru agr- rusqen8u1lq a p -lpp" roJ a^rrls 01 sr gceorddz Jsrreg e rrgr srsaSSns ef,uePr^e qf,J¿eseJ aLII 'uaJPIIql Jleqr qlld a8en8ue¡ looi{ls ar¡r Suqeads uo P"3}sq 3lB¡luaruof, p,r" ,-og ie'a8"ná,r{ llUreJ eqr Suureads dors p¡nor¡s far¡r rrrp s1 sruared ot asodo.ld tá*tp*or sJolef,npa ,uonnlos, aqt ,flarrunuoJun 'Sulurea¡ f,IruaPef¿ rrar{l ul pulqaq ¡¡ej leur laqt 'pouad uolllsuerl arp Suunq 'a8en8ue¡ fllwJ r.¡t do¡t-p or prt.ttr,to, rou arrer¡ larp pue 'aSrn8uel looqls aqt pararseu rcl pooqfllqr ,(paa ur Suruttal a8tnSutT EE 34 Language learning in early childhood and six years old. Compare these to books for young readers, aged six to eight.What does this suggest about the importance of continuing to read to children after they have begun to learn to read at school?
Finall¡ look at the language used in textbooks for children at age l0 or I l.What can you conclude aboutthe challenge faced by English language learners entering school at this age? 3 lf you are or may be teaching a second language to a group of school- aged learners with different first language backgrounds, can you think of pedagogical tasks/activities in which children can display and use their L I knowledge to help them learn the second language? Suggestions for further reading Berko Gleason,J. and N. Bernstein-Ratner (eds.). 2009. The Deuelopnnent ofLanguage 7th edn. NewYork Allyn and Bacon. Many of the chapters by leading expems in child language introduce readers to the best-known findings of the pasr 50 years of research on chil- drent language development. In addition, there are chapters based on new research, using the kinds of technology that have only recently become available. Thus, the rich database created by researchers with notepads, tape recorders, and tools such as the 'wug rest' is complemented by studies ofthe neurological bases oflanguage learning and language use. Paradis,J., E Genesee, and M. B. Crago. 2011. Dual Language Deuelopment and Disorders: A Handbook on Bilingualism and
Second Language Learning2ndedn. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. The authors describe language acquisition by children who learn more than one language simultaneously or sequentiall¡ drawing on research from edu- cation, psychologr, and linguistics. They make the research accessible by their writing style, the inclusion of a glossary of terms, and above all by relat- ing the research to profiles of children who are acquiring their languages in a variety of home, school, and community situations. The authors provide insights into both normal and atypical multilingual development. Pearson, 8.2.2008. Raising a Bilingual Child: A Sup-by-Sap Guidefor Parents. NewYork Living Language (Random House). Addressing herself mainly to parents, Barbara Zurer Pearson (2008) reviews research from many studies and shows how children become bilin- gual in many different environments. She also emphasizes the advantages of growing up with a knowledge of more than one language- from the evidence for cognitive fexibiliry to the benefits of cultural knowledge. 'W'ritten in an approachable and humorous style, the text is supported by Zver Pearson's thorough knowledge of the research literature that is included in the bibliography.
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OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
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OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
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OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
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OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx
OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx

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OXFORDlJNIVERSITY PRESSGreat Clarendon Street, Oxfor.docx

  • 1. OXFORD lJNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade ma¡k ofOxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries @ Oxford University Press 2013 The moral rights ofthe autho¡ have been asserted First published in zor3 2077 201.6 zo1.s 2014 2oa3 10987654327 AII rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, sto¡ed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate repro$aphics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope ofthe above should be sent to the ELT Rights Department, Oxford University Press,
  • 2. at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this sarne condition on any acquirer Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Photocopying The Publisher grants permission for the photocopying ofthose pages marked 'photocopiable' according to the following conditions. Individual purchasers may make copies for their own use or for use by classes that they teach. School purchasers may make copies for use by staffand students, but this permission does not extend to additional schools or branches Under no circumstances may any part ofthis book be photocopied for resale rsBN: 978 o 19 454126 8 Printed in China This book is printed on paper fiorn certified and well-rnanaged sources. AC I(NOWLE DGE ME NTS The authors cmd ptblisher are grar,efuI to those who hqve
  • 3. given permksion to reproduce the following extracts and adaptations oJ copyight material: p.77 Extract from Language Delelowent and Language Disorders by Lois Bloom and Margaret Lahey (1978). Macmillan Publishers; p.47 Figure Ílom'Some issues relating to the Monitor Model'by Stephen Krashen, On TESOI (1977). Reprinted by permission ofTESOL International Association; p.49 Extract from 'Constructing an acquisition-based procedure for second language assessment'by Manfred Pienemann, Malcolm Johnston, and Geoff Brindley irt Studies in Second Longuage Acqu$üofl , Volume 10/2, pp.277-a3 1988). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; p.53 Extract Ílom 'speeding up acquisition ofhisfter: Expücit L1/L2 contracts help' itSecond Language Acquisition and the Younger Learner: Child's Play? by Joanna White (2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohn Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia; p.54 Exhact ftom 'Second language instruction does make a diffe¡ence'by Catherine Doughty in Studies in Second Language Acquisiüon, Volume 13/4, pp.431-69 (7991. Reproduced by permission of Carnbridge University Press; p.1 36 Reprinted fr om In t ern ati on al J ournol of E duc aüonal Research, Volume 37 by Merrill Swain and Sharon tapkin'Talking it through: two French immersion learners' response to reformulations' Pp.285-304 (2002)with permission from Elsevier; p.139 Exüact from 'Corrective feedback and learner uptake' by Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta in Studies in Second Longuage Acquisition, Volume 7917 pp.37 -66 (7997). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.
  • 4. Cartoonsw: Sophie Grillet @ Oxford University Press 1993, 2005, and 2012. t qJntu os PeuJBe[ e BrI4 4. ruorÍr,r ruoJJ stuePnls Pu" sJarlJeel arp oI C/ ZL ZL 89 t9 09 L9 <b w 0, 8E 9e, 9e t€, ,s, Q,Q,
  • 5. 0€. 6Z ,Z 0z 9T ,I ET ZI 9 I I s z Sulpear raqunJ .ro3 suolrsaSSng f;eunung a8en8ue¡ (sraureel Sulldureg lSolouoq¿ soneru8er¿ lre¡nqeoo¡ af,uengur a8en8ue¡ lsJg lnoqe eJotr { saf,uenbas pruaurdolertag a8en8ue¡.rarul pue 'ssl¡eue JoJJa 'slsl¡eue elnseJluo3 sraureel a8en8ue¡ puof,esJo a8en8ue¡ agr Surlpnrg suollrpuof Sulueal sfnsrJalf,sJ€qf, JeuJEe'I
  • 6. AEIAAJd Sururea¡ aten8ue¡ puores Sulpear rar{unJ ;o3 suorrsaSSn5 lmurung rusrpn8ung pooqplll{J sle¡ap pur sraprosrp aSen8uel sa,rn:eds¡ad ¡eruaudolarrap/lsluoIlfEJaruI a¡'rpads¡ad lsltBuur eql a,upads¡ad lsrJnol^Eqeq aql uoltrslnb¡¿ aSen8ue¡ rsrg Surure¡dxg s-real loorps aq1 sreal ¡ooqes-a-rd aq1 sa¡uanbas ¡eruarudo¡a'reP PuE """t"tlsrililt::'g"T;tJ,Tr" ,{AAIAAJd pooqp¡¡qc,(¡rua ur 8u¡urea¡ aSun8uel I "'ur8aq a^4. aroJag uonrnPoJlul uoDrPa wJnoJ a{l or orsJard sruarua8paf"roulcv IIF IX SINflINOf
  • 7. vlll Contents Individual differences in second language learning Preview Research on learner characteristics Intelligence Language learning aptitude Learning styles Personality Attitudes and motivation Motivation in the classroom Identiry and ethnic group affiliation Learner beliefs Individual differences and classroom instruction Age and second language learning The critical period: More than just pronunciation? Intuitions of grammaticality Rate of learning Age and second language instruction Summary Suggestions for further reading Explaining second language learning Preview The behaviourist perspective Second language applications: Mimicry and memorization
  • 8. The innatist perspective Second language applications: Krashen's'Monitor Model' The cognitive perspective Information processing Usage-based learning The competition model Language and the brain Second language applications: Interacting, noticing, processing, and practising The sociocultural perspective Second language applications: Learning by talking Summary Suggestions for further reading 75 75 77 79 BO 83 84 87 88 B9 90 o') 92
  • 10. t07. t07 t07. 86I L6r rz6l 78r LLI ILI 99t 6tt v9r 9Sr t9r Q,EI xaPuI fqderSongrg frusso¡g uorsnlf,uoJ qoreesJr uor; Sururee'I :srapl re¡ndod aql uo Sulrcaga¡ ,TSIAEJd pelrsr¡a¡ Sururea¡ e8enEuu¡ lnogs seap¡ ru¡ndo¿ L Surprar raqunJ roj suorrsaSSng frruung s¡rsodord agr Surssasry pue aqr ur rq8¡.r rr raD 9
  • 11. elqBgf,Ear sl rEI{,/v qlEal t auo JoJ o^_r re) 7 lFl s.la'I E pear pue "' urlsrl rsnf ¿ SuruurSaq aqr tuo{ rq8rr rr reD I Surqceer rol spsodor¿ ,/VaIAaJd ruooJss¿¡f, aqt ur Sururea¡ aSen8uel puolas XI ZgI Sulpear rrr{rrnJ ro3 suonsaSSng IEI frtuurnq 6VI tgde.r8ouqrE trl ruooJss¿1f, aqr ul suoltsan| 6el uoorssEls 3r{1 uI >PEqPaaJ a^nfarroS 9€l suonf,€Jalur luepnls-luepnls :suosrJeduor tuooJssel3 6ZI suonJeJatul ruapnrs-Jer{f,eel:suosrJeduroc uoo;sse13 6T.I sel'uer{f,s uorlE^Jesgo LT.I s8unlas Fuonf,nJtsur J rteorunuJuof, uI 9T,I s8ulllas ItuonrnJlsul pa$q-arnpnJts uI ,U s8ulues uo¡lsmbce IEJnrEu uI gU sSunlas leuonf,nJlsul pue IErnreN eT,l '/r'al^aJd eU ruoorssep a8en8ue¡ puof,as aqr q Srmrcear pue tulurea¡ tun- rasqg S slualuo) EpEueJ '¡g 'oruoro¡'epedg eur¡
  • 12. VSn 'Vntr 'qclrrr-re¡1 'u.,r'oqrq3r1 '¡¡q lsre¿ 'r{f,fteseJ pur '8ul -qf,Eer 'Sururea¡ a8en8ue¡ puof,as ol suonnglJluof, u1ro Jraqr J>lEru or ueqr a¡rdsu¡ pue a8ua¡¡eqf, III^{ r€qr uon€ruroJur pue smpr pug ilpi'TtrIH jo suon -lpe snor^ord aqr pear e Er{ oqd asoq} pue sJepeer ^au qrog reqr adoq alN 'TV'IH ur Pef,nPorlur arc l3r{1 scrdot ar{rJo eruos rnoqe Surureal anunuof, ol sJar{f¿at a8e¡norua ilynr sarJas srqr ul qooq eqt r¿ql adog a4N'acrrre;d uoorsselr or s8urpug aqr Suqur¡ pue I{f,J¿aseJ tue a¡ar agr Surrrral,mr '(uollreJerur I"Jo pue'tbenl:rl'Sulqtear aSen8 -uBI pesrg-lualuoJ 'luarussasst se qons) :rdor cglcads E uo snJoJ III^{'Joqlne ruera5lp e fg uaulrn'arunlo qf,Eg'utootssq) a&rn&uaT ar,p ntstdatuo2 [ay ?otxO eqt 'sJar{f,?at JoJ qooq Jo sarJas ^^au E uo 8uq¡o¡'r f¡ruarrnc eJB alN 'lEIri/rar.ll"ar¡r¡a7uro:'dno z!1r,{ tB pJSSef,f,B aq ue) ?autpa7 a& sa&an8ua7 mo¡¡ JoJ alrsqa,& er{I JoJ sEepr Jraql ar¿r{s or puB slaqro qrra l]E;ir?::ffj;r:""üil'l'""T1ffi; apnord osle III/v rI looq ar{rJo srualum ar{rJo Sulpuersrapun pu¿ Surprer
  • 13. ;nol a:uequa o] seJJnoseJ pur IErJetBru peseq-qe.{ JJr{to pue 's8urpear 'sall -r^nf,E ltuorrrppe sureluoJ r{JIr{¡A atrsgo./$ uoru¿du¡oc E sr uonrpa sr{t Jo eJnlEeJ ,{eu JJrltouv 'soldot eqt Jo auros aro¡dxa ol sar}runl¡oddo sJapEaJ a.r'13 reqr (sanr^rlf,V, ^tau atuos pepnlf,ur a^eq a pue fardeqc r{JpeJo pua aqr te (uorlregeJ;o3 suonsan|, peppe a^Eq a-&'TV'IHJo uollrpe qunoJ srr{t uI 'erJq $nporlur f¡uo um a,/v leqr srldorSo Sulpuersrapun Jraql uadaap ot tsrl aJua -reJal ar{r pue s8urpeal eseql ,&olloj or sJapEeJ a8¿¡no¡ue a¿N'rardeqr qJEaJo pue aqt te ,Surpeer Jer{unJ ro3 suonsaSSns, euJos patelouue elerl a,tr'uonrpe srql uI fu¿ur os.&ou er€ ereql qJIq^Uo 'serpnls rvtau tuer¡odur pu" pleg aqr ur sJrss¿¡f, ual tag Sulsooqr luearu uauo ser{ qr8ua¡ elqeuos¿er E or {ooq aqt Suldaa¡ 'tprgrp a¡oru ulro.r8 a eq apnllul or r¿q.vr tnogB suorsrf,ep aqr 'uonrpe ^/rau r{JEe JoJ r{rJtasal aqr Surrepdn u1 'uollrsnbce a8en8ur¡ puof,es ur r{f,r"eserJo qrr'ror8 alqnlreurarJo slep l¡rea eqr ur ilns era.t a.& s066I pue s086I eql ur uorlrpa rsrg erp uo 8uq¡o¡vr. aJa/v a.&
  • 14. uJrltysulSr¡o asoqr ruo{ r"J pella^¿rl ^ou eABr{ >looq arp Jo suorrrpa aargl 's;eaf lueru rol pe>lro./v qroq alrr eJar{ 'EpEuEJ 'cegan} ur sJer.lf,Bat .to3 sdoqslro,,'t ruarudo¡a,rap ¡ruorssajord Jo sarras E sE tno pelrtrs (fVfH) paufia7 atV sa&an&ua7 moH NOIIICIfl HIUNO{ flHI OI flf,V{ilud 'Sururea¡ (¿1) aSen8uel puoras or uorreler ur >loog aqr ur rarel parlsr^er a.re faqr pue rardeg: sr{t ur patuasard are Sulurea¡ (11) atenSue¡ rsrg rnoge sarroarp IEre aS 'a8rn8ue¡ tsrg rrar{r a¡mb¡¿ uerpllql noq3o SulputtsJapun Jno lq pa:uangur uaeq ar'eq Sulqcear a8enSuel puocas put r{f,Jeasar a8en8ue¡ puooes r{1og asnef,eg ruerrodul sl punorSl:Eq slql 'pooqpplr l¡.rea ur Suru:ea¡ a8en8ue¡ uo ;ardeqr E qlr^ sur8ag 1ooq eql 'pJuJEal e¡¿ sa8en8uel ,/vor{Jo Sulpuersrapun Jno r{tr^ tuelsrsuof, eJoru eJe leql slerr,r. ur uaqt rdepz or osp rnq sprJJtBru pue $looq -txal Surlsrxa aten[E^a or l¡uo rou ruaqr dlag leru rrr{r l{f,Jeesar uo¡usnbre a8rnSuq ar{rJo aruos ot-peouarredxa pue af,r^ou qroq-sJar{oral arnpoJrul
  • 15. ot sr looq srr{Uo ¡eo8 aq1 'spograu Sulql¿ar a8enSue¡ snoIrEAJo sluauodo¡d fq aperu srurelf, alenlele ol sJarlrBel Suld¡aq ur elqenl"^ osl¿ aJ¿ uorlrsrnb¡e a8en8ue¡ puof,as ul f;oagl pue qf,J"esal luoJj u,&EJp wapl r¿qt e^elTag a1)N 'sluapnls rrar{l Jo sanllge pur spaeu eqr Jo Surpuetsrapun Jlar{l sE lleff sE 'sluaruturoddrslp ro sassaoons snol^erd qtvtr ecual¡adxa u¡rro ¡Iaql $ suorsloep (sJar{feel uo ef,uengu¡ turuodul rsotu eqr 'aJns eq oI ¿sa3n3eJd ¡euorr -fnJlsur rueJe5rpJo ssaue nfaga p¡ruarod aql et¿np e ol sJer{3eel eJE.1voH 'tuetuoJ f,nuapef,E ar{r uo snf,oJ sluepnrs se l¡rruaplf,ul peureal eq il¡,l 3¡asrr eBenBuEI arp ter{} uondu¡nsse aqr qrvy laueru rralgns I{JEal ol runlperu eqr se pasn sl a8rn8uq puof,es ar{l 'sruooJsselc auos u1 'a8en8url ^eu eql Sulsn a¡qz'r spalo¡d ¡o slser ul l¡er'lle¡adooc a8e8ua laqr sE sluepnts uea^teg uonef,runruuro: (l¿Jnleu, sa8utnocua Jeqloue ra¡'san8o¡e¡p aJrlua ezlJoluaru pue seouelues tf,eJJof Jo las e aslr¡e.rd pue alellrm sluepnls 8ur,rerl3o an¡ert aqt sazseqdua reglouv 'slxJl lreJatl¡ 3u¡re¡suerl uI esn or fre¡nqtcort jo slsr pue reururer8jo sJlnr uJeal ot stuapnts seJlnbeJ q:eordde auo 'paruaru
  • 16. -a¡drur pur pasodord uaag a,req Surgceat aSen8uq or saqceordde lue¡¡ l¡a,rrrcaga ueql esn ol lsag rrer{r op or a Er{ oqtll sJal{rrar or parnqlJ}slp pu¿ paJepJo l¡durs are lagr 'sJrullatuos 'uolleluarua¡drul laqr ul 8ururc¡l alrsuetxa JoJ senrunlJoddo qrmt aruof, slEIJalEIu.lvou aql 'sauJllaurog 'uolSar Jo loor{f,s E ur uorletuaua¡dul a}Blporurul JoJ paglJf,se¡d a.¡e saqceo:dde ^au aqt 'sase¡ furru uI 'aJoJaq auo8 aaeg rel{r asoqr u"ql a^Ipüa aJoul aq illrr'laqr regr plor erE srrr{r"3J 'lSo8epad ¡o 's¡rlslnSuu 'l3o¡oqcfsd ur qf,Jeasar rsarel er{t uo pJS"q eq ol pIES ueuo are laqr 'parnpo¡tur e¡e 8ul -qreel a8en8ue¡ u8laro3 pup puores roJ qooqrxal pur spoqraur ldau uaql¡ NOIIfNCIOUINI Innoduction In Chapter 2 we look at second language learners' developing knowledge, their abiliry to use that knowledge, and how this compares with Ll learning. In Chapter 3, we rurn our attention to how individual learner characteristics
  • 17. may affect success. In Chapter 4, several theories that have been advanced to explain second language learning are presented and discussed. Chapter 5 begins with a comparison of naturd and instructional environments for second language learning.'We then examine some different ways in which researchers have observed and described teaching and learning practices in second language classrooms. In Chapter 6, we examine six proposals that have been made for second language teaching. Examples of research related to each of the proposals are presented, leading to a discussion of the evidence available for assessing their effectiveness. The chapter ends with a discussion of what research findings suggest about the most effective ways to teach and learn a second language in the classroom. In Chapter 7, we will provide a general summary of the book by looking at how research can inform our response to some'popular opinions' about lan- guage learning and teaching that are introduced below. A Glossary provides a quick reference for a number of terms that may be new or have specific technical meanings in the context of language acquisition research. Glossary words are shown in bold letters where they first appear in
  • 18. the text. For readers who would like to find out more, an annotated list of suggestions for further reading is included at the end of each chapter. The Bibliography provides full reference information for the suggested readings and all the works that are referred to in the text. 'W'e have tried to present the information in a way that does not assume that readers are akeady familiar with research methods or theoretical issues in second language learning. Examples and case studies are included through- out the book to illustrate the research ideas. Many of the examples are taken from second language classrooms. le have also included a number ofactivi- ties for readers to practise some of the techniques of observation and analysis used in the research that we review in this book. At the end of each chapter are 'Questions for refection to help readers consolidate and expand their understanding of the material. Before we begin ... It is probably true, as some have claimed, that most of us teach as we were taught or in awaythat matches our ideas and preferences about howwe learn. Take a moment to refect on your views about how languages are learned and what you think this means about how they should be taught. The statements in the activity below summarize some popular opinions about
  • 19. language 'seuo xelduo) eJolaq seJntrnJls a8en8ue¡ a¡durs qJeel Plnoqs sJeqf,eal | | 'Jaqloue ol uo 3uto3 aJoleq euo qf,ee ¡o sa¡dr,uexa as¡Dad plnoqs sJeuJeel Pu€'eutl e lp euo selnJ lellleuue"r8 luasa.ld PlnoLls sJeq)€al Ol 'sra¡eads el!}eu ql!^ suotl€sJeluof, ut ated¡r¡ued ,ftsea uer laqr'e8en8u€l e ,o ernDnJN ilseq eql Pu€ sPJo^ 000'l ^ oDl sJeuJeal a)uo ó 'aSenBue¡ puof,as eqt u! spunos lenpr^rpu! aql ¡¡e erunouord ol alqE eq ol sJeuJeal Jo, l€lluassa s! rl I '3utpea.t q8no.rqr sr ,fue¡nqero,r /veu uJ€el ol ,(e¡,r lseq eql ¿ 'a8entue¡ m-rg Jleqt uo4 elueJeFetu! ol anP aJ€ 3)eu sJeuJ€el e8en8ue¡ puof,as teqt selelslu eql ro lso¡ 9 '3uru;ea¡ ur ssaf,f,ns ,o pooqrle¿!l aql rateelt eql'seuu€J3o-rd ¡ooq:s ur pe)npoJtut st aten8ue¡ Puofes P JallJeo eql S
  • 20. 'uolle^ltour st uortlslnb¡e a8en8ue¡ Puof,es u! sse)fns ¡o ;ontpard lusuodLul rsou aql t 'sJeuJeal a8en8ue¡ poo8 a"re a¡doad rueS¡¡¡aru¡ llq8lU e 'sJoJJe ¡er¡teuue;3 a¡eu ,(aqr ueq,r,r ueJpltql Sunol }¡a.l'¡or ,!¡ensn sluaJed Z 'uolletlru! q8no-rqr l¡ureu PeuJEel a;e sa8en8uel ¡ osovvs aar8esrp l¡Suorrs-q5 teq^ euos aa-r8esrp-6 leq^ euos aa-r8e-Y ae.r8e ,!3uo;rs-y5 :uoruldo rnol qlrr* Peletf,osse xoq eql ul ¡ ue Suqreu lq tuaualets q)ea qr!^A aa.l3e nol q)lq/v 01 luelxe aqt elerlPul sluoruolels aseql uo uoluldo JnoÍ eAlD Arl^lrcv 'Sulurea¡ a8en8ue¡ Puoias ul ,Goaql Pue q3Jeasal luoJJnf, rnoge Pear nol sr punu ul rrJegl or suopf,EeJ rnol pue sluaruel?ls asaqr daal 'uorurdo gr", qri^ aarSeslp ¡o aa¡8e nol raqtaqr'r rnoqe lun{I 'Surgrear pue Sulurea¡ uo4Jnpo4uI
  • 21. Introduction Photocopiable @ Oxford University Press l2 Learners'errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. l3 Teachers should use materials that expose students only to language structures they have already been taught. l4 When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair activities), they copy each other's mistakes. l5 Students learn what they are taught. ló Teachers should respond to students'errors by correctly rephrasing what they have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error. l7 Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their second language. l8 Classrooms are good places to learn about language but not for learning how to use language. ¿a8en8ur¡ auo ueqr a¡otu a¡rnb¡e uerPllql tenSut¡t9 oP ./roH ¿PIro1( eql Punor¿ l¡re¡u¡s do¡a,rap eSenSur¡ PInp
  • 22. seoc ¿sasod -¡nd lsour JoJ lryssaDns sI uolleflunluruof, a¡duls f¡rea -uaqr g8noqr ua,ra a8en8uq ¡erlteruutr8 xa¡duro:8urdo¡a,rap uo oB ol uerPlrql seqsnd rer¡6 ¿salueluas ¡ry3ulueau ul raqlaSor ureqr rnd ol lnq 'sProlv uJml ol l¡uo rou pI,{¡ " salgeua r"qrh ¿srgr gsr¡druorre uarPllqr oP.u'oH 'suorle¡aua8:o3 srs¡8 -o1oqilsd pue stslnSullJo uonuaue er{r Parf,EJrlB seq lEI{l auo- tta; Sulzeure ue sl a8en8ue¡ e Sulurea¡ 'paapul ',alq-elq, rsJg al{l PaJaDn seq p¡o-reaf-auo asor{1rr sruarrd3o fol pur aprrd aqr ur arBl{s el/ PuE 'sargeg rrPloJo Sullqqrq ,Eq-¿q-Eq, IEuoltesrs^uof aqr (re.¿!suB, pue gSne¡ a¿¡ dqeq Plo-qruou-e3rr{1 e lq apeul spunos eqr or arnsea¡d qlIA uetsll a¿¡ 'ruaurdole^aP u"runl{ Jo spadse 8u¡reutoseS pue a,rtssardlul lsolu eqr Jo auo sr uorlrsrnbre o8enSuel uonrspbce a8entuel rsrl¡ 'looq slglJo snf,oJ aqr sr r{f,rr{1vr ,(WS) uorlrslnb¡e a8enSue¡ puof,asJo uorssnf,srp el{r JoJ uollsr -eda¡d e se f¡ruulud ,I{iJEasaJ sII{l ur slutod uleru dal E uo l{f,nol or s¡ rardrqr sII{l ur asod¡nd Jno .ile^ sE r{fJessJJ I"Jntlnf,-ssoJf, puE
  • 23. f,nsrnSur¡ssor:3o lpoq qru E sr erarp 'serllureJ umdorng PuE uEf,IJOlrtV I{lJoN ss"ll-alPPltu ul euop ueaq s"q qf,J"asar sII{r Jo qcnur g8noqr¡y 'aBenBuBI PIIqr uo l{rreesar Jo lunolue asuarurur uB sr aJer{I .peuJEal sl aSenSue¡./vor{ JoJ suoneueldxa s" paraJo ueeq e Br{ tEqr serroar{l IErrAes rePlsuof, ueqr ilI^ a4N 'uarPllql Sunol3o rueurdolalop aSrn8uq aqr re fgarrq lool ill1r ar* terdeqc slq] uI ^.er^eJd COOHCITIHf,,TfUVE NI DNINUVfl-I flDVNDNVf Language learning in early childhood Tbef.rst three years: Milestones and deu e lopmental sequences One remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the high degree of similariry in the early language of children all over the world. Researchers have described developmental sequences for many aspects of first language acquisition. The earliest vocalizations are simply the involuntary crying that babies do when they are hungry or uncomfortable. Soon, however, we hear the cooing and gurgling sounds of contented babies, lying in
  • 24. their beds looking at fascinating shapes and movement around them. Even though they have little control over the sounds they make in these early weeks of life, infants are able to hear subtle differences between the sounds of human languages. Not only do they distinguish the voice of their mothers from those of other speakers, they also seem to recognize the language that was spoken around their mother before theywere born. Furthermore, in cleverly designed experiments, researchers have demonstrated that tiny babies are capable ofvery fine auditorydiscrimination. For example, they can hear the difference between sounds as similar as pa'and'ba'. Janet'ü7erker, Patricia Kuhl, and others have used new technologies that allow us to see how sensitive infants are to speech sounds. tü7'hat may seem even more remarkable is that infants stop making distinctions between sounds that are not phonemic in the language that is spoken around them. For example, by the time they afe ayear old, babies who will become speakers of Arabic stop reacting to the difference between pa' and'ba'which is not pho- nemic in Arabic. Babies who regularly hear more than one language in their environment continue to respond to these differences for a longer period ('Werke¡ 'Weikum, and Yoshida 2006) . One important finding
  • 25. is that it is not enough for babies to hear language sounds from electronic devices. In order to learn-or retain-the abiliry to distinguish between sounds, they need to interact with a human speaker (Conboy and Kuhl 20II). The Internet abounds with remarkable videos of infants reacting to language sounds. rMhether they are becoming monolingual or bilingual children, however, it will be many months before their own vocalizations begin to refect the characteristics ofthe language or languages they hear and longer still before they connect language sounds with specific meaning. However, by the end of their first year, most babies understand quite a few frequently repeated words in the language or languages spoken around them. Theywave when someone says 'bye-bye'; they clap when someone says pat-a-cake'; they eagerly hurry to the kitchen when 'juice and cookies' are mentioned. At 12 months, most babies will have begun to produce a word or two that everyone recognizes. By the age of two, most children reliably produce at least 50 different words and some produce many more. About this dme, they begin to combine words into simple sentences such as 'Mommy juice' and I
  • 26. I ( l I Í : t ? Puz aql salf,rlr? (lddrg sz furuoyt¡) e¡ndoo (req slppeq) s- a,rrssessod (tuam Áqeg) suro; rsed rep8arl (qooq ozvrr) s- prn¡d (Suruunr furuo¡lq) &ur aqssat8o¡d luesa¡d 'parpnls fagr saruaqd -roru rr{t Jo eruos s.l$,oqs (11ooq g.L6l su^&org ruor3 pardepe) .vro¡aq tsIT eql 'aruanbas JEInuls t ur pa;lnbce eJalv sauragdroru ¡ecneruruer8 Vl ñqt PunoJ laqr (qereg pue 'elg 'ur"py pa¡ec) ue¡P¡gr oerqrJo tuaurdola,rap a8en8ue¡ aqr3o.,(pnrs purpn¡l8uol e uI 'sruaPnrs PuE san8ea¡or slq PuE u^org raSo¿ fq rno paur¿f, se,/v serpnrs úvoul-lsaq eI{Uo auo 'qsrÉug u¡ saruagd.roru ¡rr -neruu¡¿¡8 a¡mb¡e uarpllql .&oq uo Pasnf,oJ sJatlf,JEesar FJs
  • 27. es '<s096I el{r uI seuer{dJoru IBf, lreuur"Jc 'sreal looqrs eqr ¡run IoJruof Japun llara¡druor aq rou deru PuB erull aJolu ua a saler (,laa3, se grns) s¡ern¡d re¡nSarrr Jo asn Darro3 'sunou or s8urpua p.rn¡d ppe l¡qertar larp ero;aq 3uo1 ¡ern¡d pue .rt¡n8urs uea urq qsrn8urrslp utr uarPllql 'a¡duexa JoC 'arun Suoy r roj SurpuersJapun a,rnruSoo suaJPIIr{o ut luasa¡d uaag a^¿q r¿qr s¿epl Sulssa¡dxa JoJ sluauela :lrsm8ut¡ 3I{r Jo uorllsrnbce ¡enprr8 aqr tf,egal ot rr¡eas sa¡uanbas ¡eruaudolartap agl 'saser Jar{ro uI 'arullJo Surpurrs -Japun auos do¡a,rap daqr Ipun ¡aa^ lsEL Jo r!oJJoulot, sE l{f,ns sgJs PE ¡e.rodruar esn lou op ueJpllqr'a¡druexa ro¿ 'tuarudo¡arrap arrrrluSol s,ueJPIIql ot palEIeJ eJB uoltlslnbce a8en8uz¡ ur saSels esaql 'lualxa euros QT.',sa8els, ¡o sa¡uanbas ¡rruauldo¡a^epJo sturat uI PaqIJf,saP ueaq e^EI{ surauzd asaql 'sarnl¿al a8rn8uz¡ eruos roú '8uru;re¡ art faqr a8en8ue¡ aqrJo saJnrBai lueur 3o ruaudo¡a ep pue acuaS¡au¡a eql ur su¡au¿d a¡qerclpard are eraqt 's-real aarr{r tsJg Jleql ur a8en8ut¡ 1o lra,rorslp aqt r¡8nonp ssa¡8o¡d uaJPIII{3 ry ,'de¡ rnolgo au do.rp or puaratd nol a-reqztr Sulqr
  • 28. luury teqr op asee¡d {pp"C, ue^a ro ,Sutqtaruos paddorp ÍPP"C, ro üz'roP ¡a3lpprq, ueau rq8¡ru ,qo-qn lpP"C, (uolltnlls eqr uo Surpuedaq ,'ule8r aplstno oB ol luezrr I, utetu &ur ,aptslno a.lotu, 'a¡dtuexe Jo{ 'sPJolv aulgluof, l¡a,rnrar: uer fagr regr su8rs ,&oqs sefuetues PJod-aaJI{l PUE -o^l JIaI{I 'pJEJrl a,req laqr teqr* SuneIurr fFcaSradull uBI{l arou Sutop aJE uerPIIIir ler{t saJueluas l¡rea eseql ur ue^a 'afuePl^a aes osp aA 'llqelreura¡ ',ssr1 fgeg, se Sulgr arues eqr u€eru tou seoP fqeq ssu, 'PIIql Suqeads-qst8uE uE JoJ'snql'spro,,'r jo rsIT e rsnl ueqr aJou Iueql salelu reqr dlgsuone¡ar ¡nj8uluearu e eAEq spro r. paulqruof, al{r Pue Suueag arr laqr e8en8ur¡ arir Jo JJPJO PJoa al{l slJJUeJ JaPJo PJolv agt '8u¡ssnu a;e saruaqdrou TEJIleIu -uer8 pur spJo.lrauoprury gSnoqt ua^e ,asnefaq seouetues sE tual{t azruSora.t a/N 'sgJa^,ftenxne PuE 'suolllsodard 'sa¡r¡rre se s8ulqt qf,ns lno a,rea¡ laqr esnef,eg ,:tgdtr8a¡al, pallrf, seuneuros oJE sef,ueluos asaql '(u- 1vop ¡e3 lqeq, ?ooqfl lqr [1taa ut Sututoal a7anSuaT ( I
  • 29. l J Language learning in early childhood regular past -el(she walked) third person singular simple present -s (she runs) auxiliary be (he is coming) Brown and his colleagues found that a child who had mastered the gram- matical morphemes at the bottom of the list had also mastered those at the top, but the reverse was not true. Thus, there was evidence for a 'developmen- tal sequence' or order of acquisition. However, the children did not acquire the morphemes at the same age or rate. Eve had mastered nearly all the mor- phemes before she was two-and-a-halfyears old, while Sarah andAdam were still working on them when they were three-and-a-half or four. Brownt longitudinal work was confirmed in a cross-sectional study of 21 children. Jill and Peter de Villiers (1973) found that children who correctly used the morphemes that Adam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired late were also able to use the ones thatAdam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired earlier. The chil- dren mastered the morphemes at different ages, just asAdam, Eve, and Sarah
  • 30. had done, but the order of their acquisition was very similar. M-y hypotheses have been advanced to explain why these grammatical morphemes are acquired in the observed order. Researchers have studied the frequency with which the morphemes occur in parents' speech, the cognitive complexity of the meanings represented by each morpheme, and the difficulty ofperceiving or pronouncing them. In the end, there has been no simple satis- factory explanation for the sequence, and most researchers agree that the order is determined by an interaction among a number of different factors. To supplement the evidence we have from simply observing children, some carefully designed procedures have been developed to further explore chil- drent knowledge ofgrammatical morphemes. One ofthe first and best known is the so-called 'wug test' developed byJean Berko Gleason (1958). In this 'test', children are shown drawings of imaginary creatures with novel names or people performing mysterious actions. For example, they are told, 'Here is a wug. Now there are tvvo of them. There are two -'
  • 31. or 'Here is a man who knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing. Yesterday, he -'. By completing these sentences with'wugs' and'bodded', children demonstrate that they know the patterns for plural and simple past in English. By gener- alizing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they show that their language is more than just a list of memorizedword pairs such as'book/ books' and'nod/nodded'. AcrtvtrY Try out the'wug' test A web search for'wug test' will turn up many examples of the pictures and the text created for this landmark research. lf you know some English-speaking children under the age of five years, try using the test with them. '.e9, PUE (oP, s3 qsns sgJe^ lrer¡xne;o ruJoJ lf,JJJoJ al{l ot lueue¡a arttteSau tql qf,Ettr or
  • 32. ur8ag uarPIIq) V a8atg 1l tu31( luoP aH 'rr oP r,u?J I 'sesuat ¡o suos¡ad ruaJ3JIP JoJ stuJoJ asagr,{:ert ral rou op uerplrr{r ta,rellol-1 'qJO^ Iepour ro lreqtxne aqr or arr¡rz8eu eqt Surgrerre 3o uraued qsn8ug tf,arroo eIF ArolloJ or ¡¿add¿ seouetuas aseql '(luoP, PUE ,r¡ref,, 3{ll sPJolv Sulpn¡:ur ',ou, uEql raqro arure8eu el{rJo sruro; ppe leu uaJplrqJ 'efualuas xa¡duoc oJorrl E olul pelJasul sI luaruelo arrne8au aq¡ g aSatg ¡tel{t qlnor t,uoq 'rIBI{ qruoJ ou IPP"C '.luoP, asn ueuo uouqlgord ¡o uouoala¡ Sulssa¡dxa sef,uelues 'gJa^ aqt aJoJag lsnl s¡radde PJo^ a^n¿ -8au aq1 'pepnloul eq leu rrafgns eJuelues aql PuB ra8uo¡ ntor8 saruerau¡ 7 a8a6 'rIEr{ gluof, oN'aDloof, oN'oN 'af,uBJalln eql uI PJoll rsJU Jqt sE Jo Juol" IIE Jaqtla ',ou, pJodr agr fq passardxa f¡¡ensn sl uolte8a¡ ¡ a8ug
  • 33. '(tSet apol¡) IIa^ sE sa8en8ue¡ raqro ul pa^rasgo uaeq a^Er{ sa8ers rt¡rulg 't¡sÉug3o uorlrsrnbr¿ aql uI Pa^lesgo uaag e^"q uone8au3o ruarudo¡a,raP aqt uI sa8ets SuvtrolloJ aql 'JePJo Prolú pue spJo,& ar¿l¡do¡dde aqr Sursn 'saf,ueluas ut ruaql ssa.ldxa uec faqr aJoJeq eurn aruos sD¡sl rl 'sa¡ntsa8 Pu" sPJo¡a a13urs qrrrtr uaqt ssa;dxa PuE suon -lury asaqr puetsJepun uerPIII{r q8noqr ue^a ?ú'oqs selPnls ¡eurpnrlSuo¡ (I66I) s.ruoolg sIo'I sE .ra^a.r'roH 'a8els pror'r a¡8uls arp lE uala 'uotuess¿ uE pala¡ ol ¡o ,uonsaSSns e esnJal or 'srcelqoSo acue¡eaddeslP eqr uo lueuIluof, ot ur¿al laqt 'st rtql d¡rte l¡a¡' uone8au Jo suollf,unJ al{r uJeal uarPIII{J uonsSeN 'seJnlJnJls Pue suJoJ dau alsaJf or prEar{ a,req laqr reqA puolaq oB faqr ^roq PuE 'l¡r:neruarsfs sdo¡ar'ap a8en8uq s,ueJPlrqf,,/!oq s/oqs oslE saJnlEal a8en8ur¡ ragloJo uoplsmbre aq1 ¿rlnluJlP eJoru eJ€ sauo qlrLl^ pu€ lsee pug {eqr op sauaqd;otu le¡lleuuler8 qllqM ¿sa8e lua.ra¡¡rp 1€ ueJp¡ql aql Suoue ef,tlou nol op seluaJaJJlP Pue salllJ€lll'u!s
  • 34. reqM poo tl?llzlr t1"taa m Sututaal a&an7uaT I l. e A c S S s f 0 J I T ( I 1
  • 35. 10 Language learning in early childhood You didnt have supper. She doesnt want it. Even though their language system is by now quite complex, they may still have dificulty with some other features related to negatives. I dont have no more candies. Questions The challenge of learning complex language systems is also illustrated in the developmental stages through which children learn to ask questions. There is a remarkable consistency in the way children learn to form ques- tions in English. For one thing, there is a predictable order in which the 'uh-words' emerge (Bloom 1991). ''$7hat' is generally the first wh- question word to be used. It is often learned as part of a chunk ('(hassat?') and it is some time before the child learns that there are variations of the form, such as ''$7hat is that?' and'lhat are these?'. 'lhere' and 'who' emerge very soon. Identifying and locating people and objects are within the childt understanding of the world. Furthermore, adults tend to ask children just these types of questions in the early days of language learning, for example, 'lheret Mommy?' or ''Whot
  • 36. that?' 'Why' emerges around the end of the second year and becomes a favourite for the next year or two. Children seem to ask an endless number ofquestions beginning with why', having discovered how effectively this little word gets adults to engage in conversation, for example, 'Why that lady has blue hair?' Finall¡ when the child has a better understanding ofmanner and time, 'how' and'when emerge. In contrast to 'what', 'where', and 'who' questions, chil- dren sometimes ask the more cognitively difficult why', when, and 'how' questions without understanding the answers they get, as the following con- versation with a four-year-old clearly shows. cHrLD tü7hen can we go outside? PARENT In about five minutes. cHrLD l-2-3-4-51Can we go now? The ability to use these question words is at least partly tied to children's cog- nitive development. It is also predicted in part by the questions children are asked and the linguistic complexiry of questions with different wh- words. Thus it does not seem surprising that there is consistency in the sequence of their acquisition. Perhaps more surprising is the consistency in the acquisi- tion of word order in questions. This development is not based
  • 37. on learning new meanings, but rather on learning different linguistic patterns to express meanings that are already understood. l ! I I q f A n .¿8url.r: aq sl ft¡¡r, tou tnq ,¿Sutfrc ag s1, 'a¡druexa.ro3) qtoq rou tnq 'PJo,r -qmE rouorsJalur Jaqtlo asn or alg" ruaes uaJplll{J 'JeAa^oI{'a8els slql tr ue,tg ¿u?erf, acr e>lrl sSop oq 'ef,uatuas er{l1o uorsJe e^neJelf,ep aqt ut lrcqtxne ou aq ppo^ aJar{r r{rrrf'.r ur suonsanb ul .op, ppe ue^a uel ueJPIIqr 'a8ers slqr rtrr ¿aru quz'rle¡d or 3ulo3 nol ary
  • 38. 'rrafgns aqt aJoJaq ¡eadde ]Er{l sJIr -Erlrxnr arp ur lrarre^ eJoru sr aJagl rng 'E a8trg jo asoqt elqruasal suonsanb JrlI 'uolsJelul l¡erTrxne-t:algns lq pauro3 are suoltsenb auos '7 a8er5 ly yaSwg ¿tr par{f,ref, no,( lq¿¡ ¿euo e eq r uop nol fqr¡1 ¿ar¡oor E a^Br{ uel I oC ¿prrll $ lppar aqr s1 'ruJoJ lualuelEls sll uI afuelues arpJo rsal aql Surrtea¡ 'esualues BJo (luo{, aqr re (protvi uonsanb ro gra,r e) Sunpauros Surrrnd lq PauroJ art suousanb teqr eq or srueas alnJ s,pllql eqt asnef,aq ,3urluor3, a8ers qgr IIEI alN :euurer8 tppe equo arrn¡ads¡ad eqr ruo{ uEI{l rer{rrr a,rncads¡ad EPIIqT eql ruo;3 urarred eqt aas ot peau alr'slql aglJf,seP oI'uosreJ 8uo¡rtr aqr ro3 lq8rr aq &u faqr 'uraued llnpr aqt qrtetu a8zrs str¡r te suorlsanb aruos q8noqr¡y ¿lddeq nol ary ¿o3 1 ue3 :sr l{f,ns suorlsanb acnpord or uÉag pue ruaJaglp sr suoltsanb 3o arnnnrrs aql leqr e3llou uarPllql 'f¡enp-erg g aSatg 'suortsanb pateaJf u,{o JIaI{l eprs8uo¡e ,¿reqr s.rerltr, sE r{f,ns sruJoJ peuJeel->lunql loerrof, aqr aonpord ol
  • 39. anunuoo lagl ¿rruos e^?q I ¿sn{r a>III noÁ 'uolteuolul Sulsrr qru*'ef,uetuas alneJ"lseP eqrJo JaPJo PJo,/4, al{r esn ueJPIIr{J 'suorlsanb ¡aeu sJolu 1se or urSag r{arp w 7 a8ug ¿reqr ErEt1,N ¿fppeq srraqr6 :qunql s" Peuftal uaaq arreq,bqr esnef,aq lf,eJJof,-suollsanb lce¡¡oo auros acnpotd leru laql 'arutl arues aql ly ¿1ooq Áuruol J ¿aDIooJ :uolleuolul Sursr qurtr sa3uelues pJo./v-eeJq1 Jo -o1rl a¡druls Jo sPJo¡a a¡8uls a:e suollsanb lseIIJEa s¡arp[Y) ¡ a8atg Footlplltp t(ltra ut Sututral a8anSuaT s c I 1 I a
  • 40. ( ( a II T2 Language learning in early childhood Therefore, we may find inversio n in yes/no questions but not in wh- ques- tions, unless they are formulaic units such as "ü7'hatb that?' Stage 5 At Stage 5, both wh- andyes/n questions are formed correctly. Are these your boots? íhy did you do that? Does Daddy have a box? Negative questions may still be a bit too difficult. X/hy the teddy bear cant go outside? And even though performance on most questions is correct, there is still one more hurdle. tWhen tuh- words appear in subordinate clauses or embedded questions, children overgeneralize the inverted form that would be correct for simple questions and produce sentences such as: Ask him why cant he go out.
  • 41. Stage 6 At this stage, children are able to correctly form all question types, including negative and complex embedded questions. Passage through developmental sequences does not always follow a steady uninterrupted path. Children appear to learn new things and then fall back on old patterns when there is added stress in a new situation or when they are using other new elements in their language. But the overall path takes them toward a closer and closer approximation of the language that is spoken around them. Zhe pre-scltoolyears By the age of four, most children can ask questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones, using correct word order and grammatical markers most of the time. In fact, it is generally accepted that by age four, children have acquired the basic structures of the language or languages spoken to them in these early years. Three- and four-year-olds continue to learn vocabulary at the rate of several words a day. They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures such as passives and relative clauses.
  • 42. Much of children's language acquisition effort in the late pre- school years is spent in developing their ability to use language in a widening social environ- ment. They use language in a greater variery of situations. They interact more often with unfamiliar adults. They begin to talk sensibly on the telephone to invisible grandparents (younger children do not understand that their telephone partner cannot see what they see). They acquire the aggressive or I I & 1 c o ú IlI oI TI nel rez 'ca iss of InL
  • 43. rid d¡¡rue3 pue spuerrj rrar{r qlrrvr, aJeqs or ar'o¡ feqr qlrq./$ '.salpplJ pue 'suonsenb >1cur 'sa>1ol pror* ot ssef,f,E uaJplrr{f, sa¡.r8 Suru¿aru a¡dnpu a ¿r{ uEf sefualues puE spJolv reqr Sumou;¡ lrlnSlque se s8ulqr r{f,ns Jo &ertoosrp eqt sapnlf,ur osle sseuar?1(E cnsm8ul¡elary ¡Jeuor{s l¡rnuersgns sr stuasa¡da¡ rl rralgo egr q8noqr uaAe ',urBJJ, uer{l pJolvr Je8uo¡ e sr ,re¡¡ldralec, teql puetsJepun laql 'sr (asnor{, se lsnl 'prorrr e sr (ar{l, ter{t pu"rsJepun p¿aJ uer or{ uerplrgr 'sp¡o-reaf-aarr{r eTlun 'stuasa¡da¡ u Sulqr egt ruo{ etEJ -¿das sl (pJo1r, e rtqr SulpuetsJapun aqt sef,Jo3urer Sulpta¡ '8ulu¿aru s¿ ila^ sB ruJoJ seg a8en8url regr SuryurtsJapun .&eu E ot ueJplrql spea¡ a8ed e uo s¡oqruls rer.llo pue sJouel lg paruasardal spJoa Sulaag 'sseuaJr^re rnsrn8url -Eleru ol rsoog;ofuur ¿ sa¡tr8 peeJ or Sulureal 's^r'ro¡8 pue spuedxa lr¡lqe srgl 's;eal ¡ooqcs aql ut pue 'sreaf loogcs-ard agt ur s8urueeru u1ro rraqt ssardxa ol pue srar{lo puelsJepun or aSen8ue¡ asn ol lrlllq" aqr do¡a,rap uaJpllr{f sffia[ Iooqrs aql 'luarudo¡ar'ap a8enSuel JoJ sonrunlJoddo ¡'rau s8u¡rq pur e8en8uel
  • 44. Sulsn 3o s&¡rr ¡'rau sa.rrnba¡ Suuas Iooqls aql (asn a8en8ue¡ pue a8enSurl roJ sllDIS pur a8pa¡r'tou¡ xa¡duo: a¡rnb¡e uarplrr{r ¡oor¡cs-ard q8noqr¡y 'looqls or oB fagr arun eql lg aroru ro srnor{ 000'02 JoJ tuau¡uoJr^ue JrerFJo a8en8ue¡ eqr qrr^ tf,¿luof, ul are larp ltr{l eterurlse l¿ru a¡r' 'lep e srnoq e la r Jo uat JoJ a>p./vE arc uaJplll{f, JI 'stuaruuoJl^ua qolr-a8en8ue¡ ul puads uerplrqf, snoq lurur r'rog rsnl nof zvroqs III^ esllraxe I¿f,ntuer{reru >1:rnb y 'fta 'uorsr^elar Suryrreztr 'ol pear Surag 'suoltesrarr -uo3 (sJJqlo uo Sulddorpsalea 'suonesJa uof, ur Sull¿dlrlrred- a8en8ue¡ qrvn SunceJerul srnor{ Jo spu"snor¡r ruads a^¿q ueJpllqr reql lgr.ror'r -alou osle sr lI 'elrssaJdrur sl s:eal ¡oorl:s-ard eqr ur uolllslnbce a8rn8url '(punoJe ft¡rr 3uo¡¡tr aqt, sr Jarpo eqr rnq lillt, tl auo l"ql nol ¡ar uec lagl '(l?a er{l e>pf,, ruo5 le,rn tuareglp ¿ ul 8uo¡¡'¡. sr (Jrer{J aql {uIJp, rEI{r r'rortl 'pueq raqto eqt uo 'sp¡o-reaf-arrr{ 'suearü rr r"q.ü puersJapun uec faqr rrrp 13BJ rr{r uo l¡urcu sncoS ¡lrv' laqr rnq 'ppo llq e s,u .r*ou1 lagr reqr rrroqs leur leql 'l qrwr Suorrvr, Sulqrlue s erar{l reqr aJns ssel eJE lagl ',lea aqt a1to, fes Ja^au ppol'r faqr g8noqrp ta e./úoH 'asuas a>pru r,usaop tI asn"f,eg ',JIBqf aqt >lurrp, fes or f¡ls, s,rr rerp nof ¡ar uEf, uarpllqr p1o-.real- aarq¡ 'sla,ruo:
  • 45. tr Suru¿aru eqr ruo5 ete¡edas roalqo ue sr aBenBuEI r"oJr or óITr9e al{l 'sseu -a¡e¿rre:nsrnSu[elau do¡a,rap or ulSag os[B ueJplrr{J 'sreaf ¡ooqcs-ard aqr u¡ 'sarJel a8en8ue¡ lgr'.r put lroq pu"tsJepun or ur8aq pur aroldxa larp 'ftrvr sr¡r uI '(se3ro^ ruaJ$lp asaqr 8u¡sn asnce;d faql r{3ll{,/v ur &¡d puarard arerogele ur a8pa¡.,'ron1 srql asn laqr pue laqro q:ea or lpr fagr mog pue serqsq or lpr srlnPe ^/yoq ue3.&tag ef,uaJaJIP aqr Paur?al ar'rq laqr 13Ip /{ogs faql 'punor8le¡d aql ur sfor rregr puaJap or pepaau sI rrr{r e8en8ue¡ 8ur¡ofu: ?ooqflltf [lraa wSutunal aSan&uaT J( JI ar 3l -I SI S: o. SI aÍ
  • 46. P J: 1J u s: & ll ,l l: P el tr t4 Language learning in early childhood One of the most impressive aspects of language development in the school years is the astonishing growth ofvocabulary. Children enter school with the ability to understand and produce several thousand words, and thousands more will be learned at school. In both the spoken and written language at school, words such as 'homework' or'ruler' appear frequently in situations where their meaning is either immediately or gradually
  • 47. revealed.'Words like population or'latirude' occur less frequently, but they are made important by their significance in academic subject matter. Vocabulary grows at a rate of between several hundred and more than a thousand words e year, depending mainly on how much and how widely children read (Nagy, Herman, andAnderson 1985). The kind ofvocabulary growth required for school success is likely to come from both reading for assignments and reading for pleasure, whether narrative or non- fiction. Dee Gardner (2004) suggests that reading avariety oftext types is an essential part of vocabulary growth. His research has shown how the range of vocabulary in narrative texts is different from that in non-fiction. There are words in non-fiction texts that are unlikely to occur in stories or novels. In addition, non-fiction tends to include more opportunities to see a word in its different forms (for example, 'mummy', 'mummies', 'mummified').Th. importance of reading for vocabulary growth is seen when observant parents report a child using a new word but mispronouncing it in a way that reveals it has been encountered only in written form. Another important development in the school years is the acquisition of dif- ferent language registers. Children learn how written language
  • 48. differs from spoken language, how the language used to speak to the principal is different from the language of the playground, how the language of a science report is different from the language of a narrative. As Terry Piper (2006) and others have documented, some children will have even more to learn if they come to school speaking an ethnic or regional variety ofthe school language that is quite different from the one used by the teacher. They will have to learn that another variety, often referred to as the standard variety, is required for suc- cessful academic work. Other children arrive at school speaking a different language altogether. For these children, the work of language learning in the early school years presents additional opportunities and challenges. 'W'e will return to this topic when we discuss bilingualism in early childhood. Explaining first language acquisition These descriptions of language development from infancy through the early school years show that we have considerable knowledge of tahat children learn in their early language development. More controversid, howeve¡ are questions about how this development takes place. rVhat abilities does the child bring to the task and what are the contributions of the
  • 49. environment? ¿(>pnn ar{t) ll or Pauaddeq leqAt ,srvrr (rerr¡) '1cnrr dunq 'slaarl[ ]f,nrr dtunq dirrild plf,nJt dunp eqr ul sleeq/( e¡ou¡ lnd euuo8 ar¡o sIo'I 'aJorü laD utrrad 'uo lool <sIoT pue lsrr¿ 'sr¡npe o^r alr{^/$, >l3nrr dulnp e qrl^ Surlqd sr (sqruou V7) nta¿ 'enSoprp Surirro¡o3 aqr uI r1npe aqt sat¿llurl Jalad ^{'oI{ sfllou 'eloqe suouusaP aqr Surs¡ 'r¡npt Surlrsln ¿ qrl¡l pa&¡d laqr se peprof,er arar* laqr usrr{ plo sqtuoru ,zfioqe ¡¡e aram,{aq1 'uÁqru¡ pur 'lpul3 telad luoU sldr¡¡sue¡l aql eulluBxa ^oN 'SlOJJ¿f, rre I{roq legl'storref, lea auo Jal{ro Jr{I 'sloJref, lea aH ,{cNIc 'urJoJ Jo uonelndrutu ar'¡rpadal :af,Itf,EJd s¡op qrrn'fe¡¿ ,cn'I ¿slloP aqr grv"' fe¡d er II?I{S uaHrol I
  • 50. .ef,ueJaltn s esla euoerüos3o rrrd ro IIEJo uonnedar prortr-ro1- PJo1v :uollelllul raprsuof, 'srulal o u asagr rq r""r* r;]'rlllff;{I;11*i:il?J"qJtü ur sasse¡o¡d l¡¿ul¡d eqt sE lxlJvtd pue uotlaluat Pa/'/'JL srsIJnoI^EI{3q eI{I $ldut?tca ?u? suo?qu{aq :qcaads s,uaty¡tqe Sutst1auy .uJ"el or spaau pF{l egr Surqrf-ra^aJo ef,Jnos aql sE luauuoJl^ua aql ol e3uEl -¡odu¡l rze¡8 sa,tl3-froal{r slgl'rnolleqeq a8en8ue¡ s,P¡ql aqr adeqs PFo^ ,luauluoJr,rua aql q sJJr{to lq pa-rago lualuef,JoJuleJ JIII Jo fcuats¡suoc ar¡t s" II3./$ sE'sreallPltll 3q1 a8en8ut¡ sqrJo ó¡rurnb pue.lrnrnb aql'^eI^ ,rqio,8.rrp:o:ry:asn a3en8ue¡ DerJof,Jo ,sllq'I{, PeurroJ fagr ¡run su¡aued pu? spunos eseql asnf,BJd pue arrr¡urr 01 anurluol pFo^, UaJPIII{3 'luatuuoJ -rrr,rrlrr,{r,{q pafurnorua snql .uoneorunrurüoJ InJssaf,f,ns lsnl ro aslerd3o urJoJ 3I{r e{81 PInoJ slrll '(luauef,JoJulal a,rrlrsod,,partraf,eJ PJ"3I{ larp reqm ,r.tiorárr ór riá*ru" rraql ,uaqr punorc asoqr,(q pacnpord a8en8uq aql pal?lnul usrpllqr uaq.& rEqr pazsaqrodlq slslrnol^El{e3 IBuolllPBJJ '(Ls6l) rauuDIS c .g sB,/ü lroaqr ¡etlSoloqrlsd srql3o tuauodo¡d u¡¿olDl-lseg agl ,3.trurla¡ r3*3,r"1 or prrfiar qlrlN 'sarers perrun aql uI f¡rroadsa 's0l6l
  • 51. pue s076I aqr ur ltrluangur se/'r rsgr Sulurra¡3o lroaqr B sI IusIJnoI eqeg a nur a ds"ta d $t¿not a? q a q a qI 'sa¡tpads¡ad ¡eruarudo¡a,reP/lsuolrf,EJalul puE (ls¡euur ,tsl:nor,reqaq :ruarudolartap a8en8ue¡ ule¡dxa or PaJUB^P? uaaq aAEII suousod prlraroaql ultru earqr'&nruel q10Z 3r{rJo slPPIlu srir muIS Sl Footl?lltlr f,ltaa ut nurutaa1 aSan&uaT ¿r JI AJ u A1 il a1 II t. SI e'l SJ SI
  • 53. sl a' I( T6 Language learning in early childhood nETER (looking under chair for it) Lose it. Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall! LoIs Yes, the dump truck fell down. IETER Dump truck fell down. Dump truck. (Unpublished data from P M. Lightbown) Ifwe analysed a larger sample of Petert speech, we would see that 3040 per cent of his senrences were imitations of what someone else had just said. 7e would also see rhat his imitations were not random. Thar is, he did not simply imitate 3040 per cent of everything he heard. Detailed analyses of large samples of Petert speech over about a year showed that he imitated *otá, and sentence structures that were just beginning to appear in his sponraneous speech. Once these new elements became solidly grounded in his language system, he stopped imitating them and wenr on to imitate others. unlike a parror who imitates the familiar and continues to repear
  • 54. the same things again and again, children appear to imitate selectively. The choice of what to imitate seems ro be based on something new that they have just begun to understand and use, not simply on what is available in the environ- ment. For example, consider how Cindy imitates and practises language in the following conversations. Cindy (24 months, 16 day$ is looking at a picture of a carrot in a book and trying to get Patsy's attention. cINDY Kawo? kawo? kawo? kawo? kawo? pATsy 'ülhat are the rabbits eating? crNDY They eating ... kando? PATSv No, thatt a carrot. cINDy Carrot. (pointing to each carrot on the page) The other ... carrot. The other carrot. The other carrot. (A few minutes later, Cindy brings Patsy a stuffed toy rabbit.) pATsy ü/hat does this rabbit like to eat? cINDy (incomprehensible) eat the carrors. (Cindy gets another stufFed rabbit.) crNDy He (incomprehensible) eat carrors. The other one eat carrots. They both eat carrots. (One week later, Cindy opens the book to the same page.)
  • 55. crNDy Heret the carrors. (pointing) Is that a carrot? PATSY Yes. (Unpublished data from P. M. Lightbown) '$uatuJltl3 Jo suonsenb sJe>[Eads JeTro eqr uo sal?Joq?Ia PuB suollsanb sJ3^sLrB Put $lse er{s'pealsul 'Ja)Frds Jaqto aql salellrul l¡arer aqs tnq 'safueluas a:r¡:¿¡d parelaJjo sarJas e sacnpord roj¡asraq sreadal seulltaruos uf;qte¡ 'fpur3 a1ry G€]:gLGI lr.lrT puu uroo¡g tuoglil .ureJl oor{f oor{J e sr sql (ulerr;o u¿d tno 8ur¡er) ¿ooI{J ool{l Y N,uHrlrx 'xoq aqr uI s,rl 'ePrsul sIo-I ¿urEJl oor{f, ool{f, aJolu ¿ aJJqra ¿aJJqrN '>pnrr ulrqre¡ (1cnrr rno 8ur¡er) lf,nJr ta) 'uIEJl oor{3 oor{f, aJoru oN 'eJoru B leD 'aJou ra8 1 (xoq ut Sutgcreas) N,runrvx (:agraSor l srnd sro.1¡ 'r*og nol r'roqs II<I >loo'I 'lr op uEf, noÁ 'll op uer noÁ ';4O sIo'I 'srqr op I 'sn{r op 1 (raqraSor urc¡l tnd ot 8uú-u) 'slqr op rue,& I 'srqt oC (ulerr3o sJ33 o-1rl tno 8ur¡er) N,uHrvx
  • 56. ('roog eqr uo epIIS aqr stnd ulrgru¡) 'srqr oP I 'sFlL'roou uo u1(oP rnd N,)rHrvx 'sI rEI{r rBIl!^oDl nol qg sIo'I ¿srql EtErL['le¡d rue¿6 (epls tno Stqtt) 'ulerl ool{3 ool{f, I{11.& &¡d ruem I 'urerr ool{f, ool{f, qrv't le¡d turt I (8eq ro3 Surqeee-r) 'urerl ooqr oor{f, al{r rr¡8norq sIo'I'sa ¿urrrl ooqr ool{l eqr rq8norq sIo-I ¿ool{r ooq3 ¿s,{or 8ur-rq 1 ¿rqSnorq 1 slot aqr aas nof pl6l (sqruour V7)uthqYY 'sro-I PuB urirgrr¡ uJJ leq uollssJa^uo:8urno¡o; aql ut arnorrd pue uonerrrul 3o saldruzxa al{l TJPISuoJ'luaf, rad 91 ueql ssal rE Parelm -lm uaaq seq tered pue lpur3 Jo rEI{r or a¡geredurof, elrr e re papaacord luaudo¡autap esoq,/ra 'uaJPIItls JaIPo Jo q:aads eql uI uollelllul Jo lunour¿ aql 'p¡p fprlf put rared se I{f,nru se asrlcr¡d PuE ele}llil uarPllqr IIE roN 'tuaruuorr^ua aqr lq uErF ral{}Er pll{c aqt aplst{ Surgtauos fg paulrurarep peruaes asrlce¡d Pue alelllul ol ]Erl^Uo alrol{o aIP '/lres a^ se 'os ue,rg 'uoltlslnb¡e e8en8ue¡ 3o uorreue¡dxe lslJnoll?qaq eW or r¡oddns oruos pual ot ruaes lPttl PuB rered ruorj qraeds jo sa¡dues aq1
  • 57. '¡oBuuroru, lpuarrnr $ aqs teq,t uo pasnroJ aq or .readde a¡lpe¡d PuE uoIlelIIUI JaI{ lared e{ll ,teql sl 8ur¡ns lsouI sI IP(LA'IISI^ lsel slsle¿ efuls uaas lou PEII aqs 1ooq agr ul aSed aqt or rq8le.tts suJnl Pue ralsl >lea^ E üossel aSenSue¡, aql sJaqruaueJ el{s letlt sr Surlsa¡alul lsolu sdeqra¿ isessElf, a8en8ue¡ u8ra;o; eruos uI tuepnrs E a>lll spunos reqr lem e uI saJnlJnJls PUE sPJo/( dau sasll -cerd aqg 'uotllsrnbrr a8tn8ue¡ req uo preq Suurortr aq or sreadde fPtlf, ?ootl?l?qr lpaa ut &urutua1 a8anSuaT NTUHII'}I SIO'I NA)THIYX SIO'I Pr UI -u lsI af, eu aB Snr
  • 58. sP. a3. Át, qx Je( LI 18 Language learning in early childhood Thus, children vary in the amounr of imitation rhey do. In addition, many of the things they say show that they are using language creativel¡ not just repeating what they have heard. This is evident in the following e*ampl.r. Patterns in knguage The first example shows a child in the process of learning pamerns in lan- guage, in this case the rules of word formation, and overgeneralizing them to new contexts. Randall (36 months) had a sore on his hand. MoTHER M"yb. we need to take you to the doctor. RANDALL 7'hy? So he can doc mylittle bump? Randall forms the verb 'doc' from the noun 'doctor', by analogy with farmers
  • 59. who farm, swimmers who swim, and actors who act. fNor l putd.- W"!,1!brrrysetÍ ! Focus onmeaning Even older children have to work out some puzzles, for example, when famil- iar language is used in unfamiliar ways, as in the example below. vhen David (5 years, 1 month) was ar his older sister's birthday parry, toasrs were pro- posed with grape juice in stemmed glasses: FATHER I d like ro propose a roasr. Several minutes later, David raised his glass: DAvrD I d like ro propose a piece of bread. only when laughter sent David slinking from the table did the group realize that he wasnt intentionally making a play on words! He was concentraring ( I I d { ts k lllfr
  • 60. ¿5 g m d( let the ptates oo t *¡c tatle ! /Yon ,q¿a,^, I n+E the ptates oitte'te.btc.,- 'uollrsrnbfe a8en8ue¡ JoJ suoneueldxa ruaraglp JoJ >lool ol sJar{rJresal pel suonelruJrl asaql 'arlnbf,E ueJplrr{f ter{t JEruruE.rB xa¡duroo eJotu ar{lJo uog -rsrnbrr erlt JoJ uoneue¡dxa,ftotcrSsnrs r tou sr rusrJnor^Er{eq lrf,rsself, '.a>fertr ueiplrql t"ql uonpzrprauaSra,l,o Jo slJos aqr Surureldxa ot ,(rr'r, aruos saoB rusrrnor^Eqaq q8noqr¡e puv 'tol ? eletrurr oq,/! asoqr se l¡prde.r pue f11ry se a8en8ue¡ a¡lnb¡¿ uouetrulr IJJ^o elurl op oq,& ueJplrql 1a^eaoH 'saSets tsar¡ -rea aqr re fllelcadsa 'a3en3ue13o slradse aulrno: pur re¡n8eJ eqrJo aruos uJ?el ueJplrr{f,./(oq Surpuersrapunjo lem alqruoseal E JeJo ot sruees rusrJnorler{eg 'lf,eJJof, uauo pue a¡qrsuegarduroc l¡ensn aJE seouatuas,/!au Jraql 'spJo,s
  • 61. JO SaSn 1veu JO STuJOJ l1eu atearc feql 'slxaluof, 1veu ol ueql azrlEJauaS pw su¡aued lno >pld or ;raddt uarplrql 'reqre¡ 'stlnpe ruoU preaq a,reg laqr r¿{¡ saf,ualuasJo suortnada¡ l¡a.rau lou tre laql'uarp¡¡¡r lq parea-rr sruJoJ Jrp Jo aruos urc¡dxa louuer euole rfnfe.rd pue uonelnul '8ulurca¡ a8en8uel 3o ssa:o¡d aql uo l'ropuuvi E g1r^ sn aplrro;d q:aads suarplrqrJo saldruexa asaql 'lf,aga pue asnef Jo JapJo ar{t se8uego <asnEfeg, Jo (aJo3ag, e>[l pro^ E.&oq pu"tsrapun raf rou prp eH 'rsr5 pres aq r"g./ü ErEI{r os 'sPueq srq Áp or parduaue IIEpuEU ero1ag pereaddesrp sla^ol eqt <eser srql uI 'muar -JnJJo Jraqr Jo JapJo arp ul stue a uonualrl or puer tuarudo¡a,rap a8en8ue¡ 3o a8ers srql re ua:plgC 'rsJg sauof, asn"lo qrlq¡ rnogt a1€lsrru E ep€tu eq rnq 'lervre sle,lot Jr{r IIB loor nol asnereg spueq ftu f-rp luer I, luearu eH 'spueq Áu lrp ruec I asntrag lene s¡azrrot eqr IIE >loor noÁ 'le or e roj Suqoo¡ servr (sqruoru I 'sreaf E) Ippus¿ vuanato np.rg 'luaurdo¡a,rap uonsanb ul g aSrrgSo sa¡durexa poo8 are suoltsanb sIH 'aJuelues elpJo SuruulSaq arp te ?re,rnd or se,/r suorlsJnb Suuse3o >lrlJr al{r rEI{t papnpuol p"q IFpusU
  • 62. ¿roq sr sql arv ¿sroog fru arc asoql erv ¿slr"r rraqr a133ln uec sSop ary 'lep e ¡o asJnof, ar{1 Ja o suorl -Enlrs snorJBA ur suonsanb Surmo¡oj al{r pa>lse (sqruoru 6 'sfte/ Z) IIEPuBU uo4au"toluo?rsanÓ ',peaJgJo acard e, 'rur(uoufs-¡tau lua¡edd¿ srr qlv'r paoe¡dar aq rou plnoJ pu¿ lseor ewBS aqt lou stl't- (tsror -^au>I Jq rq8noqr arl pro^{ aq1 tEIp azrlear or pelle3 aI{ rEI{r ,' ' ' asodord or aTI p(I, uols -sa¡dxa f,r¿lnruroJ ar{r pue a¡nlsa8 rvrau SuneurcsE agr Sunurol¡ad uo pr"I{ os 6I pooqpl?tp f,1wa utBuruwal a3an3ua7 3u ez) -o, PI 1I I
  • 63. IUi -u lsl lu 20 Language learning in early childhood 7h e innatist p ersp ectiue Noam Chomsky is one of the most infuential figures in linguistics, and his ideas about how language is acquired and how it is stored in the mind sparked a revolution in many aspecrs of linguistics and psychology, includ- ing the study of language acquisition. The innatist perspective is related to Chomsky's hypothesis that all human languages are based on some innate universal principles. In his 1959 review of B. F. Skinnert book Wrbal Behauior, Chomsky chal- lenged the behaviourist explanation for language acquisition. He argued that children are biologically programmed for language and that language devel- ops in the child in just the same way rhar orher biological functions develop. For example, every child will learn to walk as long as adequate nourishment
  • 64. and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. The child does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age, and walking is essentially the same in all normal human beings. For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar. The environment makes only a basic contribu- tion-in this case, the availabiliry of people who speak to the child. The child, or rather, the childk biological endowment, will do the rest. Chomsky argued that the behaviourist theory failed ro account for 'the logical problem oflanguage acquisition'-the fact that children come to know more about the structure oftheir language than they could reasonably be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they hear. The language children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete sentences, and slips of the tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. He concluded that childrenk minds are not blank slates to be filled by imitating language they hear in the enyironment. Instead, he hypothesized, children are born with a specific innate abiliry to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language sysrem on the basis of the samples of a natural language they are exposed to. This innare endowmenr was seen as a sort of template, containing the principles that are
  • 65. universal to all human languages. This universal grammar (UG) would prevenr the child from pursuing all sorts of wrong hypotheses about how language sysrems might work. If children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which the language they are acquiring makes use of these principles. Consider the following sentences, from a book by Lydia X/h ite ( 1 9 8 9). These English sentences contain the reflexive pronoun'himself'. Both the pronoun and the noun it refers to (the antecedent) are printed in italics. (An asterisk at the beginning of a sentence indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical.) a John saw himself b *HimselfsawJohn. I { I I i I ir
  • 66. n I h ir si a( oi qr w 'ureqr qrl^ rf,Eralul aldoad qrq.r ur sluaruuorrlua ur dn rq8no.rq are laqr3l srualsls a8en8ut¡ xa¡duroc armb do¡e,rap ór¡lge e,urruSor parnul¡,Ga,r qtl{ ueJp¡qr ua^g 'a8enSue¡ ualods3o uolusrnboe s¡a-rp¡gc SurJEer{ ot Jelrrurs sl ruetsls aSenSur¡ regr3o uortrsmb:u aqr ur ssa¡3o¡d Jraqr pu" 'fruejur ur tr ol pasodxa are faqr 3r a8rn8uel u8.rs ureel llrlvJEap llpuno3ord arc oqz'r ua¡pllgf, 'ólunruruor ¡en8ur¡r¡nur e m a,rr¡ fagrSl a8rn8ur¡ auo uer{t eJoru ro-e8rn8ue¡ a nru rlaqr armbce I¡¡S -sseflns uaJplrql il" rsotule r¿qr rrEJ aqr sazlseqdrua a,rn¡ads¡ad tslteuul aq1 'uo¡r¡s¡nbre a8en8uq ro3 lla,rrsn¡cxe pasn sI usruer{f,eru ateum er{r rer{r aJoruJaqunJ azrsagtodlq faql 'rndul Jr{lJo suon¿trurT
  • 67. Jo alds m xeruls xalduo: qf,ns relof,srp ot uaqr s olle reqt a8pe¡mou>l ro rusruer{rarrr al¿uur eruos e^Er{ rsnu laqr 'tuaruuoJrlua Jrar{} jo a8en8uq aqr a.rmbru uarplrqr IIE erurs trr{r ezr$qrodlq laq¡ 'lndur eqt ur alqelr¿,rr secualuas 3w -sn¡e.rd pue SunernulJo srseq eqr uo l¡a.rnd paur"al aq Ja au p¡nor reruure-6 xa¡duroc r{Jns terir an3¡e a¡.rtcads¡ad lsneuur ar{l ruo{ uonrsrnbf,E a8rn8uu¡ lpnrs oqru. sreqoreesa¿ 'srar{lo aql Jo ólTe¡neurue;8un aqt azuSorer pun saf,ualuas ¡ecrreruurerS aqr ra.tdratur lpcauoc or alqe aq plno^ uarpllq: e8e-¡ooqos lsour 'taÁ 'ler'r aqr 8uo¡e sror;a e>leru op uerpllql pue 'uJEal o¡ p.leg lra,r aq plno tl suaes l 'ólxa¡duol Jo pury sryr rE >lool a^{ uaqlil 'tlasunr¡ ¡o a¡nt¡rd e ¿qft{ pa,&oqs ¿utlo[ l :lllg ro uqof raqrta ol reJar Plnos a^Ixaua¡ er{r eJar{^ (>1) ur se 'a¡glssod sr luepaf,etue euo u€ql aJoru 'sasef, aruos uI ' (asnr¡r alug) rua8t¡arur sr.!1 a sutt t¡ *tp sarayTag utl of * ( '(asne¡c auug-uou) rua8r¡arur aqotllasuttc¡ sa€Ileg u7o[ t '(f) ul tou lnq (l) ur uorlrsod rcalqns eqr ur aq uEf, a^Ixegar eql 'eJourJal{unJ '(q) "l se 'slervr¡e lou tng '(p) pu¿ (e) ur se luapaf,elue otp sB esnrlr aIUES atp
  • 68. ur aq tsnru e rxegal aqr l¡ens¡ 'r¿qr ueql parecr¡duoc eJoru ua^a Erl puy 'fiasru1q qser'r ot IIIS pesFuorduqof q :Jar{lra >lJo l rJo alnJ sII{r tegt s tol{s (g) 'ra,razvro¡1 'luaPef -alue aqr sr unouo¡d elrxageJ aql or rsesolf, unou aqr rrr{r epnl3uoJ rq8lru a,n lasryr¡ qsr.l$olrugplol urlof* t tlasu,nq qsel,l'otlltg p¡or ugof ¡ tlasu,ttr1 peTI porC rer{r prcs uqof* a t1asryr¡ p¿1;lr.ati ter{t ples ur{o[ p :s" qf,ns safueluas JePrsuos eaJJ ' ur.1 of satoq!1a sruxq relJe 3ur¡oo1 r :srqr sar'ordsp (c) tng 'ot sra;ar ll unou arF ^/olloJ lsnur unouord ar'rxagar er{rJr sE $lool ll '(q) pur (e) u1 ?ooqnltp tltaa ut Sututaal a3on3uo7 (.IB: >ISIJ unc esat aser
  • 70. 1U3 'do -lal lEI{ .I3I IZ 22 Language learning in early childhood Children acquire the basic syntax and morphology of the language spoken to them in a variety of conditions, some ofwhich would be expected to enhance language development (for example, caring, attentive parents who focus on the childb language), and some which might be expected to inhibit it (for example, abusive or rejecting parents). Children achieve different levels of vocabulary creativiry social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve the abiliry to use the patterns of the language or languages spoken to them. This is seen as support for the hypothesis that language is somehow separate from other aspects ofcognitive development and may depend on a specific module of the brain. The Critical Period Hypotltesis The innatist perspective is often linked to the Critical Period
  • 71. Hypothesis (CPH)-the hypothesis that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skill at specific times in life. Beyond those 'critical periods', it is either difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities.'S7'ith regard to language, the CPH suggests that chil- dren who are not given access to language in infancy and early childhood (because ofdeafness or extreme isolation) will never acquire language if these deprivations go on for too long. It is difficult to find evidence for or against the CPH, since nearly all children are exposed to language at an early age. However, history has documented a few'natural experiments'where children have been deprived of contact with language. Two of the most famous cases are those of 'Victor' and'Genie'. ln 1799, a boy who became known as Victor was found wandering naked in the woods in France. His storywas dramatized ina1970 film by Frangois Thuffaut called L'enfant sauuage (TheWild Child). 'Whe n Vctor was captured, he was about 12 years old and completely wild, apparently having had no contact with humans. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, a young doctor accustomed to working with deaf children, devoted five years to socializing Victor and
  • 72. trying to teach him language. Although he succeeded to some extent in devel- oping Victort sociabiliry memory and judgement, there was little progress in his language abiliry. Neárly 200 years later, Genie, a I3-year-old girl who had been isolated, neglected, and abused, was discovered in California. Because of the irrational demands of a disturbed father and the submission and fear of an abused mother, Genie had spent more than 11 years tied to a chair or a crib in a small, darkened room. Her father had forbidden his wife and son to speak to Genie and had himself only growled and barked at her. She was beaten when she made any kind of noise, and she had long since resorted to complete silence. Genie was undeveloped physically, emotionall¡ and intellectually. She had no language. lEr{l pepnlfuof, sJar{f,rEasal aql'dno;8 arsT arp ueqr l¡ruarsrsuof, sJotu Il¡aqt pasn 'uJnl uI 'oq^ dno.l8,(¡reg aqr uegr.{¡ruarslsuor Jrolu sJa>lr¿lu eql Pasn dno¡8 a^IIBN ar{t 'sJa>lJ?ru p:ntruruer8 uo SutsnroS sls31 uo larta,"log 'a8pa -prou¡ f-rqng"f,ol ur a¡durexa.lo3 ,.ISVJo asn rIeI{rJo stf,eds"
  • 73. eluos uI sdno¡8 eql uea^rag af,ueJeJlp ou PunoJ lt,1¡ '(Zt a8e lar3e 15y Sururea¡ ue8aq or¡,,v'.) s.reu8rs arET pue '(a8e 3o s¡eal xrs Pue JnoJ uaa^lJq 15y 8u¡sn ue8aq oqm) srauSls fl.rrg '(,{rtlq urorj TSV or pasodxa aram, ogrvr,) s¡au8rs a^IleN pareduroc laql 's.raryru I¿f,Iterururr8 puaqarduos PUE acnpord 01 'ISVJo srasnJEaPJo lrnlqB al{r PaIPnrs san8ea¡oc rel{ PuE (Oee t) rrodrv'a¡ rssr¡g 'sfuarua,roru fPoq Jo pu"q cg¡rads q8no;gr passardxa are sJe1Jelu asaql 'Jequnu put (asual rt"á ,r¡á*"*a ro3) ault se s8urqr r{fns attf,rpur ot sra>lJeru ¡m¡reuruer8 3o asn sa>lpru (15y) aEun8uul uSrg ueJrJerrrv'sa8en8url uatllJ/t PUE PJo ell-I 'Hdf al{i ol Par¿ler l{f,rEasar lueuodrut atuosJo rcalqns agt uaaq seq aSen8ue¡ u8ls Sururea¡ ul acuauadxa ralEl s,uarpllqr esaql'PIql aql ol rlqlssaf,f,e sI lBr{r aSrnSue¡3o PIo^eP lnq sfe,vr tsotu uI Flurou aq leru pouad PooqP¡ql f¡rea arp 'sng1 'lzr* Frurou fpua.redde uE ur lfEJalur 01 sssues Jer{lo sasn pln{t eql asnBf,eq JEaq louuef, pplr rlaqt lrr{t ozllear tou feru stua¡ed Sutreag 'I{uIq ruory'ISV ol pasodxa áq ór l¡at¡¡ eJE uerplll{r asaqr l¡uo pue 'sluarzd1"aP or urog srEJeaP f¡puno3
  • 74. -ord aqr Jo luer rad g1-g l¡ug 'slualed Sulreaq a^EI{ oq.,'r _uarPIII{l JEáP f¡punoSoid oruos roJ asrr agt sl slql .aru' Iensn ar¡r re aBenBuEI or ssrrrr ri"q ro,, op ral ,slua¡¿d Jrarp ruog aJef, pue JAol a^Ief,al lagr araqn saruoq 1¡ou euros oq,/ú uarplrqf,Jo asm eql sI HdJ olpJo rser arel¡do¡dde aro.'' v .uonf,eJelur uerunr{ IEruJou ruog PereJedas a;arrr faqr aJoJag uela 'luetu -¡ledrur a8en8uq rgnads e ro ,sle¡ap ¡eruaudo¡anaP 'aBBtuEP uIEJg luory PsreJns uraql Jo JeI{rIa Jaq]3q,/v suI(UJJleP o1 elglssod rou sl r1 'a8tn8ue¡ .rr"q or lr¡¡qeul Jrar{l ol pernqrrruof, a,req tgSnu lrrJnleur ¡rer3o¡orq saPISaq sJolf,?J Jaqro req /(ouI louuB3 al|t 'seseJ lBnsnun IPns tuog ef,uaPl^a Jo srs€g aqt uo peurguor sl sseqrod,,(q aqr reqr an8;r ol lFlgJIP sl ll 'HdJ ,qr jo i¡oddns .rt ,r,rtpt,tt apv.,'ord ot ¡eadde alua9 PuE rolf,I¡ g8noql¡y 'qraads aultnoJ pu? f,rElnluJoJ pesnJe^o pue fFuarsrsuosur stuJoJ pcrrru[ue;8 Pasn eqs 'uolr ltttpotá put-uolsuaqa¡duoc uae leq dr8 purou uer¡r 1a3rc1 E se,r eral{I .p¡ó reaf-a,rg pordlr eJo tEr{l aIII rou ser'r a8en8uel s,alua) 'a8en8_ue1 ol arns
  • 75. -'od"r jo tr"rf r,tg JaUE ,ssalaqlJa^eN 'stIBJl PuE selsel IEnP_I^lPul SuoJls Pu¿ sdqsuonr¡a.r puosrad daap pado¡a^ap aqs 'arE.&rB fla,rruuSoc PuE PazllBlf,os Sulurocag ul ssa¡8o¡d alge>IJ¿tueJ sPrru elua) 'slooqrs ¡rtcads PaPueuE PUE auoq JatsoJ ¿ uI Pa^II eqs 'erlua3 uoIlElITIqEqaJ 3 uI po¡rad JaIJq E J3!V .(LL6l) ssunJ .t"*g Snrpr¡rul ,slsrderaql pue srar{f,Eet lueur3o uoltedl¡lt -red aqr qtl^ Palef,nPa PII? roJ PeJEf sE,& eluaD 'POraAof,sIP sEl( aqs JeUV PooqPl ltp,Qna ur Sututaa. aSanfuuaT 87, 24 Language learning in early chi ldhood their study supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first lan- guage acquisition, whether that language is oral or gestural. Another line of research that has given new insight into the importance of early language experience comes from studies of international adoptees.' These aré children who were adopted at an early age by families who did not speak the language rhe child had heard during infancy. In their review of rtudi.r of international adoptees, Johanne Paradis, Fred Genesee, and Martha Crago (201 1) concluded that cognitive and linguistic outcomes were
  • 76. generally veiy positive. Some comparisons of their language with that of .hildr.tr the same age who had always heard the same language showed that subtle differences persist even after seyeral years, but these are not the kinds of differences that most people would notice. Here again, of course, one cannot know whethef something other than a late exposure to the language spoken in the adoptive environment also contributed to differences between these children and others who did not experience an abrupt change in their Ianguage environment. Nevertheless, with continuing research on childrent linguisiic behaviours and intuitions, as well as the neurological studies of infánts' speech perception that we saw above, it is becoming clearer that lattguageácquisition begins ar birth, and possibly even before, as the child's brain is shaped by exposure to the language(s) in the environment. The innatist perspectiye is thus partly based on evidence that there is a criti- cal period foi l"ngu"ge acquisition. It is also seen as an explanation for 'the
  • 77. logical problem oil"ng,r"g. acquisition', that is, the qu_estion of how adult rp-."k ri come to know the complex structure of their first language on the basis of the limited samples of language to which they are exposed. Interactionist/ dea e lop m ental p ersp e ctiu es Developmental and cognitive psychologists have focused on the interplay b.t*..r, the innate learning ability of children and the environment in which they develop. Th.y "rg,r. th"t the innatists place too much emphasis on the 'final state' (th..o-p.t"nce of adult native speakers) and not enough on the developmental aspects oflanguage acquisition. In theirview,language acquisi- tion istut one example of the human childt ability to learn from experience, and they see no needto assume that there are specific brain structures devoted to language acquisition. They hJpothesize that what children need to know is .rr.rály ",raifable in the language they are exposed to as they hear it used in
  • 78. thousanis of hours of interactions with the people and objects around them. Psychologists attribute considerably more importance to the environment than the lnnatists do even though they also recognize a powerful learning mechanism in the human brain. They see language acquisition as similar to and infuenced by the acquisition of other kinds of skill and knowledge, rarher than as something that is different from and largely independent of 97 '7 raldEr{J ur aes III¡ a¡vr se 'tuarudo¡a,rap a8en8uel puofas uo r{fJBaseJ ur IEJtuef l¡Sursea;:ur aluofeg a^?q s./rrar^ slrsto8l¡ 'uorlJeJatur lElf,os ul pa8rarua qcaads pue 'qcaads pazr¡eu;arur l¡enuassa srr'rrg8noqr .Alsto8l¡roC 'plro^ IEclsfgd aqr qll uonf,Ererur g8norgl paJrnbre e8pa¡non1 ssa¡dxa ol pesn eq plnof, ter{r u¡elsls ¡oqruls e s¿ a8¿n8ue¡ rtr,es ra8el¿ 's.re8el¿ ruog sJa5rp,r*al,r sÁ1sto8l¡ 'a8pa¡zrroul ¡'rau a¡lnbce ot osle pue e^Eq lagr a8pa¡zrroul aWJo
  • 79. lsoru Jr{t arytu uaqr sdlaq reqr ernlf,nJls a,rnroddns3o pur¡ e .sr trgl ,8u¡p¡o3 -J"f,s r{rr.& plql or1r apr,rord suonesra^uor ag1 'rq8noqt pue a8en8ue¡ qroq 3o sulSrro eqt suonrsJJ^uor esaqt ur 1rBs pue uarplrq) reqto qrv( pue sllnpE qrr^ a^Er{ uerplrr{J ler{t suontsreluof,Jo e¡uet¡odrul eqr pe rJsqo l¡sro8l¡ 'KJ¿n luaudo¡a,rap purxord¡o auoz aqt se f¡ruapuadapur Surop3o alqedec aq p¡nomfaqr utqr eroru op plnof, uarplrrir r{llqr ul arr¡d ¡e:lroqderaru e or perreJer llslo8l¡ 'erueurro3red pur a8pa¡ru,oul Jo slar'a1 rag8rq 01 arue pB or alqe aJ¿ ueJplrr{J 'luJruuoJrrrua e^nfeJetul a,rn¡oddns E ur ter{t panSre aH 'uonrererul lurf,os ruor3l¡reuud sdo¡a,rap a8en8uel rErF papnpuor eH 's0€6I Pu¿ s0z6l eqr uI uorun lrr^os eql ur sloor{f,s ur stlnpE pue uarplrql uaa.r.]ag osle pue ua.rp¡qc Suoure suonf,Brarur pa^rasgo eH '(g/6 I ) flsro8l¡ z'a1 rsr8o¡oqclsd aqr sen' tuarudola ep plr{r Jo rurpnls lBnuenHur rarFouv 'lueuruoJrlua eqt qrrd uonf,eralur ¡errslqd g8norqr palnbre J^Er{ uaJp¡ql reql a8pa¡moul ruasarder ol pasn aq um aSen8uel 'pooqplql ul pado¡az'ap eJB lrr{t srualsfs loqrufs 3o Jagunu B Jo euo sezrr a8en8ue¡ 'ra8el¿ JoC 'perel -ndrueru.ro pe lasqo ag um reqt s8ulqr eql pue pllql Jql uea^taq uonJ€retur aql uo rlnq sr Surpuersrapun a,rrtruSor Surdo¡a,rap aql 'ruasarda.r laqr srdar -uof ar{t 3o SurpuetsJapun suaJpl¡lo arp uo spuadap (aJoru, ro
  • 80. .ra88rg, se r{Jns suJal ureuaf,Jo esn aqt 'eldurrxa.tog 'a8en8ue¡ arrnbce leqr rvrog aulru -rarap l¡rred ppo,/vl ruaudo¡a,rap artuuSoc suaJplrql r'roq eas ol lsea sl 11 '(rarer'r uo lBoH ol sJaqlo put lurs ol spoJ auros asn?J ('rre '¡e¡tateru 'rg8¡a,,'r'azls rlaql) spoJJo tas eJo salr¡ado¡d qrlq^ rno Sulrn8g) Surcuara3ul ¡erl8o¡ pue'(aur¡ pazaanbs l¡rq8p e ur saruuad 0I u¿ql snorerunu erour tou aJE aurl 8uo¡ e uJoJ ol rno peards saruuad 0I ier{r Suml,oq) a:u¿.lraddr rrerp ur sa8ueqrSo ssa¡pre8ar sapnuenbSo ó¡¡qrts agr'(araqr ¡ps are rq8rs ruog ueppl{ s8ulqr regr 8ultllou>1) acuaueurad roafqo se s8ulqr q:ns jo 8ur -PuetsrePun a,ulluSoc Jrar{t jo ruaurdo¡alap aqr a3eJr or elqE sE,/$, aH 'a¡doad pue srcalqo glr^. uorreJelur Jrar{l ur puB íe¡d.naqr ur uarplrr{J put s}ueJur pe^rrsgo ra8er¿ ',(¡ntuec qrgz ar{Uo saperap l¡ree aqr uI '(I 16I) raSer¿ ueaf 'tslSolotualsldaTrsSo¡oqcfsd ssrrtg eqt sE ruarudo¡arrap azrlr¡u8oc Jreql uo rlmg $ a8en8ue¡ suaJplrr{r tBr{r ^or^ or{r jo srueuodo¡d lsJrlJea ar{rJo auo llslotl¡pue ra8erd 'a8en8ue¡3o uonrsrnbfr Jrar{r pue tuarudo¡arrap ar'nluSoc s,ueJplrqr
  • 81. uea.l*teg drqsuone¡ar esop eqr pazrsrqdua 8uo¡ a,req (gL6D ulqols ueq sE r{fns sJar{f,Jeaser 'paapul 'tuarudo¡a-r'ap e,urruSoc pue a:uarradxe s pIr{J ar{r ?ooqpllqr r(1na ut Sututaal a7an&uaT 26 Language learning in early childhood Cross-cultural research Since the 1970s, researchers have studied childrent language learning envi- ronments in a great many different cultural communities. The research has focused not only on the development of language itself, but also on the ways in which the environment provides what children need for language acquisi- tion. Between 1985 and 1997, Dan Slobin edited five volumes devoted to research on the acquisition of 28 languages, providing examples and analyses ofchild language and the language-learning environment from communities around the world. One of the most remarkable resources for child language researchers is the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES), where researchers have contributed child language data in dozens of lan- guages in recorded and transcribed forms that are available as electronic files from the CHILDES website (Macflhinney2000).
  • 82. One feature of cross-cultural research is the description of child-rearing pat- terns. Catherine Snow (1995) and others have studied the apparent effects on language acquisition of the ways in which adults talk to and interact with young children. In middle-class North American homes, researchers observed that adults often modify the way they speak when talking to little children. This child-directed speech may be characterized by a slower rate of delivery higher pitch, more varied intonation, shorter, simpler sentence pat- terns, stress on keywords, frequent repetition, and paraphrase. Furthermore, topics of conversation emphasize the childt immediate environment, picture books, or experiences that the adult knows the child has had. Adults often repeat the content of a childt utterance, but they expand or recast it into a grámmatically correct sentence. For example, when Peter says, 'Dump truck! Dump truck! Fall! Fall!', Lois responds, 'Yes, the dump truck fell down.' Ha ,he not Cons;dere¿ 1'1c efr.cE9 of Stt¿t"' B¿l go bf' 'ffi
  • 83. 'fem prldlr aJoru E ul a8en8ue¡ do¡amp 01 uuJID Pa./dollr uollf,EJalul asol{^{ ¡auued IEuorlESraA -uof, B se l¡ruerrodrul arorrl 'lng '¡apour e se lluo lou-Jar{lorq JaPIo sI{ PEq aq :s.ru1f IuoS ruaJeglp se,r,r lualuuoJl^ua :nsnSul¡ s,uualD fe¡ap e8en8ue¡ 3o adlr erurs ar{t feldsrp tou PP uuelD reglorg ¡e8unol s¡u¡f 'a8e srri jo pcldlr e¡oru aSrn8uel fq pace¡dar 'pareaddesp Peq su¡aued graads Fnsnun aqrJo rsoru sqluoru o^r puB s.leal;noi3o a8e aqr lg 'a,rordur or ue8aq san -lllqe a^lsserdxa srq 'r¡npe ue qll^ suolssas leuorlesJaluor ue8ag ulf uaq¿¡ 'JapJo pJo,& ¡eclteruruer8un '¡ensnun Pasn aq 'a8e slq or atet¡do¡dde szapl ssa¡dxa or parduane ag qSnoqr¡y .a3en3ue13o stredse IIE ur la^el a3r r'ro1aq IIa,^ se.ü eq lpr{l pJlBf,IpuI sqtuoru aulu pue uraf aeJl{l l" luJlussasse a8enSuel y .a8en8ur¡ uSrs ¡o IEJO Jarpre ul rulq qlr^t parbrunruruof, lua;¿d E r{f,rrr( ur lueuruorrlua lerurou e ur lueudo¡a.tep olrsln8ul sH ur8aq lou plp rulf f_o3 perrr IIa^ se,l.r aq slcadsa¡ reqlo ur q8noqrp 'snql 'rul[ qrur a8en8uel u8ls asn lou plp srua.red eql IEI{I uI lEnsnun ser'r fllueJ ag1 f¡ruanba5 PaI{3rBr aq qllqlr 'uolsl^elal q8norgr s¿z'r a8¿n8uel IEro I{1I^ lf€luof,
  • 84. l¡uo srq puz 'siuared3eapJo plqr SuliEaI{ E s",l eH 'urf pa¡¡m laql PII{I Elo ruaudo¡a,rap aSeffiurl eql perpnts (Ig6i) san8ea¡or rer{ puB sqf,ES eullenbref 'Sutssnu sr uorrf,erarur r{f,ns araq^ seser lq Peteulrunlll sl PIIqI aqr ol spuodsal oq^ Jol -nf,olJetu uE pu¿ p¡lqc 3uru.rca1-a8en8ue¡ E uaa,lleg uollJeJalulJo elor agl uollf,sJelul Jo eJu"uodul eq¡ 'uerplrqr or passarppe graads uI eletu srFP? aruos teql suonef,glpotu el{l Jo rraJa urat-8uo1 aqr a8pnl or lFrUglP sl }I 'snql .a8en8uq Álunuuoc agl a;mbce fagr puv'luauruoJr^ua rreql ur ruaql ol p3Suruuau sr lEr{l aSenSuq reag laqr r{JIqlA ur suoDBn}rs ur _aJE ueJPlrqs i,{irrrot l¡a,re ul ;ssa¡rgrra,tr¡ .uJJpp{f, Jrerp grr^.r tf,BJa}ur sdno¡8 fruqra puE f,[uouof,aorsos luaJeJrp u¡ s]ua¡ed sfer"r arp ur sDuaJaJIp lErluasqns peruatunf,op a^EI{ sreqro PuB (886I) r{leaH acrrg lalrrq5 'solels Pallun aqr urqlr^{ ua,rg .sre,lr8aref, Jraql sE a^ras oqm s8u¡¡qls Jeplo q¡m l¡r.reru¡.rd r:e -Jelur uJJpllqc Sunol'sJltellos Jtuos uI reqr Pa^Jesqo e^el{ sJaI{IJEJSaJ Jaqro 's¡us e8en8ue¡ pado¡a,raP aJoru e^¿g puE Jeplo arz faqr llun srppe qtr/ú suorlEsJa^uof, ur elEdrf,rl -¡ed or peSrrnotua ro parcadxa lou are leql 'sr¡npr 01 uals{ puE qf,rE^ or
  • 85. parrad*a are uerpllq) 'ltanos lrnul IEuoIrIP"rl uI lsqr Pa^lasgo (ZeeD o8er3 er{uery .s¡au¡zd IEuoIIESJa^uo¡ al¿udo¡ddz ag or uaJPIIql rlsl{l raPlsuof, rou PrP ¿auln9 r'r,a¡ ende¿ uI srsqtou IInIE) lEI{l Punoi (066I) uneJell{f,S Iqrutg ,a¡druexa roC 'uaJpllqo Sunof ,ftal qrrn' fe¡d ¡tqra,r Jo uolltsra^uof, ui a8e8ua tou op srlnp' ,sa'arf,os eruos uI 'l'SJa^run su?auJ ou fq sl sauoq u€rrreurv ssEIl-elPPItu uI Pe^rasgo qoaads ParserIP-PF{r Jo Pur>t aqr rEI{r puno1 e^¿q >lJo arueg cuolrezllelsos a8rn8uel, ¿ ul 3ur¡¡o1( sJal{fJeaseU ?oot/?l lqr Qna m Sututaal a8anSua'¡ LZ 28 Language learning in early c h ildhood Jim showed very rapid acquisition of English once he began to interact with an adult on a one-to-one basis. The fact that he had failed to acquire language nor- mally prior to this experience suggests that impersonal sources oflanguage such as television or radio alone are not sufficient. One-to-one inreraction gives chil- dren access to language that is adjusted to their level ofcomprehension. tü7hen
  • 86. a child does not understand, the adult may repeat or paraphrase. The response of the adult may also allow children ro find our when their own utterances are understood. Television, for obvious reasons, does not provide such interaction. Even in childrent programmes, where simpler language is used and topics are relevant to younger viewers, no immediate adjustment is made for the needs of an individual child. Once children have acquired some language, however, television can be a source of language and cultural information. Usage-based learning As more and more research has documented the ways in which children interact with the environment, developmental and cognitive psychologists find further evidence that language acquisition is 'usage-based'. In this view, language acquisition is possible because ofchildrent general cognitive capac- ities and the vast number of opportunities they have to make connecdons between the language they hear and what they experience in their environ- ment. Sophisticated electronic recording devices have been used to track and count words and phrases children hear in their daily lives. Deb Roy documented his son's acquisition of words, showing the frequency and the contexts for the occurrence of language. Most remarkable, perhaps, is the
  • 87. demonstration of the power of interaction between the child and the adults and how adults focus on rhe language the child has begun to use (Roy 2009). The usage-based perspective on language acquisition differs from the behav- iourist view in that the emphasis is more on the child's ability ro create networks of associations rather than on processes of imitation and habit for- mation. Referred to by various names, including cognitive linguistics, this view also differs sharply from the innatists' because language acquisition is not seen as requiring a separare 'module of the mind' but rather depends on the child's general learning abilities and the contributions of the environ- ment. As Elena Lieven and MichaelTomasello (2008) put it, 'Children learn language from their language experiences-there is no other way (p.168). According to this view, what children need to know is essentially available to them in the language they are exposed to. Some of the eady research in this frameworkwas done in the context of con- nectionism and involved computer simulations in which language samples were provided as input to a fairly simple program. The goal was to show that the computer could 'learn' cerrain things if exposed to enough examples. The program was found to be able to sort our the parterns from
  • 88. the input and even generalize beyond what it was actually exposed to. It even made the ol uonualtE f,n¿uals,{s eluos saPnlf,ul leql uollf,nJlsul <UaJPIII{3 lsolu Jq{ 'uonf,nJlsur rfaJrP slurT r{lr1v rulJd Jo salJelslu aqr Suue^ocslP (3I3EE fq rsour¡r Sulprar uÉaq or u¡eas uarplll{r eruos 'uleruop leql uI rua¡qod rgnads E sr aJer{t regr rsaSSns feu¡ SuluolrunJ e pluSoc ¡eralo s,pf-Ip t qrv'r SurdaalJo tno ruees ter{l p¿er or Sulura¡ ul sle¡ap '.uerPllql rePlo rql '8ur¡eads rou sI aqs -ro a{JI uala puE}sJapun or s¡raddr pue a8en8uq o spuodsar ppp ar{r rer{ler{lr auluJanp ot $ aSuer ¡eurrou eqt urpv'r ef,ueJa#P lenpl^pq ue lldruls ro rua¡go;d e srraga; a8en8ue¡ pale¡ap .raqlal{^r aulrureurP ot f¿,n auo 'ua.rp¡qr Sunof ,{-ra,r u1 'sreal aarqr3o a8e aqr aro3aq >¡eads tou ftro eruos 'sqluour ZI lg spro rs.lg a¡qrauSocar acnpord uarPllqr rsoru eF.tU[ 'paapul epl sl (leruJou, roj a8uer aW rES puru ur Burdaal 'l¡¡erurou a8rn8ue¡ Suldo¡a,rap rou $ pII{r " rerp ¡ae3 farpy arr^p€ puolssa3o.rd leas ol pa8e:nocua ag sJar{reat pue stuared
  • 89. reqr l"nuassr $ 1I '>looq srqrJo adors eqr ePlsrno s¡ ruarudolaztap aSrnSue¡ rfeJE serurlettro$ ttrp (uo os pue 'exa¡sfp 'f,usnnr 'srua¡gord frole¡nr¡rrc 'ssauJrep Sulpn¡ru¡¡ sJrlrlrqesrp 3o sadó snorJe aqr Jo uolssnlslp V 'eser arlt rou $ slqt ruoq,,f, roJ uarplrrlf, aruos er? a;aqt 'fr¡ap ro lr¡n:g3tp ruelgluSls tnoqll^ turur -do¡e,rap aSrn8uq 3o sa8ets agr qSno.rr¡r ssa¡8o.ld uerplll{f, rsoru gSnorp¡y sfe¡ap pue sreprosrp atenturl 'aruar¡adxa q8norgr paurcJl l¡enrce are 'p¡ag ¡ensut Jno ur srralqo Suna¡d¡alul pu¿ uo SulsnooS 'e¡duexa ro3 'paruelS JoJ e{E¡ e^,l' r¿qr serrrlrge Fnsr^ aqr 's¡ reql '(aes, ol Sulural Surpn¡rul 'Sururea¡ pnr -da¡¡ad pue a,ruuSor rrr{lo ol ll a¡rdruoc lagl 'p¡nll eql lq paqstdruorrt rEaJ alqDlJ¿uar ,{¡uo egl rou sl 'a¡rtssa¡dtul eIq¡A 'a8enSut¡ 3o uolrlslnb>t 'stsuoer{l paseg-a8esn .rog 'dn rlng ert sruroj a8tn8ue¡ Suorue pue Sulueau pue a8en8url uaa^¡og siullJo Jagrunu ar¡r se 'l¡enper8 ece¡d saler Sulurer¡ 'sasergd pur spro.,'r ureal ol sauunl¡oddo Jo sputsnoqr lueu or pasodn ar¿ uerpllql rrr{r rf,EJ eqr $ slsaqlodÁ1 srqr ol a¡ueuodul re¡ncrrred ¡g 'sssuel qra^ r{f,rr{^|. qu¡'r o8 sgra Ps ¡troduar qllq,& ureel osp far¡1 '(a>¡¡¡ am¡ suouut? snou pur (sa>¡t aq) aunu p-taqunu pue uosrad ¡reru reql suroJ grel
  • 90. eqt qrrn sunouo¡d alelf,osse ol ureal ,{aqr (¡re¡nuls '(Iooq) atnq '¡ull. oB un pue al pua (leq:) asxoqr qtlw oB aun pue q reql urtal laqt 'qrua.rg Sulurea¡ eJB uerPIIr{f,JI oS 'sunou qlra sIuJoJ arr.tDah¿ PuE elf,Iue arer¡do¡dde aqr elE -rf,osse ol uJeal repua8 ¡erpeuurrr8 aA?I{ sunou I{JII{1v ur sa8en8ut¡ Sulurea¡ ueJpllql 'a¡druexa JoC 'uraqt qtlzvr Jnf,f,o reqr saruegdJoru lef,neurue.rS qrp spJo,4.l ro 'rueql qtr^{ Jnrf,o ler{r saserqd pue spro,,'r Jeqto aqt qrIA seserqd pw spror*Sulterf,ossrJo ssaf,ord r osp sl t1 'r0qear leuJarxaJo sluaruela qll^ sPJo^t Suner:osse f¡uo rou sa lo^ul uolllslnbf,¿ aSen8ue¡ 'lapour peseg-a8esn e u¡ 'palua 'aldutexa JoJ 'qrazr rc¡nBarJI uE uo Sutpua pa- re¡n8ar e Surund s¿ r{f,ns'a1eru ueJplrqt let{l (sJ>lelsru, a IlBaJf,Jo sPuD{ erues ?ooq?llqr Qtaa wEututaal a7unSuaT 6Z 30 Language learningin earfi childhood sound-letter correspondences allows them to unlock the treasure chest of reading. Both groups fall within a normal range. For some children, however, reading presents such great challenges that they need expert help beyond
  • 91. what is available in a typical classroom. Childhood bilingualism The language development of children who learn multiple languages during childhood is of enormous importance throughout the world. Indeed, the majority of the worldt children are exposed ro more rhan one language. Some children learn multiple languages from earliest childhood; others acquire additional languages when they go to school. The acquisition and maintenance of more than one language can open doors to many personal, social, and economic opportunities. Unfortunatel¡ as Jim Cummins (2000) and others have pointed out, chil- dren who already know one or more languages and who arrive at their first day of school without an age-appropriate knowledge of the language of the school have often been misdiagnosed as having language delays or disorders. This includes immigrant and minority language children who do not speak the school language at home and children who speak a different variety of the school language. These children's knowledge of a different language or language variety is often incorrectly interpreted as a lack of normal language development and a lack of background knowledge for school subjects. They may be placed in remedial or special education classes because
  • 92. schools are nor equipped to provide an adequate assessment of childrent abillry to use rheir home language or of their general cognitive abilities or their knowledge of school subjects, learned through another language. Researchers have recendy made important progress in providing guidelines that can help educators distinguish between disabiliry and diversiry (Paradis, Genesee, and Crago 20II), but much practical rvork remains to be done so that children can make the most of their cognitive and linguistic abilities. Children who learn more than one language from earliest childhood are referred to as 'simultaneous bilinguals', whereas those who learn another lan- guage later may be called 'sequential bilinguals'. 'W'e sometimes hear people express the opinion that it is too difficult for children to cope with two lan- guages. They fear that the children will be confused or will not learn either language well. However, there is little support for the myth that learning more than one language in early childhood is a problem for children who have adequate opportunities to use each one. There is a considerable body of research on childrent ability to learn more than one language in their earliest years. Although some studies show minor early delays in one or both languages for simultaneous bilinguals, there is no evidence that
  • 93. learning two '(OOOZ sururun3) uoltf,Eralul fep-or-fep3o a8en8uel ¡eru -JoJur aqt ueqr arlnbre ot uaJplll{f, Jo3 t¡nr$P eJotu sI esJnof,slP f,IluePm¿ roJ pepaeu a8en8ue¡ aqr reql 'razrerrroq 'paar8e flap¡ru, sI lI 'TBISJa^oJluof, uleruaJ uonf,urlsrp aqr3o srcadse auJos Pu¿ 'tueqt guru oB ol Pual teql sulaned uon -JEJalur aqr pue e8un8ut¡3o saIlaIJE^ oser{l sezIJe}JPJeI{f, rEI{l $ u fpcexa req,n re orsrp ol rg8nos a^¿q srer{}o pue (7002) ¡a.r8adda¡r1c5 frryq 'passardxa s uorleruJoJur fer'r aqr ul osle tng sarmbar I{rBa r¿ql lre¡nqecorl3o a8ue; agr u¡ lsnl lou <s$ueJaglp lueuodut aJE eJaql lnq 'luelxe uIElJa3 e ol de¡ra,ro san -erJ¿A o1rt aqlJo sf,IlsIJer3"JEI{J '(lruarcgord a8tn8ue¡ fIIuaPE3E a,rrrruSor) dTVl pue (s¡rls uoll¿f,Iunruruol leuosJedraru¡ crseq) 5319 saIleIJeA o r¡ aseqr pellrr sulrurunJ urf 'ursr¡en8unlq PooqP¡qr uo l{rreaser l¡rea srq u¡ 's8unras rrruepme ur pesn sI reqr Áal¡r,r aql Pu" (sr¡npt JEIIIIuEJ qrul sSun -res leruro3ur ur pue) sa^lesuaqr Suoue asn uerPllql reqr a8en8ue¡3o fiarre.r aqr qloq urcal ot peau laqr 'lool{f,s re a8en8uel Puof,as E uJeal uarPIII{3 ry '
  • 94. GOOZ>1orsl¡ug) a3¡¡ rnoq8norr¡ ól¡rqlxag a,ulluSor or Sunnqlnuor sE PagIluaPI uaeq seq sef,Ior{r 8ur{¿u ur acuar¡adxa srqr 'peapul 'a¡qerclpard uaryo PuE paurarred sr Surq:urtrs apor teqt pue sa^lasuaql sse¡dxa or loq lnoqe sef,Ior{¡ Suqeru lpuetsuoc are a8en8url euo uEI{l arou Jo sra>pads lEI{l u1üoqs azteg srsrSo¡orpls¿ 'a1of u Suqeru ot lrlrep¡¡os Sulssa¡dxa ulorS 'suolte^Iloul rueJeJIP lueru a,l,rq leu r1 lcual:go.rd3o 1or¡ e3o af,uaplla lou sI txatuoJ ¡enSullg e urqrrr'r sa8rn8ue¡ r{loq3o rsn aql 'sa8enSuel qroq .&ornl osp oII r srar{lo or leads lagr uaqm r{frr^[s apof osle spnSur¡rq rFp¿ tuarf,goldl¡q8rg .sasod¡nd Fuorrr€raturJo Áal¡e¡ e ro3 a8en8utl Jagro eqr tuoq Pro^l' EJo asn leuoltuelur aqr ag ua5o se lsnf uEf, lr lnq 'uorssa¡dxa Jo PJo,/vr lre¡nqerort rc¡nrllred E Jo af,uasgr aIP lrageJ seuJnauros leru saBtnBuEI uaa^teg Surqrru,rs qJnS '<naaryqJ al qr Surleld tu,1, '&s rg8ru gslSuE Pu¿ r{ruarC qroq s¡eads oI{ ^, PIqr r 'alduexa Jo{ 'uortBsJa^uor E ulr{ll^ a8en8ur¡ euo ueql eJolu luo{ saserqd Jo sPJo-/vJo asn aqt-8ulr{Jtr¡as epoo sE ot pJJJeJaJ sl asn a8en8ut¡ ¡rn8ulrq3o rradse aug .Jaqto eqt .ot af,ueJeJaJd ul ¡o ,u"tp Jenag pasn eg f¡¡enrua,ra
  • 95. frtu a8en8ue¡ rerp 'Árunutuof, al{l uI PanP^ IHBH a.Ioul sI ro Jel{lo eql ueql ueuo aJoru r{Jnur pJ"eq sr a8rn8uel euoJl 'Jldur¿xe roC 'a8en8url auo uBI{l aroIIJ uJeel 01 ólc¿de¡ uErunq eql uI uorlEtrul¡ lur or ueql peuJeal sr aSenSuq r{33a qlrq,/rl ur se3uetsulnfrrf, ar{t or perEIeJ eq ot llalll JrouI eJE slBnPI^IPur ¡rn8unlqlo aSrnSuq 3r{r ur pa^Jesqo eq,&ur rrqr suorlclnur-I .sseuaJt^E rnsrnSur¡rtau s¿ qf,ns ,ssaf,¡ns f,rulapme or PaleleJ 3Je leq] saIlIIIgB uo slf,üe a,uusod a,reg um .{cualcgord ¡en8u¡¡¡q Sultalqoe t€qr ef,uaPpe 8ur:ul,ruo¡ PunoJ e Bq srsrSo¡ogcfsd ¡zruarudo¡a^aP PuE e,r¡ttuSor rel{ro PuE (tOOZ) lorsfprg ua¡g 'sa8tn8ue¡ qroq uI loualrSord Jo sls al q8rq urtur uarPIrI{: lueru 'paapul 'tuaurdola,rap a,urruSoc grtr'r seJaJJalur Jo tuaudo¡a,up rttsn8rnT;Ier{r uaoP sztro¡s l¡¡znue}sqns sa8en8uul ? o o tln ? q r [1ta a ut Suruta a1 a3rn3ua7 rc, 32 Language learning in early childhood Children entering school with little or no knowledge of the language spoken
  • 96. there may acquire BICS within a relatively short time-as little as a year or two. They learn from watching and imitating interactions among their peers and ben¡¡een teachers and students. They make connections between fre- quently heard words and phrases and the routines and recurring events of the classroom, cafeteria, and playground. For this reason, students are sometimes perceived as'fuent' in their second language. This can lead teachers to assume that any difficulties in academic tasks are not due to limited language skills but to other sau5s5-frsrn lack of motivation to learning disabilities. More careful observation shows that the students, while fuent in social settings, do not have the CALP skills needed for academic tasks such as understanding a problem in mathematics, defining a word, or writing a science report. Virginia Collier (1989) found that, for most students, acquiring age-aPPro- priate CALP takes several years. As the second language learner tries to catch up, the children who came to school already speaking the school language are continuing to learn hundreds of new words every year and to learn the conc€pts that these words represent. If second language learners have limited
  • 97. knowledge of the school language and do not have opportunities to continue learning academic content in a language they aheady know, it is not surpris- ing thai they fall behind in learning the academic subject matter that their peers have continued to develop. Children need time to develop their second language skills. Many people assume that this means that the best approach is to start learning as early as possible and to avoid the use of the child's previously learned languages. Ceitainl¡ it is important for children to begin learning and using the school language as early as possible, but considerable research suggests that contin- ,r.d d.rr.lopment of the child's home language actually contribures in the long term to more successful acquisition of the school language. Researchers and edu."tors have expressed concern about situations where children are cut offfrom their family language when they are Yery young, spending long hours away from their families in settings where the home language is absent or even forbidden. Lily'Wong Fillmore (2000) observed that when children are 'submerged' in a different language for long periods in pre-
  • 98. school or day care, their development of the family language may be slowed down or stalled before they have developed an age-appropriate proficiency in the new language. Eventually they may stop speaking the family language altogether, "nd thii loss of a common language can lead to significant social and psycho- logical problems. 'Wallace Lambert (1987) called the loss of one language on the way to learn- ing another subtractive bilingualism. It can have negative consequences for childre.rt self-esteem, and their relationships with family members are also likely to be affected by such early loss of the family language. In these cases, children seem to continue to be caught between two languages: they have not eeJql uee/vteq uaJPllql ro, Paqsllqnd eJe lEql qooq ul Pesn ,fuPlnqElo^ eqr le ¡ool Pu€ elols)ooq ro lJ€rqll P jo uolDas quaJPlltl) eqr 01 09 z ¿SurpuU reql
  • 99. r{11/v elql}eduof, sl }€tl} JardEqs sltll u! ueas nol e^eq teLlM'sJa^l8aJ¿f, Jaqlo pu€ sluaJed Jreql {q ulaq} ot PassaJPP€ asenBue¡ ,o lunou€ aqr s¡ qu,ro-r3 l.re¡nqe:o,r queJplrql ,o roDlpard lsaq eql reql Puno, seq q)Jeesal eLuos I uol})eEeJ Jo, suollseno .sJauJEel aSrnSur¡ puosesJo aSrnSur¡ Suldola,rap agt Sulunuexa rpreasaJJo s8urpug arpJo auos te >lool III¡r atr ¿ rardeq3 u1 'uortlsnbre a8en8ue¡ rsrg 8ulurc1dxa ro3 sa,rncedsrad ¡mnaroaqr PBoJg eeJl{r P3qIJ3saP a^"q 3l[r'uonls -mb¡e a3en3..r"1p.romr.ro rlf,J?aseJ peJuangur ser{ teqr tuaudo¡artap aSrnSur¡ l¡rea s,uarp¡lql uo r{f,JEaser er{} Jo eluos uo pasnfoJ e "r{ 3 rarder¡r sryr uI lreururng 'uoJa pue aoua¡ted rrar{l PrB,4(er III/[ luslFn8ullq a^ppP¿ Jo slSeuaq lueu eqr^tel{l ^otDI or paeu stuapnfr p,r" .slua¡rd ,sJal{Jpal rng 's;eal salzr aBenSuEI Puof,as E Suldo¡a.rrap ,uaas a,req ar![
  • 100. ry'a¡doad Suorue uoll?Jedoof, slllIouoss Pue uoll -Ef,runruuroo ltJnlln3-ssoJf, JoJ salllunl¡oddo eseaJf,ul osle uef, a8en8ue¡ auo uer{r aJoruJo a8pa¡mou¡ 'saITIIU"J Jlaqr PUE ueJPilql 3q1 ol enJDE rer{r esoqr puolaq of tuaudo¡arr,ap ¡zn8ul¡nlnru ro pn8urlq3o sDa'a a¡rlrsod raqro 'a8en8uel puoras aqt Sururea¡ filrs a-re lagr e¡gr'r l¡rsea pu¿lsrapun fagr aSenSur¡ e Sursn tuaurdola,rap a^lr3eJ¿ pur arrnruSos r{roq ,rr,rn.lo, ot filunr¡oddo aqr ruo5 rgauag laql 'aBznBuBI l'rau aqr ltads rou op oq.& sa^nelal ro sruarcdpuzrS qrvrr suorlf,euuof, f1¡rur; urclar 01 uaJPIrr{J s.&olp os¡r a8enSuel f¡¡rurJ aqt 3u¡urcrurc¡,,r¡ 'lrlunruuof al{l uI Jo '>lJo1t lE .,*o.1 aqr ePISrno aSenSur¡,/deu eql qrrrn sa¡88nrls u1to JIeI{r 3^3q,{eur leql r" l¡piraisr ,ruealsa-j¡as u,/vo Jrarp ureturpur ot stua¡¿d roj lernrt os¡e^sl s8u¡r -rrr'i¡r-"j ul a8en8ue¡ u^o Jrar{t Surs¡ .lla1v sE l'rorDl tou op lar{r a8en8ue¡ " ,r, ,h",r"* urc laqr ue{p etBJogEIa eJou pue Jaqf,rJ aJB ler{} sler'r ut seap¡ pue aSpaytroDl JIaI{1 ssa¡dxa ol alqB a-re fagr 'uarp¡rqc:laql qll'/r't' lsag ,^tou>I
  • 101. faqr regr a8rn8ut¡ aqt asn ot enulluos sruarrdSl 'a8rnSur¡puooes ar{lJo sJa -.rrL¡ ot1" ,r" '.rtt"á eqtJl anrl l¡¡enadsa q slql 'Peureel Suleg sr a8enSuel p.rorit eqr allq,{ a8en8utlaruoq aI{Uo e3u¿ueluleru agr- rusqen8u1lq a p -lpp" roJ a^rrls 01 sr gceorddz Jsrreg e rrgr srsaSSns ef,uePr^e qf,J¿eseJ aLII 'uaJPIIql Jleqr qlld a8en8ue¡ looi{ls ar¡r Suqeads uo P"3}sq 3lB¡luaruof, p,r" ,-og ie'a8"ná,r{ llUreJ eqr Suureads dors p¡nor¡s far¡r rrrp s1 sruared ot asodo.ld tá*tp*or sJolef,npa ,uonnlos, aqt ,flarrunuoJun 'Sulurea¡ f,IruaPef¿ rrar{l ul pulqaq ¡¡ej leur laqt 'pouad uolllsuerl arp Suunq 'a8en8ue¡ fllwJ r.¡t do¡t-p or prt.ttr,to, rou arrer¡ larp pue 'aSrn8uel looqls aqt pararseu rcl pooqfllqr ,(paa ur Suruttal a8tnSutT EE 34 Language learning in early childhood and six years old. Compare these to books for young readers, aged six to eight.What does this suggest about the importance of continuing to read to children after they have begun to learn to read at school?
  • 102. Finall¡ look at the language used in textbooks for children at age l0 or I l.What can you conclude aboutthe challenge faced by English language learners entering school at this age? 3 lf you are or may be teaching a second language to a group of school- aged learners with different first language backgrounds, can you think of pedagogical tasks/activities in which children can display and use their L I knowledge to help them learn the second language? Suggestions for further reading Berko Gleason,J. and N. Bernstein-Ratner (eds.). 2009. The Deuelopnnent ofLanguage 7th edn. NewYork Allyn and Bacon. Many of the chapters by leading expems in child language introduce readers to the best-known findings of the pasr 50 years of research on chil- drent language development. In addition, there are chapters based on new research, using the kinds of technology that have only recently become available. Thus, the rich database created by researchers with notepads, tape recorders, and tools such as the 'wug rest' is complemented by studies ofthe neurological bases oflanguage learning and language use. Paradis,J., E Genesee, and M. B. Crago. 2011. Dual Language Deuelopment and Disorders: A Handbook on Bilingualism and
  • 103. Second Language Learning2ndedn. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. The authors describe language acquisition by children who learn more than one language simultaneously or sequentiall¡ drawing on research from edu- cation, psychologr, and linguistics. They make the research accessible by their writing style, the inclusion of a glossary of terms, and above all by relat- ing the research to profiles of children who are acquiring their languages in a variety of home, school, and community situations. The authors provide insights into both normal and atypical multilingual development. Pearson, 8.2.2008. Raising a Bilingual Child: A Sup-by-Sap Guidefor Parents. NewYork Living Language (Random House). Addressing herself mainly to parents, Barbara Zurer Pearson (2008) reviews research from many studies and shows how children become bilin- gual in many different environments. She also emphasizes the advantages of growing up with a knowledge of more than one language- from the evidence for cognitive fexibiliry to the benefits of cultural knowledge. 'W'ritten in an approachable and humorous style, the text is supported by Zver Pearson's thorough knowledge of the research literature that is included in the bibliography.