Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace

1. To Perpetual Peace 341
A Philosophical Sketchl
(17es)
t-1l3ltuajeace
whether this satirical inscription on a certain Dutch shopkeeper's
sign, on which a graveyard was painted, holds for men in general, or
eJpecially for heids of state who can never get enough of war, or
p"ihup,
-only
for philosophers who dream that sweet dream, is not for
us to decide. However, the author ofthis essay does set out one condi-
343
tends to look down with
2
since the
politician must not claim, in the event of a dispute with alheorist, to
detect some danger to the nation in those views that the political
theorist expresseJopenly and without ulterior motive. By this clausula
salvotoria, the authbr of this essay will regard himself to be expressly
protected in the best way possible from all malicious interpretation.
First Section
Which Contains the Preliminary Articles for
Perpetual Peace Among Nations
344
being too exhausted to continue the war, has a mental reservation
(resirvotio mentalis) concerning some presently unmentioned preten-
iion that will be revived at the first opportune moment, since ill will
between the warring parties still remains, that reservation is a bit of
mere Jesuitical cazuistry. If we judge such actions in their true
character, they are beneath the dignity of a ruler, just as a willingness
to indulge in ieasoning of this sort is beneath his minister's dignity.
to TiFFis entire volley, without
the worldly-wlie statesman becoming the least bit concerned. Now if
he is to beionsistent-and this is the condition I set out-the practical
For if this were the case, it would be a mer-e
tie-ZlffiUllrties all exrstlng CaUSeS IOI War' eYen u [ney are urrnlruwg Lu
ii,.ii,rrlf's:pefi'luH-il*"it-i6ilh"'Iiaffi tvr"r..E-b-y.'
107

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3. Perpetual Peace 109
[s to
se of
aca-
{bv
ision
ua-
rtion
raft,
thus
Deo-
thrs
one
ught
stry,
ter-
mily
r use
inci-
jects
d.
I the
into
and
rain-
ofa
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:n tQ.
l{he'
ts iif
,c
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gres-
t the
fan
s the
r dis-
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; only
ration
tdom)
.,.--=4
4. No national
of the nation.
Seeking either internal or external help for the national economy
(e.g., for improvement of roads, new settlements, storage of food
against years of bad harvest, and so on) is above suspicion. However,
as an instrument in the struggle among powers, t
mgenlous a commercial durins this cen-
tu
or payment ls creditorEl
thETdrfiime) i financial It is a war chest ex-
ceeding the , and it can be
exhausted only by an l@hough it can also
Ue thaiderives from
credit's influence on industry and commerce). This ease in making
war, combined with the inclination of those in power to do so-an in-
clination that seems innate in human nature-is a great obstacle to
perpetual peace. Thus, forbidding foreign debt must be a preliminary 346
article for perpetual peace, for eventual yet unavoidable national
bankruptcy must entangle many innocent nations, and that would
clearly injure them. Consequently, other nations are justified in ally-
ing themselves against such a nation and its pretensions.
5. No nation shall f-orcibly interfere with the constitution and gov-
.@@,
For what can justify its doing so? Perhaps some offense that one
nation's subjects give to those of another? Instead, this should serve
as a warning by providing an example of the great evil that a people
falls into through its lawlessness. Generally, the bad example that one
free person furnishes for another (as ascandalum occepturn) does not
injure the latter. But it would be different if, as a result of internal
discord, a nation were divided in two and each part, regarding itself as
a separate nation, lay claim to the whole; for (since they are in a condi-
tion of anarchy) the aid of a foreign nation to one of the parties could
not be regarded as interference by the other in its constitution. So
long, however, as this internal conflict remains undecided, a foreign
power's interference would violate the rights of an independent people
struggling with its internal ills. Doing this would be an obvious offense
and would render the autonomy of every nation insecure.
of treaslfeguklbe regarded as preparation for war that necessitates
aggresslon.
,:.i. .!i.r
war with another shall
i:.i1

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!I3V!Id 'IVnrAdUlId 0It

5. f treaso
st in the
ren in the
I and the
tm inter-
re (where
he power
by mere
my (since
me of the
mines the
unitivum)
f superior
var of ex-
ffi-tFaT
rply in.the
rncludrng
it-thzfrhe
:lear from
lespicable,
applies to
orableness
oited; but
rus under-
m the per-
bitive laws
-that is, of
nces (/eges
Nos. l, 5,
;eptions to
me subjec-
s one does
toration of
put off un-
d calendas
s permitted
jure the in-
he prohibi-
pforth for-
I supported
Perpetual Peace 11t
by the necessary title of right, was at the time (of theputative acquisi-
;[;t;6aea as uwrul bv public opinion in all nations'*
Second Section
Which Contains the Definitive Articles
for PerPetual Peace Among Nations
348
The in close the
naturi'i
one_o_!
in the con- 349
war, w
state of Peace must
be
;;;;i# ffiil "un
ttupp.n onlv in a state
9r
uwfutngsp:
l!!3lltl:
fiom wtrom such security has been requested' can treat the former as
an enemy.t
'It has previously been doubted, not unjustifiably, whether in addition to commands
U"c;-;;;;;pi;;;;; unap,oiiiiiiins (teg* prohibitrivae) pure reason could provide per-
missive laws (leges permissivae).For in general.laws^.oniuin u foundation of objeitive 348
practical necessity, white peri-ilrion onfiprouides a foundation for certain acts that de-
pend on practical contrneen;{iliuf(illickeitl.Th]us a permissive lau would necessitate
an action that one ."n,,ot u...o,opelt.d"to perform. which. if the object of law has the
same sense in both."'"', n,oura *tail a contradiction. But the permissive law-here
under consideratlon onty proiiults certain modes of acquiring a right in the fu1u1e (e'e''
,ffi;"irh.;ir"*il, *t ii. ir,..i"eption from this prohibition, i.e., the permission, ap-
il.*il;;;;;ilii":d,, "i
p"*."i""Iin tt" tt*'ition from the state of nature to that of
civil society, then, this possJs-'sio", *ttitt u'j"tt in itself' may nonetheless be regarded as
;;;;;-@;;r;;;ir' putriruo'ini'."r, .ontinu. to endure by virtue of a permissive law
derived from natural right. However, as soon as any putative possession comes to be
;;;;;i;;t"hibited iln the state of nature' everv similar form of acquisition is subse-
;ffrry-p-tilitJ in .ir,'roAeiv, ana trris puiative right to continuing possession
would not hold if such
"
*;;;;;"J acquisition had occurred in the civil state. In that
case it would, as an offense-IirinJ nutur"r law, have to cease existing as soon as its il-
legality were discovered.
Mydesireherehasbeensimplytodrawtheattentionofproponentsofnatural.rightto
the concept of a lex permiiiiii,"u .on".pt that reason in its systematica^lly analytic use
sets out and that is often used in civil (statutory) law, though with this difference, name-
ly, that the prohibitive partiii"* r-t"iiJr on its own, while the permissive part is not (as
it should be) included i, tr,. 1""-"r
"
limiting condition, but is regarded instead as
;;;il;;i.;ptions to it' 'ir'it ,,,tunt that thii or that will be forbidden' as is the case
rryili Nos. 1, 2, and l, una'ro'onlnoefinitely, for permissions arise only circumstantial-
i;;;;;;;ililio u'prin.iir.-,-ir,uiir, *,.f urire only in considering specific situations.
otherwise the conditions ;;;ld h;r. io be stated in^the form.ulation.of.the prohibitive
laws andwould in tt ut ,,uy t'u"t to become laws of permission' It is therefore regret-
table that the incisive, Urii,"of"ta Prize question posed by the wise' and acute Count
;; dftffiil;;l o'*ti"" trt"t directlv concerns this issue' has been forgotten so
;;:iiy:'F;f,. p"ssitiiitv oiuior*ut" (such as.exists in mathematics) is the onlv true
criterion of all subsequ.iii"gfti"ii"t, and with.out it the so-called ius certum will
forever remain a pious wish. in-i6 uu..n.., we shall merely have generallaws. (which are
valid in general), Urrt ,o uiir"irri ones (wirich are universally valid), and it is the latter
that the concept of a law requires'
fltiscommonlyassumedthatoneoughtnottakehostileactionagainstanother
unless one has at.eaav ueeriict'i'ue-ti liiu"itv ttr"t person and that is entirely correct if
men liv

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pu?ls suollsu pu? uatu sE reJos ,dtqsuazarJ p4otl {o sttt7u oqt oi aur*roluoj,uo .g
lreqlou? euo 01 uollsler w: suoltDu lo stq?lr et$ o1 Euituroiuoc ouo .7
i(sllotldlc sz1) uogeu ? ul uorx Jo stg8lr lr^rr or{1 o1 Buiurrojuoc euo .1
euo oq lr^
.peur3ruor er? ll rdecce oqa,r suosrod eqr se rBJ ,, .""';,ljf;Jl"r'riliTr:ll'"
;T,(rrenmurueroqa**r#,::,'iiJii'X,i:,llt'Hil""i,li'ff ,'i,"fi ,.i,'JH?fi ,3:.,,1i
'snq1 'sEurpunouns {ur ruo{ Jlasurq aloruel ol Jo
^el
II^IJ Jo elels e olur otu qll^r ralue
01 raqlle urrq e:rnba: uec I pu? .eu suoleaJql flluetsuoc er{ qJrq^r fiq;(olsnii! nlols
el?1s slq Jo ssausseltrel orll Jo onilJA {q os seop aq ,ou arnfur (opo$ ilatwe'lou soop
oq qEnoqqe roC .elels srqt ul Euleq ,{q dlareru our sarnfu1 bri, rrf,"nrm qql ,* ,.iurp
atnl"u Jo eletrs ? ul dloraur sr oq^r (eldood e .lo) ueu e ,JeAe^oH .r(lr.rnias olrsmbel
0q1 (qtoq uorll reao re,uod seq teql i(1uE1o.ra^os eql Jo 3nur,r rq; ;aq10 rraaa se,*S uosrod
qrea 'Ileltos I$rr otul Eulretue d q rog.Aol lt^n [dqpouraio8] ipd n q an11 se,ired qloq
eql sr usluBcrlqnder ,peurocuoc sl IqEIJ [o ra11eu aql] sB JBJ os .snql
*'(su9zplc-se) p rueql Jo,(tllenbe aqt Jo
^BI
erll qlla sprocie 1l
.p4ql
pw '(spefqns sB) uorlelslEel [o eJrnos] uouruor ,eiauri B uo euoira^e ggt
1o acuapuadap a{l Jo seldlJuud eql qllr sproJJB 11
,puocas ,(uour se)
^]:l?":3
Jo.sre Hl qrin sp:oc
i: ';J
papll e?pt oql ruo{ s,roIIoJ lBql uollnlllsuoJ paqs[qBNo elos aql
'uecrlqndar eq ppoqs uollsu frane 3o uollnlllsuoc [^rc eql
ecue4 pnledJed Jo elorlJv e^rlrurJaq lsJrd
gcvlrd'rYnrlrdugd ztt
,1*tr

7. lican.
dea lldeel
E-s.just
llrst, lt ac-
f a society
mdence of
jects), and
citizens).*
nism is the
-.#
society, each
rem both) the
ale of nature
: although he
5s of his state
him either to
ndings. Thus,
r mutually in-
d, will be one
oations stand
us cosmopoli-
'dationship to
ronsl had only
sequently they
rcrn from this.
ned in the way
r injustice. For
s one does no
action as long
[s), if only one
fuI) freedom is
!f,cept those to
lIDlal (rightjut)
, be bound by a
(Ihe principle
ncd in the con-
rte rights that
d and raised to
aions to higher
rs he represents
m is concerned,
only insofar as
: I am first able
rple of equality,
-but excepting
that Aeon per-
rc right of com-
cedom) pertain
the concept of
Perpetual Peace 113
351
the pure concept of right, ihe republican constitution also provides for
ifris aesiraUle result, iamely, perpetual peace, and the reason for this
is as follows: If (as must inevitably be the case, given this form of con-
stitution) the consent of the citizenry is required in order to determine
whether or not there will be war, it is natural that they consider all its
calamities before committing themselves to so risky a game. (Among
these are doing the fighting themselves, paying the costs of war from
their own resources, having to repair at great sacrifice the war's
devastation, and, finally, the ultimate evil that would make peace
itself better, never being able-because of new and constant wars-to
expunge the burden of debt.) PY co
to wct
natici
"ipG@tvils,
and so on. Thus, he can decide to go to
*ai t& the most meiiingless of reasons, as if it were a kind of
of ple4g
pl.urur" party, and he can blithely leave its justification (which de-
i"n.v t.qri.esj to tris diplomatic corps, who are always prepared for
such exercises.
rt
The following comments are necessary to prevent confusing (as so
oft* hupp.ns) the republican form of constitution with the demo-
cratic oni: The forms-of a nation (civitas) can be analyzed either on
the basis of the persons who possess the highest political authority or
on the basis of the way the pecple are goyerned by their ruler, whoever
352
make up
duty.
--ioncerning
all citizens' right of equality as subjects, one can resolve the-issue of
*f,.it
"i "
ii.i.ditary nobilitiis permiisible by asking whether some rank making one
.iiirin r"p.rior to another lranteA by the nation is.antecedent to merit' or whether
*.rit-."ri p.."ede rank. Niv clearly, when ran-k is tied to birth it is completely uncer-
;;i;-;;;h.;;..it (skill and integriti in one's office) will accompany it. Conseqrentlv,
this hereditary arrangement is nJdifferent from conferring command 9n :9m: favorite
p.*"r *fr. ll*t ollylacking in merit. This is something that the general will of a people
iould rr"u.,
"gr4
io in arioriginal contract (which_is the principle that underlies all
,igt irl. foi u ,-obleman is not, by virtue of that fact alone, a noble man. Concerning the
n6titity of olfice (as one can deaignate the rank of a higher magistrate, which one must
;;-5i;ird; ;f merit), here ranf does not belong to the person, but to the position he
ioiar,ira tnir does noiviolate lthe principle ofl equality, because when that person re-
;tc* i.,h;ii.;ilgGs up his rank at the sametimeand againbecomes one of thepeople.
351
issociation, ouZJhose-taCether who

8. 'll tuorJ
;l rrr$ou)l
peusddPq
; sP.r ouo
31o uro;
'uo.rlnllls
on ? fluo
EretsIulru
I sr p3Jals
ii spues
turao ur
B 01 lcot
I prnsq"
ropuBq?
o,r (uop
ogs osIB
.E)prsuoc
)'alnllN
ql arBld
i ssallrel
E lsnf
'IaqlouB
ra eculs)
lnlllsuoc
,q} '^aqo
Jaqt uoll
ro Eullsls
@SHI
)?Jluor B
'AllJncas
'1) ernleu
10rrB euo
sBu sv
Fp aql
t s.uosted
praueEap
dar palpc
i (eq deu
urarrO8 ;O
*rt?loi eqt
uraloE go
I qrlqa ol
R Jo ruJoJ
-lultupe lsaq sl er63luql[/:lseluo, slooJ lal ]uoururo^oE Jo sturoJ :og,, 'Euy(es u'nou1
fia,r s,aooa lo paiul,tuoc aq 01 aruo, dleug ecuaFedxe Jo srEs'( fuBur re{u 6u1neq ;o
i'rrro{ o,'uia ni rtfirlt 'o3en8ue1 dldura pue
^rolloq
lnq Sulpunos luegodur; s1q uI}
'eIa s,poD Jo eldde slql uodn p?erl ol lou InJer"' eq sIe'np
tsnru arl pue 'puptuou lo stqSy eql lo ropalord eql 'queo uo poqs.Ilqelse seq pogt 13ql
ouo tsailoq aqf .ueur ol6uls ? roJ lsar8 ool sl ter{l asIJJo ue uo{egepun s"q eq leql 1ceJ
.qr rro iilirfr, teq pun (a*ns* lsnu euo qllq'n) uoseer sessessod
'q
Eulpl^ord 'lnos
slq Jlqrunq peelsul plnoqs ,{oql ',fulunoc B Jo reln: aql u1 ecueEor:e Buulls ruorJ red
'sls?q lnoqll^a sl sIIl lBql 3uI ol stuoes 1l lnq :seFal]"U lueEe^erlxo pue sso:8 s? (.,qu?e
uo III^ ourllp eql Jo Jolncexo pu? a^llsluesaJdar aql,' pue ..pelulouue
^louhlp
oql,,)
.rr1ni'e uo'pj^oitoq ,{p*rou ere leql sellll fgol eql pezl'Ilgc uelJo e^"q eldood*
oql qll^ u"ql +luauuJe^oE Jo IuJoJ eql qll^{ peuJecuoc-oJolrl dlqered
-,rioiril are aldoed eql 'ssalsl{puo51 'fcercoulep 3 ul ll Eululelp Jo ltl
-$qrssod ou sl areql 'uopnlorrer lualol^ [q ldecxe 'pue 'fqcteugu e ul
tieqi rcurcotsire ue ul llnrlJJlp arolu sl uopnlllsuor Nnf dlalalduoc €
salpoque l"ql olBls sql EululellB 'uoseeJ slql Jod 'umuqndeJ aruocaq
of ilaug suliogar IBnperE qEnorqt edorl uec uopnllNuor eql 'snql puE
' rusfirec!-lqndei go- dlilqlssod eql selslulxordde uopnlllsuoc lerllllod
eql rosolc eql pug ruisJrder [eql arou eqt '(sralnr Jo requnu aql)
€s€
srll 'l(?s aJoIaJOql uec euo-alrrI -qr sl@
- qI *,.'lue^Jes lseqEtq s(uolleu oql
ffiffi', 'plos ls,oi ,e oII {c,aPe'.d sy :ure1s'(s arrlleluasarder e
Ilar-dEe 1,, 'plDS lseal 1B oII {cFaPeFJ_sV :tuelsls allleluasarq3'
p 44as eqi(rl^ sprocJe leql lueuuraroE;o luroJ B elrnsse feql }et{l
alqlssod sseleqpuou sl 1l
.lueuruJeloE
3o UIJoJ cllBJcoluep B JoJ Iuoor
eil'a1 srurnfe [aq1 se rlJnuseul e^pceJep ar? uollnlllsuoc Iecll11od
Jo sruJoJ o^u Jeqlo aqt q8noqtp puy '(esturard rourur aql uI 1l Jepun
,rprrudo aq1;o uorldunsqns aql eq erull arues eql lE pue tusttollfs
u u1 iqruaro r-oge* oql se e,rras uec uolllsodord lesJe^lun aql ueql)
m/t slq Jo rolncaxe pue rolelspal oql atull aIII€s eql pue euo 18 aq
aio.u o., uec uos.tod aIuES 3q1 pu" euo esngceq 'wo{ fiotlllm Eupleeds
uollBu oql Jo r3aod eql eslJroxa oq^ suo rll Jg
-ur5,ro8 Jo sturoJ aaJql eql Euoruy 'p,rn elelpd
€s€
nd NJ eJag
flradord s a^lpuasardat tou sI lBrI1 lg1IM
nffiuu dn slas 1
a y'crodsaprcuocllqrydat
riqjla'q luetuurarroE
,przEer sgl uI '[1uoq1ne sll saslcraxe '(aldosd
z seuroiaq dnor8 e ,(qeraq,r. gltr prauaE eql Jo lce eql) uollnl1lsuoJ
s1r uo peseq 'uolleu ? qJII{,r ut ,(errr aql suJacuoc pue (s1utw1Zat ow
-rb3 rria*uia,rod go 1uroJ oql sl puocos eq1_'(eldood e;o ro,vrod eql 'ltl
-ulqo" e 3o re,trod oql 'qJreuou e;o rarnod 3q1 'ICBJJOIUaC pue
'berc
gcvad "Ivnrlldulld ttt

9. Perpetual Peace
a contract
it must not be a
This
r" be contiiltfiEfdI']lUrm€very na-
i.j"ili, "r
ruler (legislatot) to subiect (those who
fion there exish me relatron ot ruter rs6rDrorvr'' !v sEervv? ?-----
;;;y;ih;p."pr.Xr'oi.uo,-rna"v."31io"1il-l,t^tl"^t.:"::::::*:
LHffi;il il;Jil;ili.i.iv "r
po^rriur. to escape so similar a state of
abandonment.rnsteaa,-tr-ow'e".i;f S@l"jtl:l'
;; J a; ;Fak o f the maj
::,:- * :,rt""#:I::ffi ;
to any
f, to
sands
not concern
iiiili1|1!
-o"fi
i'.ingle na-tion, which contradicts our assumptron
(since we are here *.igning the rights of. nations in relation to one
;ffi.;, ;rr.iitun rrising them into a single nation)'
Just as we view *ith;;6 disdain the attachment of savages to their
lawless freedom-pt.i.ttiig to scuffle without end rather than to
i,fi"i"it.r.r.i"* ,ira.i fariful restraints that they themselves con-
stitute, consequently p*f*tit'g
" l"ad freedom to a rational one-and
consider it barbarous,-*Ai,
"ia
brutishly degrading of.humanity' so
also should we think ttrat civitizea ne.ggles (each one
lg:1ti'-::::;
115
robili-
t (for-
on its
mes a
either
mciple
eglsla-
that lt
faTf,
overn-
anty a
itizens
re ooes
biuthe
roperly
o more
his will
ise in a
rticular
rrms of
s leave
rossible
Wirit of
rmerely
EE.^
ay, the
g nation
oser the
icanism,
inally to
mbodies
rcy than
rssibili-
e incom-
with the
on a ruler
ine will on
hout basis.
humble his
cted on the
holiest one
md he must
an,lo boasts
Pope's well
rest admini-
form of the constitution (although a great deal dependlon.t^h9 degree
to which the latter it t"itJ io thl goals of the former)' But if the form
;1 ;;;;;"nt is to .ot.t. with tlhe concept of risht' it must include
the reeresentative svstfi prrhlican frrrm
;-;ffih (no matter what the constitution
x'i ;iJlffirrlJ";?;
G;;.,fi;J i"io a.rpoiir-; ,titt, this-is more bearable under a single
p.i*n't rulership than other forms of government are'
SecondDefinitiveArticleforaPerpetualPeacc354
rhe rietrioi nationt shall be}3egol agleiel of*fr-- slag'
As nations, peoples can be regarded as single individuals who injure
one another throush tr,.it JotJproximitv lvtrite
tiy.ins
i11lt":iit:,.".j
#,#ii:., i"a,ip3.a-iiiirv or et'ternar laws). For the sake of its own
^ - ^-,r or. nr r I rt rl em a n rI ttt aJ't$fr1'fr,ffilffitd
securitv, each nation can and should 4em
;€ns best"tl If that means that the b€st administered government is the best ad-
ministered, then he r,*, in itiit:ti*pittti*' ;tt"tked a nut and been rewarded with
only a worm." But if it ,r;;;; i'ilih;G; form of covernment' i'e" political con-
stitution, then it is runau*.tt'"iiv'ialtll r"t g""1.gouJ'n*tnt' prove nothing about
form of govern..nt. wt o il"tiria uttiltit'"i a-Titus and a Marcus Aurelius' and yet
one was succeeded tv
"
poiitiil-;Jth" other by Commodus' which could not have
;;;p;il;;a;;-a good p;iiiia constitution, since their unfitness for the post was
known early enough and ,i. p"**
"i,fr.
rulir was sufficient to have excluded them
from it.

10. tqt cllqnda.t
rt{ltuara 3r)
besuoc pue
rsn"Jeq sHl
rpul flpuyg
fo uo11ou e
FBpornuoc
nef eEules
'ssaussa1,ne1
gEu pal?lor
IIoq eql II3
uol]cnr$3p
,pm[ selras
1 Jo ldacuoc
fq lnq 'euo
'luopuedap
r.ro;) sseltur
Eluoc aql
tue seq uoll
p o1 [1euoq
lulua os JoJ
{ B sr qcrq^
rDql Jr u0rl1
aurardns ou
lu aq plnorls
gaead sprg
Sl auerdns
rroJ ol llmlrr
EdB IBrII
I Puexe u?c
p pue 'suo1l
luoure acuad
raqlo Euouru
ad pnledred
ruroJ plnoqs
r pFoqs eunl
ge epnlcur lt1
r r1 '(op lsnru
[^lJ 01 se^Ias
nn8eal suo1l
n go flpnces
aql 3O re,nOd
slaas Jar[roJ
neceq (s.taad
s'(uncgflcod
, eq aJoJeJeql
ineur raqllau
..'erlJ oql uro{ uorl Eu1,no1E eq1 e{31 01
spuzq slq esn lou UI^ sEuol s€r{ oq^ qlgrs V,, :lonp € l(q ruoql uaeluoq lcluuoc E sllps
ol pereJJo i(1pul1 oq,n.ro:adura {eerc P ol Jelrsua slql aABE acugd ueue61n8 ? snql+
aqgec ecead suoneu Euouts tcunuoc e rnouru,r rn&'[rnp paruEltnuun
Jo JauBur-Elrmd Jo elBls eql4r[5-as sorBIU puB 1I{3IJ eql uululluJelep
Jo sueeru B sB JEt stuapuoc flatnlosqe uosaeJ 'leltod entlelqEel
IeJorrr slr Jo auoJr{l eql tuo{ 'ssalaqFuolq ('tqEF 3o ldacuoc s.es1e
auoeuos o1 1cefqns sI 1EII1 uollnlllsuoc pEal reqloue 01 se^lasueql 9S€
patqns o1 uolspdruoc aql uaaorElno eABq eJoJeJeql pu? uollnllNuoJ
1eEe1 'puralul uB e^eq fpuarlu faql suol]uu su rog) ..'opls sH] uop
-uBq? ppoqs [eql,, l€ql 'lpr 01 'ssaussel^Bl Jo alels 3 uI ueul 3o slq8u
IeJnlsu eql EululaJuoc.[es uec auo ]Bq^ slqEtr rtaql spreEar sB suoll"u
;o ,(es euo uBc rop ('esec uto sll 3o aEpnt sl uollEu gcBa acuBlslunc
-JIc slql q eculs 'lsnlun peJBlcep eq,(preauo;lqEluJls louuec uollenlls
sFIl puv) '(re,r roy uaprd
^eu
e pulJ ol sdemp fcuapual eql) rel
nb
rem Eu€earr llq
IJtr
JJ
u3 aroJeq IBIJ1
.('ruoql feqo leam aq1 Eut
'l€unq
-{Bru Jo orrlleEorerd eq} Euo:ls aql ualp seq aJnlEN,, 'perelcep ecuFd
clllugt l€ql uaq^ ss ',(l8uplcour pesn eJe^ ll ssepn 'Jaqloue euo uo
JEA a{?u 01 lue/A lBrI} suop€u esoql Jo sqlnou eql e^?el Ja^eu plno^
ttlSlJ ptot eql aslirJeqlo Jod '11 oluocJelo osle IIL$ sJaqlo leqtr odoq
ot pu€ (,(uap touuec eq aldpuud e) llesutq u1 oldtcurrd I^e eql re$Blu
o1 epnlrlde lerotu 'luururop fyluaserd qEnoql 'taleor8 111ls 3 uBIu ul
sr oJeqt 1eq1 'ssalaqlouou 'salold lq8tJ Jo ldacuoa eql 01 (spJot ul lseel
tB) sl(Bd uoll?u [ro^e leq] aEeruoq aq;, 'uatu luegodr4 qcns ,(q papvr
-ord sluarunEre oqt uo poseq [retr o1 EuloE 3o] uolluolu! s1t euoEarog
Eumeq uolleu e;o ueltt eq uec sldurexa ou '(lroguoc ploc dpo spur
-oid arogereql oq/i pue) uolssarEEe 1o JBt 3 Jo uotlecgllsnf ul pell
eql ue^tD
'sJEr eAlsuelxe eJolu uarra etea,r o1 aa'eq faql
sluerunrtsul go [111uenb eql osl? snql puu spelqns 4oql Jo reqlunu
oql eseeJcul l(aql :ueql etunsuoo o] ueql paranbuoc aleq [aq] ssoql
Jo osn Jeueq e{?tu ol Aoq aoull JotuJoJ aql 'sapuaua rteql dq uelea
klalelduroc ueoq e^Eq seqlrl rellel aql;o dueu e[q^ ]"q1 's1ql s1 seEe
-ABs uBcIJeIuV puu ueedorng uee/(laq.rr.r";gp frurut-rO erij *.@
ss€
Jo elgls aql pua louu?J tr! 're
{UAq e qEnoql
[1sno1d sde,rnlu ere '(s1u1er1suoJ IBuJelI?
ogl a^Bq louuBc puB lou op sepoJ
zi'lal
!I)V!Id 'IVnrAdUlId 9II

11. nencan sav-
rcompletely
efter use of
increase the
instruments
L-erd.can-he
ly concealed
), one must
--
'arded flofl
!y_veUIueA
ndorf. Vat-
formulated
-
e natroRs do
rays piously
erefore pro-
[ion having
rments pro-
ion pays (at
that there is
aptitude to
leny) and to
: word right
:o make war
L that Gallic
live of mak-
td never in a
rable conse-
bfr
I the state of
). (And this
r in this cir-
t one say of
; the natural
hould aban-
ternal, legal
n to subject
to someone
rf its moral
a means of
,'firrafierbf-
+--
)eace can be:
ndly offered to
r use his hands
Perpetual Peace
neither inaugurated nor guaranteed. A league of a special sort must
therefore be established, one that we can call a league ofpeace (foedus
pacificum), which will be distinguished from a treoty of peace Qtactum
pacis) because the latter seeks merely to stop one war, while the
former seeks to end all wars forever. This league does not seek any
power of the sort possessed by nations, but only the maintenance and
security of each nation's own freedom, as well as that of the other na-
tions leagued with it, without their having thereby to subject them-
selves to civil laws and their constraints (as men in the state of nature
must do). It can be shown that this idea of federalrz should eventual-
ly include all nations and thus lead to perpetual peace. For ifgood for-
tune should so dispose matters that a powerful and enlightened people
should form a republic (which by its nature must be inclined to seek
perpetual peace), it will provide a focal point for a federal association
among other nations that will join it in order to guarantee a state of
peace among nations that is in accord with the idea of the right of na-
tions, and through several associations of this sort such a federation
can extend further and further.
That a people might say, "There should be no war among us, for we
want to form ourselves into a nation, i.e., place ourselves under a
supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power to resolve our con-
flicts peacefully," is understandable. But when a nation says, "There
should be no war between me and other nations, though I recognize
no supreme legislative power to guarantee me my rights and him his,"
then if there does not exist a surrogate of the union in a civil society,
which is a free federation, it is impossible to understand what the basis
for so entrusting my rights is. Such a federation is necessarily tied ra-
tionally to the concept of the right of nations, at least if this latter no-
tion has any meaning.
The concept of the right of nations as a right to go to war is mean-
ingless (for it would then be the right to determine the right not by in-
dependent, universally valid laws that restrict the freedom of every-
one, but by one-sided maxims backed by force). Consequently, the 357
concept of the right of nations must be understood as follows: that it
serves justly those men who are disposed to seek one another's
destruction and thus to find perpetual peace in the grave that covers
all the horrors of violence and its perpetrators. Reason can provide
related nations with no other means for emerging from the state of
lawlessness, which consists solely of war, than that they give up their
savage Qawless) freedom, just as individual persons do, and, by ac-
commodating themselves to the constraints of common law, establish
a nation of peoples (civitas gentium) that (continually growing) will
finally include all the people of the earth. But they do not will to do
this because it does not conform to their idea of the right of nations,
and consequently they discard h hypothesis what is true in /ftesis. So
(if everything is not to be lost) in place of the positive idea of a world
republic they put only the negative surrogate of an enduring, ever ex-
tt7

12. 6.tDttcouv
..]nurt6
irl 3doJng
f,ollB oslB
rqs ourEu
rE$npu.rH
opeFceds
Ilqeqo:d)
la..seras
aql alelu
ounouord
3eu lsoru
) su?lecllJ
i ,JueJoJaJ
IOSSSJOJd
I aunraql
y'dlaueu)
O roJ]r
spJsAOl
a^IesJno
lo slqErJ
Jo epor
)!lsBluBJ
n llal sl
prBe aql
nBJ0g
I UI Oq/{r
q,$ 'oq^
spls uJnl
{:al lou
no[uoEul
) JBou JO
aJl osaql
0'etpnt
'seArlBu
Iagleuou
) sllruJed
q'slsenE
,BUIqC
rnlu3 0q1
aldsepr^
IBJ ru3rll
rql Japun
pelunoc
B papruE
peldnrJo
vanbuoc
dsrp faqt
UBd Jno
,duro)
'ssaulddeq Jleql pue suBlunq snoratunu peforlsap 8ul^?t{ lE ,(o[ ssaJd
-xe dlenpe der{l '(q8noue pus sr qctq,n) 1q61: pnlnur rloql {ees saldood qrlq^ ul dE^r
er{t ol af,ueraJJlpul ue Eup(e1dslp seplsoq roJ 'uaur Jo ral{lBd E Jo Bapl eql qll/( 1s"rluoo
roleerE u1 puels tou plnor 'spro7 to proT )ql 01 (uolt{se; tlllleersl pooE ut) Euns e:e let{l
suul[r{ aql 'ren Eupnp selrolJl^ :o; Eu.rirpslueql Jo sl?^llsal sqa '(uopeu l?lnrlu"d
qcee go slqEF eqt '/(lorueu '{aos /(eq1 l?r{^r omces louuec [oql qrlq^r Jo asn ,(q) re,t;o
su"au snoreqreq oql,{oldura 01'ocu3puedopul rtaql uI apud t{Enorql'puelsul Suprege:d
'seldoad reqto ol uoll"lar ul tr?rtuoo InJ^rel ? qsllqeisa o1 Eu11p3 1(q;o {11tn8 eq ot sanup
-uoc orBJ uerrrnq oql 1eql uls leorE eql to; uleql alproJ 01 ue^eoq 1se tqESu {eql uoll"u
eql Jo erusu eql ul l?ql os luelueuol? Jo ,{ep e '3u!^FsIueI{1Jo I?^llsoJ u relJe 'oplse los
ol eldoed ? JoJ ecsed [q popnlcuoJ JE^ e Jo puo aql te elsudoJddBur eq lou plno^r 1I*
,r'uollnllNuoc uBlrlod
-olusoc B ol JesolJ pu? Josolc lq8noJq aq rilunpBJE uEc ecsJ uslunq
eql puB
"nel
c11qnd Jo sJallBlu eluoJeq [lpnluerre III^ leql suollBlar
InJacEad raqlous euo qll^{ qsllqElse uBc plro^ eql Jo s}rBd luelslp [B^
sFIl uI 'elqlssod sluBllqsqul o^lleu qllllr ocJalrrtuoc 18 sldtuollE se{"ul
sB rEJos fpo 'ra1ua o] suellB Jo eEa[^lrd eql ''e'l '[11p1tdsoq ol lqElr
3rl1 spuaua Jall?l eql qEnoql ue^e 'lqEIJ IBJnI€u 01 /hBJluoc sl 'Japunld
ol lqErr B ruaql Euur6 sB saldoad clpBluou 01 ,{lFrlxord rleql prBEer
oq^ '(sulnopag cIqBrV aql) sJalls/lp Uesep Jo Jo 'sJeJBJBes papueJls
Jo se^?ls Euqeu 1(q pue s?as Eulroqqtlou ut sdqs Eulqqor /(q
^oqs
(6eo3 freqreg aql uo "E'a) sra11a,tp IslsBoc lBql ssouelqBlldsoqu eqJ
'elqFsod ecJaruruoJ s3{Eru ualrl Jo ,(tfietot eql ol uoluuoc uI sEuoloq
ler4t acofins s.tluna eql 01 IqEIJ aql pu€ 'suolEar peu^oun asaql ssoJcs
JaqlouB auo qc?orddB ol alqlssod 1t eleru (uasep oql Jo dlqs eql
Eeru€c pue sdlqs 1al( puB 'sallpnuuroo asoql eleJedes-slJesep pue ees
eql-ac"JJns slql Jo sil8d elqEllqsgulun 'asla auofuB u€ql qusa aqt
Jo uolEer r(ue o1 IqEIJ rolseJE B p?q euo ou 1(flsulElro asnBcoq 'flFul
-xoJd esolc q AuI^[ epJalol 'fgeug '1snur 1nq ',(1alptJut se^losuaql
JOllBcs louuec l(eql 'eqop 3 sl rluse oql eculs JoJ :ec€JJns s.t{uEe aql
Jo dlqsJeu^o uollluloo JIoI{} Jo enUI^ l(q uelu il€ 01 sEuolaq 'alBIJossB
ol 'ilsli ol ltlZy eql lnq '(potred ul?Uoc ? roJ luellqBqul aolleJ € luq
e{Bru ol lueluaoJt? olqB}lJztlJ 'lutceds 3 eJInbeJ plno^ qolll^) Jot!s!^
ruauDwhd B 3q 01 il43y aql lsenbar feu all ',(uaua uB sB palsarl
eq louuBc eq /(lqeacBed sa^Bl{aq eq s3 EuoI s" lnq lfutre paurnl eg uBc
aq'tulq Eu(orlsap lnoqlyl IJ
:lrsFl uo'dnttrouflrETB'p51zort eq 01 lou uallB uu J er{l suEeru
(@oc slql uI pue'ttt8!t r4tlt 1nq'[dorq]
-uugqcl qtrI,tr lou sI eJoq uJacuoc rno 'soIJIlJB Eulpecard egl uI sv
' t(tilol! dsotl I€sra^Iun Jo
suolllpuoc ol pelrull oq lpqs 1q8;.t uulgodousoc
arBed l?nladrad B roJ aIJIUV e^rlruueo prlqJ,
sr *(llEre1 'oluanJc an snqlJ
-totl Ttwatt-snut srudwt ntng)'asoo1 Eugeorq rloql So roEuup luels
-uoc oq s/(E,$lB IIr^ eraql qEnoql '/t?l eg] 1(Jap o1 uol]Eullcul ellsotl
lBql Jo zbuapuel eql sqJnJ puB J?/l slualard lzqt uotplapal Eutpuud
8St
ecvad 'rvnradulld 8II

13. 9ace
itions
ndency of that
always be con-
us-fremit hor-
lot with philan-
EospitableuesS)
Ey-upon his.ar--
stroying him, he
bty he cannot be
b. a permanent
cement to make
right to visit, to
on ownership of
t cannot scatter
g in close prox-
lo any region of
his surface-the
ships and camels
rch one another
d'h's surfocethat
nmerce possible.
e Barbary Coast)
naking slaves of
rBedouins), who
; them a right to
laner extends the
Er, only sofar as
i possible. In this
another peaceful
blic law, and the
os€r to a cosmo-
r peace for a people to
ha ia the name of the
t the human race con-
rion to other peoples,
r the barbarous means
dy, the rights of each
ring war, the hymns
&d not stand in greater
an indifference to the
rgh), they actually ex-
iness.
Perpetual Peace 119
Comparethiswiththeinhospitableconductofcivilizednationsin
";;;;i;i
iiie worta, especialiy-commerciat ones: the injustice that
,l*r'd6h, io*utat fo.tign lands. and.peoples (which is the.same as
iiiqiiiiri rnim), is t"r.iri"g. When discovered, America, the lands
"".Jp[J
Uv the blacks, the Spice Islands' the Cape' etc-'' were re-
;;;#;-;r-6nd, U.tongirrg to no one because their inhabitants were
E""ni.aio. nothing. foiEign soldiers were imported into Eastlndia
;;e;; tlr; ;r.t.*t oI .o.iy-.rtuutirtring economic relations, and with
them came suUjection Ji-ttre natirer, iricitement of various nations to 359
widespread *urc uronlg-tiiimselnes-lamine, rebellion' treachery' and
ttre intire litany of evils that can afflict the human race'
China*andJapan(Nippon,whichhavehadexperience-withsuch
su;#;hu;" it..itor"'-*i-r[ty iestrictea contact with them. china onlv
;;ilr;;rtu.i*ittt a singll Europear people' the Dutch'.whom.thev
;;;"Gkrr exclude u. iit[.V were prisoners from associating with the
;i;;;: ih" worst (oi .o.,|ia.r.a^ from. the perspective of a moral
:iiJgiit. uest) coniequence of..all
'Ii:
i: that such violence profits
these trading .o.prnii-noi at all and that all of them are at the point
;ffi;; .;l6pt.. 'it. irrgur Islands,-the seat of the cruellest and most
trs;;;;;i;;;;y, viet,a-io true proiit, but serve onlv the indirect and
;;,*;fi;nta6rlbuipotiof qaining sailors for ships of war' whichin
;;;;i;r'th. pu.srril ofrrars in Europi. And this is the action of powers
;i;, ;ilti;iluiui"e iniustice like water, make much of their piety and
,nt o'in -"tters of ortntdoxy want to be regarded as the elect'
Because u (nar.o*.,-ot'*iatti too-'ryu'iitv widely.nreyail.s among 360
the Earth's peoples,
"
Lu"tgttttion of-rights in one place inthe world
is felt everywh"rr; .onr.quJntly, tht idea of cosmopolitan right is not
fantastic and exaggerat.d, U"tiuttter an amendment to the unwritten
code of national unJ-ini.rnutional rights, necessary to the public
rigttt of ..n in general. Only such amendment allows us to flatter
;;il; with thi thought that we are making continual progress
towards PerPetual Peace'
r[For the reasons why] we should call this great kingdom by the name it gives itself
(namely, China, not sina, oi *vtttr"g ti-it*L one hai only to consult Georgi's Alpha
lbetuml Tibet lonuml,;';;l-A;Gpecialli note b' According to the observation of
professor Fischer of po.rrur.r, ,ri*. is actually no determinate name that it uses in
reference to itself. rrr. .ort".o-ni.on on. is the word "Kin," namely, gold-(which the
Tibetans call "Ser"), una tt.t.ioi. the emperor is called the king of Gold (i'e" of the
most magnificerr,
"o,rnr.Vin
tlt **fal' In the kingdom itself' this word is probablv
oronounced
,,Cnen,"t,ti.is'pionoun..d "iKin"by.the ltalian missionaries (who cannot
ffiHil;d;;i';;rili.l';;*'it ont ca" s"ihat the Roman's so-called "Land or
Seres,, was China, and ,ifi'*", Ui""ght from there to Europe across Greater-Tibet
(probably through troii'fii't, Buk-hara' Persia and so on)' This leads to manv
speculations concerning it e aritiquity oiifrir u-*ing nation in comparison with that of
Hindustan, as well as ,.g,,'aing itr-.Lnnections. withlibet and also with Japan. But the
name sina or Tshina,
"nf,t'rligt
u.* of ttris land give it, leads nowhere. Perhaps this
also allows us to clarify ifre uer'y
"ncient
but never properly understood commerce of
Europe with Tib.t r,o. ,.t,"t rry,,"/ria' h"' .e.o'ded about the hierophant,s cry ..Korr
optrct(,, (Konx Ompai'-il ;t; Eleusinian mysteries. (see Travels of the Youne
Anacharsis, Part V, p' '147f.)
For according to ceorg'it 'ipi ' ii't' t}ri*ord "con- 360

14. tam punoqeJl
u ro (suosBos
't'a) [uorqsel]
?r^ord qcrqtr
r&TPJSUOC OluJ
s;o lurod aql
s! arnlBu tBql
r PlloA eril ul
nq uollrullslp
rcs go acuenb
I s1 tua,ra s1q1
rc{ eJueJaJur
rs alqunq prrs
E)A3 'SelJBrIlu
q ol luB^ 01
qtosaadstp 1o
!cF&d prBEe.l
lnsal sll uro{
peal 1l ar3q,r
lnorqr peqel
"duas,ussn!
.1o Sutuur&aq
il{ ,.'SarrlaS
4aq1 qlp
1$nq rlaql
n lElrel"ur
[ ,([Eer lou
moJ€ ISOUr
lnlq esoqir
,s osp lnq
nJ op rluo
od:nd 1ng
IOJ pelEaJc
sep llBs eql
EroJeq uEc
prrB uBeco
lnJJapuo^
$ peurBJls
In suortaJ
Bq aqs.rrrr
) u3{Bl seq
iraJnlBN
qs a^ uaql
'a8els lsul
Ea lsnlu ellr
r eJoJeg
;JO spJJas
rqtg e1e1
, p acuap!
q arryou
z9E
I9€
aql l? peqslqelso sl U se rBJ^os :preue8 u1 acuaptnotd (aul^rp) uopBulrurelapord slql
II?J aA{ 'pl.ro^ eql Jo ropa, Eulurrurelaperd e;o asod.md-oq1 siurepirn li s, :ef'osui raec
;f..1it:11t-]:T:.1,t^ rEql ruroJ ? 'acualslxe sll 01 lslueurgpunJ sl ler{l ruroJ e sEuolaq
(.ureq AJosuas B sE) ueur r{Jrr1r 01 aJnleu Jo rrrsrrreqJeru aql ul lsoJlu"ru si eraq1.
sr.IoQII qEnolql (uelsnpurH qtr^ uBql:oqruo unEeq eaeq Ieu
q,q^) EurqJ qlh errauruo, dFee s,edo:ng sE IIe^r se .re,n auroairog oW ui poupt<Ixa
3q dllueredd" Ieru eJee.rD ot ,,gl{ ulo:g fe,n s1r ip?.u rural snoFets,(urluql m6q lrng rrr"
'tr u! uslaqw uE poloatep (sr3qlo Euoure) snll,roH .lC q8noql ;eldoad
aqigo .,.,rq1r1oo
1W
qll^ palserluor l?ql sldoda oql ot usraqlouou e pagrui,, an q ie* iuqelln
tDls{I1J {oerD eqt ur asn sll pue .(pargruosrad
a.rnleu) i,1ii,^
"q1
,.irirro oq-^-au,
-ag eurardns (xo4) ana pue (uO) passan,(xuoy) tttott teqtol r3Jor IIa,n lqElu xodutg
xuox tru:el snouelsdu luql snqJ .G,eZ .d,drqs:on go ,(qtro,n sr 1eqt Euraq'oiur pesoqd
-Joruela* sJnos ''a'r'auDqclng to 'flrur^rp eql 0l'se1poq30 slros lpqEnorql suortertrur
,(ue., relJs .paurnpr ,(,1eug aazr{. .qillqer
Jo ,.rrrlibp s.Bru?.I or{l o1 Eurprocce ,oqan
seuo pessarq 1p 30 EupoqleE eql ''e', ..slur,s eql p 10 aur-rJqtua aql si'll, .reasu,
slql p.^lecar sfu,np pue aq o1 (oo1cuo3) po, pootiripur, ieql pq,n su;;i ,;i;q*
aql polse uetJo snlleroH zu€rd .rd
^roN
.r0S .d ,par.rtpaq jqr uilql ,"qto au:qtou
sueoru fyqeqord lnq ,fllu!^rp 01 pet?ler eq ue) .passalq ,snpryauaq patelsuert ezor1 e-l
qclq^r-uO.ra^e^oH .(ttl .d
1saoual poll"r osle) iinfuugo 1p sepeirred 1eql dll;l^1p
?tJl
q&l ,oloBpwotd erll suBaru .xzd pacunouoid e,ruq 1i,n lqEru slaerc Jq, qriq^
'(OZS 'd "prqt) op-ttod .xuox 01 aJuslqueser Eurllrls e seq qJrq^ ,poC sueeut ..D!o2
IuJel eql !(acuauadxa elqrssod Jo spunoq eql uHllAr ulBtueJ Nnru
uosBeJ uBrunq ,sesn?J Jreql 01 spaJJe Jo suopEleJ eql ub Eurpegar
ulrog) atnpu ruJet eqt esn ol uosear uurrrnq Jo sllurll aql 01 eldlrdord
-de ,'oru sr 1r (sno6ger rou pu") pcrleroaqi rteipui si urecuoc rno
'i(zsse srql go uatuoc eqt ul s! .ueq1 .baqsUqetsi
rjraooio q /hg"er sll
H1?r:q sI 1I puu uepl ctleruEop 3 s? paluaserder sr 4,@coad pi1adtad
nuIpJBdeJ [lnp Jo ldocuoc Jno ol uoll?lal ur pefoldrua il ll ,.E..
'areq,n)
^rarl
Jo lurod pcltrcurd eq1 uorg :,nq,tiafi1uep1 luepuacsuurl
e sB
^erl
go lurod lD4prcaqt B ruo{ paluesardar aq uL! (r(Uerour Jo
puo eq1) sn roJ 1no sles Jlesll uosear ler{tr sasodrnO aq1 qlr,n ffiiuroJuoJ
rreql pu, o1 spefqo ;o drqsuorprar eqr 'luaSunlpvellisunyl seilwl
-cu e^rpnpord s.purlueu qll^r /6oleue u" uo dl$qrssoO rraqt lo jirac
-uo, 01 se os luilluapnzqql l{Enoq1 ur dpo spe[qo ot vretqi inE&p
lsnlu pu" uBc e^ (yeraueE ur sosodrnd pue sEurql;o sruJoJ eql uaeinfaq
fuoll?ler IIB qll^r s3) lnq '11 urorg acuaNlxe IBnpB xaql nyut eA u?c rou
'arnpu ur suElsap eleclrtul asaql Jo aEpeproul aiUisoi arruq f1pnpe
louueJ e6r *.acuapltold 11 IIBo elr ,osJnoc s.plJol aq1 sauprrelapard
pue IBoE elpc_afqo slr pJu^ol ecBJ uerunq eql slcaJlp luql esnec raqarq
B Jo rrropsr^r Euy(lrepun eql eq o1 1r preEar pue ,s1ua,re plJoltt Jo
^oU
aql q sseuerrrsodrnd s.ernl?u uo pauor em ;r ,a11q,r ,ifu{
Illec o,n
'sn 01 u,nou{un aJ€ uorleJedo go s,ne1 esoq^ sesnBgJlg-lgg5ulro{
E+ttrrsq gqsrn_duroc u se uErs3p slqr brgEar a,ra rI .slp,r rlaql lssluEe
Ip rlerll Eulttlut
se{Bru
leeJE
-red
leqt
otnTou)
FIlou
aceag pnledred Jo eeluerenD arll uO
luaruelddng 1s4g
!IJVAd 'IVNI!IdUAd 0zt

15. Perpetual Peace
noture isless pretentious than a term connoting that there is a prov-
idence of which we can have cognitive knowledge, and on which we
take flight as on Icarus's wings in order more closely to approach the
secrets of some unfathomable intention.
Before we define this guarantee [of perpetual peace] more closely,
we must examine the state in which nature has placed her actors on her
vast stage, a state that ultimately and necessarily secures their peace- 363
then we shall see how she guarantees the latter.
Nature's provisional arrangement consists of the following: 1. She
has taken care that men can live in all regions of the world. 2. Through 'r.
war she has driven them everywhere, even into the most inhospitable
regions in order to populate them. 3. Also through war she has con- i
strained them to establish more or less legal relationships. It is truly I
wonderful that moss grows even in the cold waste3-wTn€-ffiCti-* J
Ocean and that reindeer can dig it from beneath the snow so that they
can become food or transportation for the Ostiak or Samoyed; or that
the salt deserts are inhabited by the camel, which appears to have been
created for traveling over them, so that the deserts do not go unused.
But purpose is even more clearly evident when one realizes that not
only do furbearing animals exist on the shores of the Arctic Ocean,
bui also seals, walruses, and whales, whose flesh provides food and
whose blubber, provides warmth for the inhabitants. However, what
most arouses our wonder is nature's care to bring (in what way we do
not really know) driftwood to these barren regions, for without this
material the natives could have neither their canoes and spears nor
their huts to dwell in. In these regions they are sufficiently occupied
with their war against animals that they live in peace among them-
selves.22 But it was probably nothing but war that drove them there.
tzt
r less than that
-
hanical oi6cess
-_-#:
Itranllest, per-
r disdTcfle-ver
ilffi:n-fffiliins
mknown to us,
siveness in the
rg wisdom of a
iective goal and
r.r We cannot
sigrrs in nature,
,ith all relations
'e can and must
n] so as to con-
; productive ac-
ts to and their
for us (the end
int of view as a
of view (where,
duty regarding
rd it is here that
xr of this essay,
) it is most ap-
o, nature (for in
human reason
nce); the term
cio (ibid., p. 520),
t rulgator /egrq the
n-ever,Orn, which
ut probably means
rs often asked the
lrays received this
of all blessed ones
urned, after many
.c,, souls metamor-
nerious term Konx
(Pax) supreme Be-
rhe Greek Mystery
ontrasted with the
cdan atheisminit.
rmay apparently be
vith China (which
u a sensory being)
:amot conceive ex-
f tle world. We call
s established at the
36r
362
beginning of the world, we call it
^gronnding
providence (providentio conditrix; semel
iritit, tri^p", parenf, Augustine);I8 where this purposiveness in nature's course is main-
t"irr.i ttrorgi, universal-laws, we call it ruling providence (providentia gubernatrix)i
n trire it lead-s to specific ends lZweckenl that men cannot foresee but can only infer
from its results, we call it guiding providence (providentia directrix)i finally' where we
regard particulax events as divineends lZweckeT, we no longer speak ofprovide-nce but
of-dispensation (directio ertraordinaria). However, it is a foolish presumption for men
to want to be able to recognize these latter for what they are (for in fact they are
miracles, even though the events are not described in that way). No matter how pious
and humble such language may be, it is absurd and altogether self-conceited to make an
inference from some single event to some special principle as its efficient cause (so that
this event is [regarded is] an end and not merely the natural and mechanical conse-
quence of some other end completely unknown to us). In the same way, applying the
distinction between universal and special providence (considered materially) to objects
in the world is unjustifiable and self-contradictory (as when, for example, one claims
that nature is concerned to preserve the species, but leaves individuals to chance); for
the point of saying that providence applies universally is that no single thing is taken
intoconsideration. Presumably, one intends by this to distinguish between the ways in
which providence (considered /ormotly'| carries out its intentions, that is, in ordinary
[fashion] (e.g., the annual death and revival of nature in accordance with the change of
ieasons) or in ertraordinary fashion (e.g., the transport of wood by ocean currents to
icebound coasts, where it cannot grow, so as to provide for the needs of their natives,
t.fi,1:ir:
',,r

16. rFrrv 3q1 EUoIB
o 'apBrl qEnorrlt
asoqJ :re,$srrB I
AIr ll3rll Jo s{u?q
ixo uI s3^llEu aql
,lrloceq m,$ lEq,$
puB pslrqBqulun
il pFor auor
UoA l IIIA e,n
'lqreJlsuoc Jo
t,{tnp e s? lno
I?ql srrln eqs
ltuuJatu!'l!(rc
uollsanb qqa
qt!^rlou'llBqs
ino ueu luqn
s.rq raNoJ eqs
ueur 1uq1 osod
I4sqvl o^pceI
rJaDuoc Jno
Iaqt ol padser
r os 'pupluBru
q,,'se1?ulurlla
lE.&,, 'Euy(es
I uale tI?,it uo
tdsp ot sueeru
l JapJo ul osIB
prrB alErpeuul
E llain sE srrBlp
sr^poru qsulas
rsap aq1 'peap
unq ut paururt
lber g1as1r re,n
B ol srBJaqcsod
lJurlsrp l(I1erol
oq,tr) sourllsg
EE)IU E SE SeSn
rp-r [guc11spE
f aqt paprudes
og 'edorng;o
ro 4aq1;o euoE
qutrdsoqul olul
ranbasuoc'pue
'aldoad Jerllou"
aql q 'lu"lslp
ed e puu 'pueq
Eul roJ 'sultpo
saldoad eas a,rr
rEllu Oql SB J?/n
'eq osl? tsnu reqlo og1 'uopplqroJ sl retl"l eql ueq^ pu? 'qsou
^"r
EultEa
porpba: uouo rett"l aql oJuls 'atil Sultunq aql lsupEe puauruoo ? ueql reqlo Eulqlou
ueoq o^Eq o1 (lpupgo srcadde (92:lZ'OZ:gl slrv'suoseor luereJJlp roJ qEnoql 'eru?l
-decce Jleql Jo uolllpuor p w flu?llslrq3 ol petre^uor fl,treu sueEed uo tl pasodu{ su?.rl
-sFqC qslref pus'uogo p3t"odor sl) (S-t:6 'ueg) poolq lsupEe uoltlqlqord cp{r?oN
oql 'Eu1q1op pu" tuouqslrnou sll roJ oppord ol rapro ul uooJ;o pap learE e se:pb
-eJ qJpe JoJ 'soFreua auoreq uoos osle 'slsoroJ asuourul q ouoteq {eql se pesradslp
'pue paEuerlsa eluo)aq uoos selllru?J'dloleredas eir11 o1 Euyreq 'roJ 'uollntllsuoJ pozl n9E
-ll^lr ? ot drertuor lsotu lqnop lnoqlli il Dtunq aW to alil eql 'oJII Jo sruroJ IIe JO.
'snonsuesrodns oql Jo ,Epalnou{ IeJrloJoerl} lB ldurollu prnsqe [11uanb
-ssuor puB ule^ e sl l?qt roJ 'fe/r slql u1 (ppo,t aq1 ul tua^e u? sB) uoltce poo8 e uroldxa
ot lduau? lou tsntu auo lBqt luepFa-Jles sl 1l lng 'frBssocau ua^o pue elEudordd? [larll
-ua sl snstouoJ eul^Ip B Jo ldacuoc aq1-pooE op o1 Eupuls rno dn eagE 'eJoJajer{l 'lou
plnoqs o^r lBql pue sn ol 3lqe^locuocur ar? leql supeul 1(q socrlsnlul ulro Jno JoJ ol?suad
-ruor III^ pog 'arnd arB suolloErelur rno fluo JI teqt Jolleq aqt u1 ''E'a-(snonsuasredns
rql ot paparlp [[oq^ sr qrrq,$) e^llJedsrod /rrr tcDtd-tllorou e uro{ lng 'peJJa us tnoqe
stueuEpnf Eulleur ro; soldlcuFd lu"uFuro]op 1p dn o,rp e,r Eu11u1qt go {?^r cllsElor{rs
leql qllir 'punas'ouole u"lclsfqd eql o1 Eulpeq eqlrrse uec ouo 'repro IErnlEu aql qllin
eru?procc" ul pup plroi$ aql ul sosnec Jo uleqc oqt uorJ Eur,rolloJ s€ lue^e slqt ul?ldxo ear
Jr 'esrnoc JO 'rulH ol flerpue uollcB aql eqFf,se lsnlu e^r osnec pulElro rz'elqe^leruorul
i(1pc11o:ooq1 tnq 'lseqEq eqt ol {o"q oE ol }u?^ o^ JI pue 'seulclpour slq Ip pue uelcgs(qd
er{l satEa.l, poC oiw^n! uou D!,tottlos DSn , rod 'ssoulll oql 6uFnc q polsrss" uelcrs(qd
,tlt'poC Ja{o tEr{t {"s o1 dropgperluor-Jles 'aldlllexo roJ 'sl U '(Eu11ce1 u3eq eroJ3r3ql
oaeq Ilpuppo 1snr.u aruapl^ord leqt Eur,tldurr) plro^r ar{t Jo asrno, aql ul ecuepprord Eu1
-uluualaperd u,uo s11 lueurelddns p1ro,n oql u1 soEueqc IIe Jo esnpc luolcgJns IIIoq,r eqt Z9E
Jlosll sf qclq^r teqt 1al ot [rolrrp?rtuor-Jles sl ]l pu" ,r'(s!nba ata8unl saqdfuE) sEugql;o
spull r"lrurssrp ulofuoc ot slduretle
^rol^
Jltseloqts tr-t4l'tstll'dn ue^F aq lsnur esues
Jo plro,t aql ul pocuolJodxe lJeJJo ,{rone ql1,n (szsJnlun) eJuoJ.InJuoc to ur uo17od1c17tod
eul^lp e Jo ldacuoc rllseloqcs aq1 fpg 'arnt?u suJo^ot teql uopsp e Jo ar"c oql at?clp
-ul qclq,rr 'sasnBr ImlEoloelat {oolre^o lou sseleqtauou lsnur a,n '(uearlg gpc) aqt i(q ggo
palJrec arB pu" Iuoql olur IIBJ saart t?ql os pepooa /(ll^?eq er€ spu?l elereduat ul sre^lr
Jo sluBq eql tsr{t trq aqr,(q "E'o) se^lasrno ot sacuu readdu eser{l Jo sasneJ I"rluaqralu
puE lBclsfqd aqt upldxs dlrpEar uBr o^r ellq^r 'ore11 '(tt tnoqll^r e^ll tou plnot ot{t
uesoqJ seq eqs 'pze1su1 :^BI IBJoru B sE ueru spulq l€ql ,$np Jo ldeouoc
B uo lsal plnoqs sHl lErll Eulsoddnsard lnoqlla puE 'suoll"ullJul JIoIII
6urcEe uele 'eJoqlr,( b^e e^llpfiot7s feql letll uasoqc ,(gucltodsep osle
serl eJnleu 'qgea uo ereq,ndrara el1i, nnoc ueur lerll eJBc Euplel uI
'seldoed luelsrp lsotu aql qlllt osoJe suoIlEIeJ InJoceed pue lsaJel
-ur go dlunutuoc 'EulpuelsJapun uotuluoc sr{t uorJ pu? 'Jeqloue ouo
tllA suollDlat p{acoad olul peJalue ,(eql 1(e,n sHl uI 'saldosd luara;
-JIp l(q oprir puu rBJ ]qEnos epBrl Jo selclue lsrg eql flquqord aram
esaql puB '1xeu peralocslp eJaA uot! pue ilDS 'alrypJltzo 1o eJII aql 01 wE
Eurpraq pue 'EupIslJ *'Eullunq Jo lrropee{ ssalttel aql ulo{ uolllsueJl
oql euoErapun fpuorp pBq uelu JaUE fluo rncco plnoJ 1l pu€ :ornces
se,n flradord araqirr 'suolleu paqsllqulsa fpearlu l(q pepmord suollp
-uoc Jepun dpo asue pFoc '(J?ed pg,r oql puu eldde qBJJ eIIl 'selcads
o/rU flrro sduqred adorng ur) EurgurE pue EutlueldsuBJl rq stntt sno
-rJB^ JO lueueurJeJ puB uoltstEdoJd oql sB IIer sE 'u^ou{ raEuol ou
oJ? SJrlsrJalcureqc pu6uo esoqa ',sulDJE pau"c 'sess?rE 3o spuq u1e1
-rac EurlellllnJ Jo UB aq1 '(suorleu paqsllqBlso fpeorp Jo frnxnl aql
ol'polred relBl B ol s8uolaq luBqdele aql roJ) fiM {o Uauru$u! lstu
eql puB rluBe aql Eultupdod;o ssacord eql ur elBJrlseuop 01 puB aru?l
o1 peuJBol uBru 1?q1 ISJIJ eql sel|. asJoq eql 'spluluB aql IIB Euoury
acvlld 'Ivnlgduad zzt

17. n learned to
arth and the
r period, to
tivating cer-
cteristics are
rent of vari-
tps only two
r under con-
roperty was
rdergone the
and herding
rt, and these
ride by dif-
lotions with
runity of in-
eoples.
, nature has
wen against
rld rest on a
: has chosen
e physical and
n the banks of
ud are carried
uses, which in-
rat of a divine
in the world of
issimilar kinds
which is itself
r predetermin-
criginally have
olter God, the
k d creates the
r theoretically
L. Of course, if
I in accordance
ond with that
ing judgments
directed to the
God will com-
fiat we should
tzczrsus is en-
oot attempt to
rin and conse-
nry to a civil-
stranged and,
i, for each re-
clothing. The
Jewish Chris-
rf their accep-
'to have been
lften required
Perpetual Peace
war as the means whereby this purpose is to be fulfilled. Specifically,
we see peoples whose unity of language reveals the unity of their
origins, for instance,the Samoyeds of the Arctic Ocean, on the one _ __
hand, and a people with a similar language living two hundred -11.r 365
distant, in the Altai Mountains, on the other; between them lives
another people, of Mongolian origin, who are adept at horsemanship
and, consequently, war and who drove the two parts of the other race
into inhospitable arctic regions, where they would certainly not have
gone of their own inclination.* Similarly, in the northern-most regions
of Europe, Gothic and Sarmitic peoples, who pushed their way in,
separated the Finns, called Lapps, by an equal distance from the lin-
guistically related Hungarians. And what else but war-which nature
uses as a means to populate the entire earth-could have driven the
Eskimos (who are perhaps very ancient European adventurers, and
totally distinct as a race from all Americans) to the north, and the
Pescherais to the south of America, to Tierra del Fuego. Nonetheless,
war itself requires no particular motivation, but appears to be in-
grained in human nature and is even valued as something noble; in-
deed, the desire for glory inspires men to it, even independently of
selfish motives. Consequently, courage in war (among American In-
dians as well as during Europe's chivalric period) is judged to be of
immediate and great worth not only during war (as is reasonable), but
also in order that wor might be, and often war is begun only as a
means to display courage. As a result, an intrinsic worth is bestowed
on war, even to the extent that philosophers, unmindful of that Greek
saying, "War is a bad bet because it produces more evil people than it
eliminates," have praised it as having a certain ennobling influence on
mankind. So much for what nature does to further her own ends in
respect to the human race as a class of animal.
Our concern now is the most important question regarding the ob-
jective lAbsichtl of perpetual peace: How does nature further this pur-
pose that man's own reason sets out as a duty for him, i.e., how does
she foster his moral objective, and how has it been guaranteed that
what man ought to do through the laws of freedom, but does not, he
shall, notwithstanding his freedom, do through nature's constraint?
This question arises with respect to all three aspects of public right,
civil, international, and cosmopolitan right. When I say of nature that
she wills that this or that happen, that does not mean that she sets it
out as a duty that we do it @ecause only practical reason, which is free
of constraint, can do that); rather, she does it herself, whether or not
we will it (fata volentem ducunt, nolentem trahunt).23
*One could ask, if nature has chosen that these icy coasts should not remain
uninhabited and if (as we can expect) nature no longer provides them with driftwood,
what will become of their inhabitants? For one must believe that as culture progresses,
the natives in the temperate zone might make better use of the wood that grows on the
banks of their rivers if they did not allow it to fall into rivers and float away into the sea.
I answer: Those who dwell along the Ob, the Yenisei, the Lena, etc., will provide it
through trade, exchanging it for products from the animal kingdom, in which the sea
along the Arctic coasts abounds-but only if she (nature) first compels them to peace.
123

18. 'serBld puB
A lBtuaplJrB erll
EIU IIB roJ plle^
,^Dpuaz) $tooq
d or{t ore eseql
r ol ulBUed lou
t oN'sa,,llorow
e)uara$toa
'p,tncetqO
io lmrJerrrqc
()1 ,{lnp Jno
raur go 1u1od
!f, os op lou
,TuBr{celu eq}
$ q 'lnJssec
e,n 3O SeSOd
xodrnd s;ql
tno.rql Sgo 11
iIn JaAaJeI{/h
u aql ansrnd
reug'uo11uu
rldoad frala
xeoJ 1OUU?3
slllodoulsoJ
aruEu seop
rnc qEnorql
peseq .uoll
sB lsnf .€
,s puB pecnp
eerg go pref
tmpuelsrap
ea:E pre,tol
rog sgeprd
uo8qat pue
m uo;g seld
I lng 'plJoit
uB qsllqslse
iqcreue olur
atootdn suq
{rFr rcqdtut
,g3r+Isplaur
d fgeuoller
x saop Iu?ql
slr ur sr uorl
;Xttliffi.ffi il:T[:Hr, :;,;:{,'
*,.'Eulqlou sJ1r,n ,qcnur ool sllJ^ Je^ooq,n puri:s{eerq ir ,qc,i.u ot*t pru
eqr spueq euo JL, .ecuarue^uocur go pap teard s qlrl ianoqilpro,
-rE u^ro stl Jo rncco dlaleurll1n III,I op o1 spalEau ,,id p.i,,rt .qo*nrr1
fgeug pFoqs l{Eg pql sll.r,n rrdiispoir arnleu lsql sueeru sq1 .ecaed
leuleue pue IBuJalu s.uolluu e Il eJnces pue eloruoJd ot iu*lla,t se
:r^,11J:.^Tr,:il,
'p-ue u,no s11ro3 iu,r eHr aruderd ot suporu B .r',iorr., LgE
19 pasn eq uBc 'suollBleJ IBuJexe Jreql q Jeqloue euo lJBJslunoc
[11ern1eu suolleullcur tullees-g1ss qjgm r! ,einleu yo *riurqr"*
?L1-ff:?il'-::1:?-'luopullsul'
pooa'u rapun rJuo peicadxe'aq br sr
dunp!!-gl
uorllpuoc prou poo8 s,aldoed E 'alrsoddo'aql errnb ,iaqlur
'1nq^'d11protu ruo{ asrJ?_ol pepjoxe eq louuuc uollnllsuoc IBuoJlEu
pooE u r,ql os) sequcsard tqErr ;o eepr iq1 r,q^ por{r,ordde dpuerp
suorrular uErorog rregr.q oABq suorleu paziuearo rtrcirraorrrr riJinp,
1nq Eurlsrxo f1luasard ,esn,c slr lou,tpieuic,sr ,(ld;;i;l; tiniJj'.ro,
Jauut eql qEnoqlp leql ees uec euo .reanod
e,req s,rullreq,n ,icued
Jo elel,s ? olur Jelua 01 snql pue s^?l elrcJeoJ 01 tFuqns oi reqlouu
euo ledruoc 6nu feql teql de,r e qcns ur i1<Ioad e
"iruir.roi.piiptu
opsorl- Jo l3rguoc eq1 aaueEro 01 s? os uetu ol oJnleu yo usruuqceru
otll z(ldde ol
^oq
,rroul ott pql dpo sarrnbar 1l :ueru ydl.reurinoiOu,
Ierou eql arrnber lou seop r rog.alqollo.r eq lsntu ualqord ro puii
sIqI ..'sapnllr" [^e ou pzq farllJI su tsnldlclqna a,reqaq saurJq irql
l,ql reql.u, euo lacu,c os ssaraqpuou eseql .iirguoc ,ip;uprti aie,rrro
rleql e[q.rr ,teql-s,ne1 qcns-uo{ Jlosruq louixa ol paurtjur rri.rrm
sl qc,e qEnoqr-uonelresard-4eql JoJ s,*e1 lesrarrrun irrnbar bq,n saur
-aq leuorleJ go dnorE e ezrueEro pue JepJo og,, :ie,r sJr{1 q p.irl. ,i
uec urelqord aql .(Eurpuetsrapun
ssassod reql ipo.ll) id,rei io oesrro
-uroc eldoed B JoJ uele alqe^los sl uolleu e au,rrularo J;;;;;;;
eel 'punos feur 1r sB prer{ sV .uezrlrr pooE u a{ br perrfi q-,Joo,
i(11erou lou sr eq qEnoql uele .uBru'oi puu ,pa1irx. ,uorrJripul'ar,
-soddo go sles Jeqlreu Jr s? etues aql sr uoseeJ roJ llnseJ oqJ .sJaqlo aql
Jo serJuapuol o^rpnJlsep eql IeJuBc Jo {caqJ 01 elqB sr uopeullcur auo
puu'reqloue auo $ureEe ra,rod rleql trrerlp otr elqe sie riql iriqr'(rrlt
-ycudec s.u8ur uF{ll,tl fpmpac s1 qcrq,ra) gi,n uorleu eql EuJzruutro dq
lqr?* st lt pu? 'suoyteullcul auulais-j1ai Jsoqr uorJ rlica4p ir*o, prc
sqt 'peapul .uos,er ul papunorE sr rlrrrr^ .111^
pra,iaE ru.iio*iifirru
-cerd 1nq peJe^eJ 1eqt Jo plu eql 01 seuroJ ernpu
^tou
lng .luauuraloE
Jo yroJ B aurlqns os o1 Euueqpe go alqzdeoul ueql aleur suo11eu11c
-ur Euplaes-;las s.ueu rc1 ,sla7iy
lb uoituu ? eq lsnu rrrqnder B lerll
pueluoc l(ueru ler{l os qcnu os .urelur?ru ol JopJBrI nns pire qsllqe5e
ol lFclJJIp lsou aql oslB sr 1l lnq.ueu lo qqsri'jql qlln'jiripeo
;T1.f]]::-1-.:: {ryo
aql sr uorrnlrlsuoc uecrlq,io'a, oql iirN.ii'aru
^.tDt!l!w
qlp luarqt slql loeu olJleslr oredard ol elqe eq ol sE os uo11ou gg;
B olur Jleslr rrrroJ lsnu t quu
.11
sualearql te{l al-doad'ror{1ou" ol'ioq
-qEteu y1aq1 spurg eldoad ,tuerre ;arroqe p"uruld*e iuaur"au[rre lrrniru
eql o1 EurprocJe JoJ ,ly op ueql aleul ppo,n run .satel cllqncl 01 llur
-qns 01 procsry leuretur dq pourcrlsuoc tou araan aldoad e ji irna'. i
!I3V!Id 'rYnJgdugd nzt

19. I discord to sub-
according to the
inds itself neigh-
orm itself into a
eat with military
me wholly com-
nost difficult to
tr many contend
r self-seeking in-
blime a form of
wered but prac-
nn. Indeed, this
, and it is merely
in man's capaci-
ne another, and
rve tendencies of
cf, sets of oppos-
e is not morally
may sound, the
r a people com-
lhe problem can
p of rational be-
-though each is
that, while their
m€ another that
attitudes.'' This
ryuire the moral
rrw to apply the
nllia of hostile
nust compel one
r into a state of
hough the inner
atly existing but
loreign relations
(so that a good
n morality, but,
dition lBildungl
,nsequently, the
mions naturally
con be used by
lhe rule of right,
nl and external
ht should finally
r of its own ac-
f one bends the
rills nothing."z
ristence of manv
ffi,sffi;ffi;-
Perpetual Peace
tion is in itself a state of war (assuming that a federative union among
rationally preferable to their being overrun
in ofgovernance, and after it
has uprooted the soul of good a soulless despotism finally degenerates
into anarchy. Nonetheless, the desire of every nation (or its ruler) is to
establish an enduring peace, hoping, if possible, to dominate the entire
world. But nature wills otherwise. She uses two means to prevent peo-
ples from intermingling and to separate them, differences in language
and religion, * which db indeed dispose men to mutual hatred and to
pretexts for war. But the growth of culture and men's gradual progress
toward greater agreement regarding their principles lead to mutual un-
derstanding and peace. Unlike that peace that despotism (in the grave-
yard of freedom) brings about by vitiating all powers, this one is pro-
duced and secured by an equilibrium of the liveliest competing powers.
3. Just as nature wisely separates peoples that the will of every na-
tion, based on principles of international right, would gladly unite
through cunning or force, so also by virtue of their mutual interest
does nature unite peoples against violence and war, for the concept of
cosmopolitan right does not protect them from it. The spirit of trade
cannot coexist with war, and sooner or later this spirit dominates
every people. For among all those powers (or means) that belong to a
nation, financial power may be the most reliable in forcing nations to
pursue the noble cause of peace (though not from moral motives); and
wherever in the world war threatens to break out, they will try to head
it off through mediation, just as if they were permanently leagued for
this purpose. By the very nature of things, large alliances for [pur-
poses of wagingl war are very rare and are even more rarely suc-
cessful. In this fashion nature guarantees perpetual peace by virtue of
the mechanism of man's inclinations themselves; to be sure, it does
not do so with a certainty sufficient to prophesy it from a theoretical
point of view, but we can do so from a practical one, which makes it
our duty to work toward bringing about this goal (which is not a
chimerical one).
Second Supplement
Secret Article for Perpetual Peace
Objectively, i.e., in the terms of its content, a secret article in pro-
rDi.fferences in religion: an odd expression! Just as if one spoke of different
moralities, No doubt there can be different kinds of historical /airftg though these do
not pertain to religion, but only to the history of the means used to promote it, and
these are the province of learned investigation; the same holds of different religious
books (Zendavesto, the Vedas, Koron, and so on). But there is only a single religion,
valid for all men in all times. Those lfaiths and books] can thus be nothing more than
the accidental vehicles of religion and can only thereby be different in different times
and places.
125
368

20. PerPetual Peace
APPendix
I
On the Disagreement between Morals and Politics
in Relation to PerPetual Peace
goals.
Now even if the practical man lPraktikerT tf:l:"I3?:1t::tl:
#:;J#;;ilH.",h"T;;*'i"*t'"t*"::glll"^.1*-n:^o:"":*l
HffifiiiiJffiffi;';i;;; r;"d hope on
th"^ 1:1t:Tic^::':'.*1:;
liil: iHsse" J,ii"i
"
n'ffi nature biin g what,il
i' I I! ^!.1".
g 1*:l
li'"ii',iiL"iiii'il;;il't"q";1"1isr-eouir,ed.t:,,":ll'J.:,:1i,1*
i;;;;:fr',i';";;-.,i.il;;i'!'-qyt4vl,'I:^*,'l:::::'":Y?j3?,113:1
iii""d,i;i;,;I,i"itv"iit'e.wi"f f
'pl",l::"'l*:,,1-11*t,:",1:
}liiffi;ffi ;;;;;*;rhprinciptesorrreedom*""1:-'jl:i311'^"^1
Llilil#ffi ;;ffi ;;';iii,{iiitos"lyr(1neyr!1ct-il:.y-11'{:"t-':,*;
t27
370
iubjectively,
vho dictates
, for a per-
hat he is its
e: The max-
vhich public
'wor.
of a nation,
lm, to seek
he principles
advisable to
their advice,
rblicly about
Ld the search
,nly one does
re among na-
dy present as
reason. This
principles of
st (the repre-
d. The jurist,
n but also the
reep the alien
fie scales will
jurist who is
), is severely
,existing laws
even though,
[her two), he
rer. The phi-
ie face of the
example, that
rid of the two
her this hand-
s her train be-
ings is neither
of power in-
that kings or
ity) should not
nt, but should
lightenment of
ble of sedition
the formulator
Takenobjectively,moralityisinitselfpractical,foritisthetotality
"f
;;;;;;itiorarv rjiraine tu*t according.to which we ousht to act'
and once one has ,.hJ*iEae.a ttre auttroiity of its concept of duty' it
would be utterly uur"tiio tJ'iinoe *anting to say that one cannot do
his duty. For if that *o. ti, it.n this coniept wou-ld disappear.from
morality (ultra posse nimi obttgafur);2E consequently' there can be no
."inr.iU!*ee-n pofitics ai an ipplied doctrine of right and morals as
a theoretical doctrine ;f ;lCh, aii"t no conflict between practice and
theory). [If such
"
.o"-fii.i"*i'i to ott"]' one would have to under-
stand morality as a ,ni'"ttuiJ'irtne oi'prudence' i'e'' a theory of
maxims by which t" .ii""r. ttt. most efflcient means of furthering
one's own interests, *t'ittt it to deny that morality exists at all'-
Politics says, "Be ye ii" o' t"'pints'l'to which morality adds (as a
ni,iii'iiiiiiitoil,
1.
*i i"io,rrnt ot dgves. "2e'where both of these
maxims cannot .o"*rri'ii a-command, there one finds an actual con-
flict between politics anJto'Aitv; tut- if the two are completely
united the concept or'oppotiiion is a6surd' and the question as to how
the conflict is to be t.t'Jf-uta tunnot even be posed as a problem-' How-
ever, the proposition]"'lniiiity is the..b.esipolicy"' is beyondall re-
futation, and is the iriai*.r-r"Ufe condition bf a', policy. The divinity
who protects ttre uouniali., oi.o*tity does not yield to Jupiter (the
Drotector of power), ;;;';ill"'"" is-still subject to fate' That is'
il;#it #;;;iii.iltrv tnriet'ttned that it cin survev the series of
predeterminine cuur.-, ;;ipred'ict.with certainty what the happy or
unhappy.onrrqo.n"J' tiiai iollo* in accord with nature's mechanism
i;;;ftr;; u.tiuiti., *iribe (thoueh one can hope that they come out
as one wishes). sot *ii'h ttto* tti ev-erything we have.to do-in order
to remain on the p"it oi Ouiv (according to rules of wisdom)' reason
;;;;;;td; ,, *ittr.riigt tin..nt sufficient to pursue our ultimate
371
;?,li}tilfir]tiJ'r}ri",iito 'o-airri."rt
a task requires that civil

21. roJ 'tuopao{ Jo
r.rErlo^el asn III^
xlE rqSnorq suoll
r rlsls luasard eql
reld urorJ lInSoJ
B E 01 ,tluo lqEp
lduor e ro; adP
ror acnsnful qlY'l
r.rad are asaq;.
IIIpuallI? oseql
-lseq
s3 uoll
Esl aqi Jo
^sI
nq 'uollElslEel
6 roJ 'scluod
B Sr A31 tllogt
ld ataq.tr 'Pue
u.!lo Jlaql oms
lE^/ldl saccD.td
I ruaPnrd ,(1Pc
E Jo pEalsul
o!^ aql alBnpd
nq1 puB 'lqEF
6ear Jo Bepl aql
I3u uErrnq lBql
p ql!t lsBJluos
to 4aqr dn alP
E)III sJN1BIIIAId
Elpqod Jo saFr
trIn 3q,(elu 1I
rdur tuarueldutl
o:suollBu Joqlo
,s'.flrraue utleJOJ
opntrtsuoc sq dn
tuoue suollsler
nfqns uaeq orreq
ro.{llualop oqa
I PBel ol olqlssnu
r.sBI ol EqturoJ
ognpiar lualop
q [,{r1gqe] qrlqil')
d pers,(qd Possas
lqt ,(q Pacuangut
i 3u1pt cllodsap
recrlqndar ssessod
lsotu uo$nlpsuo3
saoeu aJB sa8ueqc
ry ra,nod ul osotll
;o parlnbar aq uec 1l 'Je^e,roH 'parrcdar d1lua1ovr pue
'(1arcpourrul
eq
itn l * qcns teql prnsqu,(1nr1sq osp plno^ 1l 'ecsld s1r u1 1nd ol parzd
-arA s, uopnlllsuoc Joileq e eJoJoq uotun llelllodoursoc Jo IBJIlllod
go pu6q ?'relos o1 flgerout tlll]$ lueNlsuoc ecuapnrd pcpllod 1e o1
rreiruoi sI 1l eculs 'ajgr.rces-g1as Jo lsoc etll lu ue^a euop eq o1 lqEno
sp{l pu" :uoiear Jo BepI ue l(q paluasard lapou B se sefa rno q spuu]s
qciql 'rqEp prnleu fi1pn ruroluor 01 sE [errr e grns q pue elqtssod
su'uoos sB pepaJJoo aq uec 1l aoq Japtsuoc 01 'suopeu Jo sJolnJ eql
ro3 (Fulnclued .[1np e serrosaq 1! 'suoll?u Jaqlo qll^ suollElor sll ul
Jouorlnlllsuoc s.uollBu B uI punoJ s1 patudlcltue ueeq 3^Bq lou plnoJ
1"q1llnsJ a ecuo teqt aldlcqrd e 1t aleur IIIA ITBLIl11od proru eqa
- 'eilelue^pz s(Ireluseluls eql {ns o1 [11prou u satro;
oq^ auo ''a'1 'ls11o,tow lo4tilod e
Io :tuHt 1ouu33 1 lnq '[111erour-qllA
t rr.qo, aq riec reqr rutlr acuapnrd pcltlod go saldlcupd oql sprdrelul
os or{^r euo "a'l 'uo!4tllod lDJou e lo 1uq1 flenrce uuc I 'pepecuoJ
eq Nnur o,rr ar{i go r$gqpeduroc agl_'sclt11od 3o uo1}1puoc-EupFull E
JallEI aql e{BIu 01 ua^e puB 'lqEy;o ldacuoc aq} qll'In scltgod aldnoc o1
,fiesseceu fyalnlosqe 1l pu$ eAr JI lng 'tqEnoqt ssellueluoc 3 eq pFo^
tqErr;o taaiuoi aqi pue 'uropsm pcrperd;o aloq^ aql aq plno'n (uau
,rieioa 01 ruslu?qoeru tuql Eulsn;o uB aql se) sc1t11od uagl 'arnpu Jo
rrrslueqmru eJelu sl uaddeq uuc ro suedduq leqt Euq!fiele;1 pue '6pa
r1 uo piseq sr 1erll
^eI
I?JoIu eql Jou luopee{ reqlleu JI 'erns aq oI ZLE
'ecuaPnrd
pclrgod Jo eJnpnr6 sll roJ uollepunoJ eJnJes ? pulJ o1 adoq auole
iirj'ipo^ aql Jo ,(un eq1 qlr^ procs? ul s1grxpru s11 alelnruro; o1 tur
-ue.-rp tt pieiar lou seop luql pue ornleu uulunq Jo seldlcupd 1ecg1d
-tue uo pes"q $ 1eqr arpc;Jd B 'lserluoc l(q ispapr pcqcerdut 'l(1drua
olur e^losslp'siq8i uelqodoursoc puu 'leuolluuJolq 'Ul1c -to; sueld
pcfaro'aqliie 'snq1 'Eurranbuoc pue 8ugapunld 'ra'nod q1 Eulsuarcul
jo iuearu aql aqcraxa o1 IIBJ lou gr,t 'rauro; aqt 3o fua'r aql-q spuuls
ieuel aqt lou ro raqpq 3o ssalpruEer 'reqlou? o1 ropadrts aq o1
glaslisleig 1eql rueupuor B uela 'tuoql Nulea" slqErr stl ptoqdl ollees
irir"q, riqcu^ ur kelr eql EuIprBEar suogeu reqlo Jo luautEpnf eql
bi prir.tqrir'eq o1g1as1r aoIIB lou_ru^A 1l saBI leurslxo ot rafqns raEuol
ou sl uollEu B atuo puy 'eldood eql /(q Iuq ol paqpcserd sa"I e^Bq
lou llrrr pueq ul ra,vrod sBI{ eJuo oq,r eq 13ql plBs sI 1l uos?al slql Jog
'(1P,n PrauaE
rpqt qEnorql uopnlllsuoc pEal B aleeJc o1 tuagl
^oIIB
uer{l III^
eq ;aldoad € olul ssulrr pIIA aql _palpn
Eunuq 13r{} sallmqlluas IBroIu
qrns a^Bq o1 roplspel aql Fadxa flpryq uec a,tr ro3) tqEu Jo EapI
(iecnaroeqt) lBgl ruor; suollel^op part apdpl}u3-l(Iupuao uuc eA
iiuirreOxi pnp" ur ,aiourraqgnd 'op uec uosrad afuls ou Eulqpuos
sl slql puB-IIp uoluluoc
"
olul Iueql uuoJsuBrl 01 repro- u! sarls
-ip ,r1r,t1rrrd i,uosrad qcee Euorue saJuereJJlp e-I{l uo pesodunradns
eq tsn.u
jsnec aurfgrun Ieuoll1ppe uB ssneceq 'tqEg c11qnd roJ slseq B
epr,rord,(puanbasqns mil uolcJaoc sFIl pue 'auo{tltyrr '(po
upeq uuc
(Jjncurd ir9 fqEp jo +efs sgt Eultuauraldurl 'e1oq,n E sluoceq [1a1cos
acvad'Ivnraduad BZt

22. ght (in practice)
quently provide
g cause must be
's particular de-
vill-and this is
Etual experience
hat (theoretical)
or to have such
nto a people, he
n through their
r in hand will not
ce a nation is no
o be subjected to
r which it should
nt that feels itself
or not the latter
cise the means of
us, all theoretical
flts dissolve into
rt is based on em-
regard it demean-
of the world can
rcture of political
that is based on it
t mere mechanism
:hanism to govern
le concept of right
solutely necessary
to make the latter
,f the two must be
L i.e., one who so
ey can be coherent
alis/, i.e., one who
t once a fault that
n's constitution or
U, particularly for
rrrected as soon as
uural right, which
of reason; and this
since it is contrary
!o sever a bond of
nnstitution is pre-
rd that such a fault
: can be required of
t29
Perpetual Peace
those in power that they at least take 10. heart the maxim that such
changes are necessarv .J ut-toniinuously to-approach-the goal (of the
constitution most in ;;; *iilt ru*t oi right)' A nation may already
ffi;:ilil;ilr]."" i"il, .*n iiunde. its piesent constitution it has a
despotic ruting poweiirriii-gi"auuuy ttt. p.ople are capable of being
influenced by the ."r. iJ.u"of the law's iuthority (iust as if it.pos-
ilil;ilttJJpo*.ti"Jifus is. found able to be its own legislator
i;;il"diliitvt'it otiJinuttv i"t"a.on lnaturall rieht)' If-through a
violent revolution.^ir.J
-dv
u bad c.onstitution-a constitution con-
i;ffi;;;;"# *.i. i"ir"ar..a uv illegal means, it must not be per-
missible to lead tt. p*p[-u""[to tt" ira.one' even though -tyey:ne
373
who violentlv o, .ou#iy p"rtrciput.a. in the revolution would rightly
have been subject t" #il;i;iil;i due rebels. But as to the external
relations among nations, ii cannot be-expected that a nation will give
up its constitution, .r;if d;rp"tic_ (whic-h is the stronger in relation to
foreign enemies), ,o io'u
"t-ii-iittt
the danger of being overrun by
other nationr;
"ot
r"qutnity, it- is permissible to delay the intention to
implement i.pror..tnts untit a
-better
opportunity arises'*
It may be that o"tpoTit
'noidittt
(those who fail in practice) violate
rules of political pJ;;;-t;-it ,n"'v wavs--oy adopting or proposing
;;;fii.";."*i.ti; Jiri, experiince will sraduallv bring them to
give up their opposrti";l; nuiu" a19.t9 follow a better course' Bv
contrast with this, tn. *"irriring politician attempts, on the pretext
that human narure x'"ii'irproi"zr-uttuining the good as prescribed in
theideaofreason,to."*t",uut.politicalprinciplesthatarecontraryto
rieht. and ttrus ttrese pii".rpf.r make irogress impossible and per-
oJtuate the violation of right'
*ffi
;#;i ;;l"ril; ir,".^pru"ti.ut science lP r axisl that these politi-
cally pruden t tstaatiikiil-iien muL" so much of' they use devious
practicestPraktikeniiJiln""nttlt" tyYt ruling power (so as to in-
sure their o*n p.,'dt" advantagel' even at the expinse of the people
and, where porriurt,-tilJ'*iiiE *otra'. acting juit like lawyers (for
whom law is a ,roii,'iit u-*utt.iof
'kgislaiion)
when they go into
oolitics. For since it-ir'rot it.ir business to be overly concerned with
i.""itri r*lioi'ru,t"t to carry out momentary commands under the
i;i;
"f
il;l;;,^rh.y;il;i*ay, ,"ga'd every existing legal constitu-
tion as best_and ;ilili;;;;nala i, hieher places, they-regard
these amend."rrt,
"'io';it;G;t'
too; in that-way' everything follows 374
*Thesearepermissivelawsofreason:toallowaconditionofpublicrightafflicted
with injustice to .ontin.r.'irniii.r.rvtt irg ir either of itself or through peaceful means
rioe for a complete ,r"rri"#"i"",'f;; _;y /egal constitution, even if it conforms with
riiht only to a small ate';t' i' beiter than nont' unJ the laiter fate (anarchy) would
result from prezr,," t:iilit'
""lliilffi;;"therefore'
will make it a dutv' siven
the present state of thin;;'i""fr"i" i.t-.s against the ideal of public right' Revolu-
tions brousht about by ;;i,;;."#f "illiot
iinai*.ur.s for still griater oppression' but
will use revolution as a;ll
";;;;;;
coatt
".I'*iut
constitution based on principles
;ii;;;;; i;i-ontv tttii fundamental reform is enduring'

23. f,BE sleqlo
)A. '11 ol Eul
lqr seplAord
,aoq'atqs
lDuI supur
lql 'Ioqloue
asoddnserd
is roJ pl?a.r
idau Proue
[B:amsul ol
f,Iuo JI 'rqEF
pq auoftaag
rtp ol Isls?a
['r.qJul a$ql
,op ,(Iuo roN
r auo tsuP8e
,ql ,(q PaIBeo
roJ ul 1U3J?d
IaO,l EuHulql
ils^pe l(nue!3
I ,aqpEol oAI
r qtnoqlvr
Bco^p? [eql
E?a uI asoql
I?ql aclNnl
I pIrE acrnos
0r3'acpc€Jd
I lu3^ul oslB
'(lqEu l?uoll
rqEu c11qnd
bql ',(1}uenb
t naqt EulsuQ
Fsler alB^lrd
[ :uoll€u$rnl
IIrr arnlBu Jo
6ar acuaPnrd
F ITE luord
el[E roJ 'srulxetu IBcIUod aseq] ,(q q
":]:l^:q
III^ auo ou '(ppsa3
'ri>1ea,''t aqi puaJep o1Euueadde ?ll]!1:q1
IIB 'llyrr rnof ol raq]ouu
"1;'
ioo Yt$ igretqns Jo pogletu upues
,(1an1e1er e sl uoql u*tu''i'ots1p Euttrro-s uaql'suolleu u8lsro;qtpl
peurecuoc are nolt ;t'f ]11t^ p"T i'euc.1111o'( uo puedap [I,, auolra^a
'uopaar; ratearE 1o ,,[1dq'p aieq ilooao oql 'uinl uI 'Jr puu laldoed
eql urorJ lueql elerBd;ilili'fi it'aqr'to'rtip '"'(satod
ntut snwltdy
reppel rrer{l aq o1 no( uasoqc''{lararu a^Bq o!'il ilooao
'l:.1.Ei:*'
;;;d'p.;r11ipouprr.""::',;uldl;:':;*;,i[i(#:l'i{lii"lr",
-lJIluB Jlaql uo lunoc flarns uBJ auo'ecto; Eutsn [q sJaqlo IIslseJoJ SLE
rou seop auo JI ,"J ';tl;;;;nq or tat'6pQ luna aql leql 'oldoed
il;q.id;, p"rrinuo' e^eq no'( j1 'ro rca['ns agl Jo rb"ul]sqo eql
st ll teqt upluletu 'p"rur :s)not iirlr"1aql leql '(uap-uolgeq€r
ol
uoql lqanorq ecueq pu' it'ottp or 611o-e-11or( pacnpar e^Eq no^ leql
''6'a-pe11pu*o, .n q no'( auruc
':1tT-lltt "'o&au
'il:!::{ ,!^S^^'Z
' 'eleco^pE lsaq eql sl'snlua/.a sfluoq-'sset3ns
3o po8 aqt lreJ eql reUB pue'lqalJ sl]1'-:T*ql uollcl^uoc reuu-l uB Jo
acuereadde upueJ ri.ila lt"it rt6'pt' slq'tuaql 01 suollsslqo roJ
slre,*, pue suoszer auiruintio' i: :t-:ilt f i[ tuo JI uet{l '(luarunEre
lnoqll^ ,$qo Nnur r,io qtg^
"{rpoqtn-e-
3t'freppel
eqr.olr-tl-11^od
Icuralul auardns ,qt t"t{^"'sec lsru .'-Yl
dl igelceoso; raro pessolE
,(11sea arour.ru.1orn,q, p'n'tco!-aui u,t!: '(1lueEe1e
pue
'(1lses
arou
r€J peluesaro .q um l'ti.r"gpsil ir{t :(otdoad Euuoqqtteu reqlouu
relo ro aldoad u^o sll
'jno
iaqt'e uolluu e;o rqEy e go) uolledrnsn
[rer11qre .rog rrruntroodo alqerbnuJ [",]'- ezres oe'Dsncxa P J-Dl'l
'v--v -r-r-
'sayisgoos auj[oi1o1 oql Jo '!u11eeds
fgEnor 'rslsuoc (c11qnd t"'ql a1et" t::i'oo aq qEnoqt) pue slql 01
sasn aq rrqr r*t*roilqyrqiF oi rre1119.c situltuago q8noql-'Eupsel
lso., ueoq eroJolerol{
ji'q i'qr suol}nlllsuo' puopeu eql 3o
-ac-uelrad
-xa srq uo posBq atirq tirrtr"t ?-ql.{lftl4drua
ruelqord slql arlos
puu tq8tr Jo E3pI rqr'oiouai t'uc aq-'e"e11a q1ta4174ot41ue-u pqlcerd
posoddns .q1 'rlqfrtoo
"
uotrntlituoc-Eulrnpua pue pltqEp B 18q1
auop saldlcurro q'n' i'pun t' 11pue,""opaa{ Jo saldrcuud qll^ spJoJ
-rB lel{l uorqnoruoc rtl'^i'r rioi'lu 't1rro-
uosear ;o sldacuoc egl oreqir
eer, u? ur luorcraol i"'r^rib*"d*ily.'podsep 'uy(1dde
,,1ec1ueqc
]Jrir"J") ,iilrioro-rrrurorsnc rleql
^olloJ
ol anulluor III^
^eql
rod
'rusp€t€Iruq,lo ,ytJ" urrfcxa lolltsouir
aqt a{Bru louuec feql '/"BI
leuolleuJalu, pu' ;in" u1 sldecuoc eseql esn o1 lduraue '(aq1
'seqlrcs
-ard uoseer r, 'ft':i""i;q'"L"t-ipt"'nbt' sl uoll,^rosqo pcpolod
-orr{ru, 3o tulodpuut; q;Fi' q?iq^j:J-)^trq Jo ep,t'eq u,c lEqA pue
uow flutnoul ,noqi*idtioqi't'i"qr.{:-ru'* os tlll,* IBap '{aql
aculs
'palredxa ,q or rrq*iiie:i s1 qclq'n) uiw
-Eutxou]l
Jo -op
ol-learB^e e{eu
faql tBql peluBrE puu :('(11eculdT ]?.Y^.f'ottd-o "(lluanbasuoc)
tt{EF
;o srdacuoc lrupd' p'iuJa ut uo!fltltsuo) tDuo!Du e aEpnt ol alqe
Euraq;o uolsn[I fi ilfi; 'qpciil6a
eul seirtE uau 1e o1 sEulqt 11e
Eutaq te ssouuap tiiri''i'p"tila iltig '"p'o lsrlueqre.u radord st1u1
rE Iu leAel?gt
'lunoc sfemP
puy'(sruxeru
rol) Perueqse
,elr$ou:l ctlqnd
puu iure$ a{IJ
o tuaruEpnf aql
, aJa/^ ecllsnlul
,IJi aJ? lueql JO
acvgd'Ivnladugd 0€I

24. s deftness at being
e illusion of being
gainst concepts of
i granted that they
nly to be expected,
rout knowing man
ndpoint of anthro-
if, as reason pre-
I and international
it of charlatanism.
procedure (of me-
oercion) in an area
ompulsion that ac-
rh principles alone
ble. The supposed
r idea of right and
g based on his ex-
ntofore been most
naxims that he uses
b) consist, roughlY
tunit-v for arbitrary
rn people or over
n be presented far
rirlence more easily
E supreme internal
nust obey without
! reasons and waits
rcrtain appearance
r the fact the god of
e committed-€.9.,
hce brought them
L maintain that it is
ped a neighboring
for if one does not
mnt on their antici-
h privileged persons
n rc be their leader
rate them from the
l of greater freedom,
if ;-ou are concerned
g them is a relativelY
Itcr to your will, all
tbl maxims, for allc
131
Perpetual Peace
of them are widely known; nor are menashamed of them' as if their
iniustice were altogeth*;;;pp*ent. For sreat powers never heed
th! judgment of the ;;;; re'eiing.st'ame Jnlv inthe face of others
like them; and as ttg"tit't'i ioitgiine principles' not their becomtng
public knowledge, u'ii"r, ll'ar-failire can'make those powers feel
ashamed (for among titnittiu"t ihty
"g'""
on the morality of the
maxims). And in thit;;il-h;ii i.'ti19'it honor' on which thev can
always count, i,
"t"inil'n"t""lv'
tv the expansiion of their power by
*t utarat means theY choose'*
From all these twistings and turnings o!'an immoral doctrine of
orudence regarding h";;;; io ue u-rougt't out of the warlike state
-of
nut.rr. into the state of peace, we receive at least this much il-
lumination: Men can;-";;;;ttape the ton"tpt of right in their 376
orivate relations than in tiieir publii ones; nor cin they openly risk
ill,ff,iffi";;ii6;il" t
"rii*orr
of prudence alone, and, conse-
ouentlv, thev cannot
"il;t;'#;t$; 1o-*tnce
to the concept of
oublic rieht (which it;;;i;l"tfy imngrl]ft in the case of interna-
iional right). Instead, tttvli'" this.concept all due honor' even if they
also invent u t unatta't-'iti"' una evasi-ons to avoid observing it in
oractice, attributing t" iti"ii'g force the.authority that is the original
iour.. and bond
"r 'ieit"iio?dtt
io tna this sonhistrv
1i1l*'11:"
tt-
iustice that it grot""*ti';;; '^"'i;t
ittt ruit representatives of
ihose in earthly po*t'io l6#ttt it'x rather than right it is might that
they advocat.-u r"ti iiui;;;i;;iT;;t the tone thev adopt' as if thev
*Althoughwemightdoubttheexistenceofacertaininherentwickedlg5s|nTgrrwho
live tosether within a *tf;:;;fitt;;e might plausi'ilv-oolnt to the lack of a suffi-
ciently advanced cutture (##il;il;. .""ri. i,f tf,. tili*ful asptcts of their wav of
thinking lDenkungsortl';ffi;;ilfi;
is-still'completelv and incontrovertiblv ap-
oarent in foreign relationt'il;;-;;'';' witttin t"tt' nation this wickedness rs con-
cealed bv the coercive po*Jioi-Ei'il law' for the citizenls inclination toward violence
;;il",'#;;rr'*u*"kl"tiii*r,ff ii;:::x'':;pTT"1'ff TIH,X';
Not only does this Provrc
these inclinations towzrd i'"f*iit i'ir"ii;ii6 i"1tfi fis' it also actuallv makes it
easier ro develop .n. .ol#'."ii.iiv ro, air..t
"ri'ii",?ailil;;;p*.foi
the law' 316
Evervone believes of nims'eif t-rio:ir,.'r"oura truty ,.n"r"rc
"na
abide
-by
the concept of
richt. if only he coda expJ tire same from t"'yon"
"itt'
which it is government's part
tJirror.; and bv this me#;il;;;iil.tt""'a' *oraiiw it taken (althoush it is still not
a moral step)-a large
""pi"*it?it
*iiling th"-"on^tepi-of duty for its own sake' without
recard for any reciprociti' ilut since all persons t'uut u gooA opinion of themselves but
pri.rppor. eun intentioisT'i'#;;;i;;; tntv tuti"tiv hive this opinion of one
another. that they u,.
"r,,"i,
p.iii'ii nrr, oi tittt. ."o.ttt (tltrough how this might be re-
ilains inexpricabre, since'il'#;;'"il;iq"iq * '.lklff;lffr:i,X lfi.l,lilliJ;
'"ffi*},1ffiHJ,':3,'.*1"':lT{:t?l':iit&.:iirut"'ti'utlitvtoactacio'd-
ing to it, ."..yont
'"t'
t#?ti r'i'
"*t
p"" t"
"iutt
utiin otcord with it' no matter how
others maY act'

25. aulaJdns
ll pua eql
saurddeq
ouaJaqpE
atuas u€c
IEsJa^un
puud uo
eJ slql 'lle
FTu.ruIIp
Jo
d u1 asoqt
o s.auo roJ
n'sdeqrad
p;o sqted
sF-..qslJ3d
,-sTlpunu
rul aq.L
[uBa aql ll3
-uJ lOU arB
Sut II Jeglo
i rI leql U^a
rdss st sq;,
Eounlllsuo3
r fq suoPual
; aldtcupd 1ul
yo dnorE e;o
ou'Buueaqe
p uo paPunoJ
p tdacuoc sl1
eqns ot lq8no
3roul Jo aldlc
;o tdaruoc aW
Jo lusruEr{celu
ig.n lualstsuoc
Elruslap ouolE
g uI ro aldoad
qFerlP se^ueP
puuEq FJauab
Cd e il aq 'Pue
qt-(alqeatou:1
n) tq8p rllqno
rcIu ul luaraqul
loead Pnladrad
l sll puB uosEar
,(Btrr { 'snql -
asoqt qEnorqt 'rl
m ra,trod [oldua
of ,t11ce-nP sPeal
t *$ftit-1tiH,.{'k""-,-
gcvad'IVNadulId
zEr

26. ce the fraud to
real the highest
roceeds. We will
mal peace derives
: the moral politi-
r his principles to
ea's his own pur-
I morals.
ry with itself, it is
hrns of practical
r cnd [Zweck] (as
mG, i.e., the one
r that is expressed
oght to become a
I bc)"?
dcoce, because as
ilcreas the former
pcmpirical condi-
ii. And if this end
tsbe derived from
t principle, that of
civil, international
d tosk (problema
rtthe moral politi-
?)" and its method
Gr not merely as a
m acknowledging
km that political
kuowledge so that
rired end; yet it is
r its consequences
r dl three areas of
lprosperity will be
hncss or by appeals
ruler or to several
ktocracy or by the
:s examples of the
ncrnment (with the
rbne can appeal to
mtainty arises in
rportedly based on
r tcfln without con-
rnclusion contains
nst, the solution to
bm, impresses itself
ality to shame, and
133
Perpetual Peace
leads directly to the end lzweckl.
yet prudence cautions us not to
employ power in ai"tiJ"'i#;ii;' b;t iather to approach it indirect-
lv through those conoitioni pttt"nttd by farorable circumstances'
Thus, it mav u. ,uiilT's;tl" nt" tr't kinedom of pure practical
reason and its ,isntri;;"'i;Jv;"; y!.lZ*u!l (''ht
!f::Tf^:l
;aH#ffi;fiiii.;;6 you oi itsetf."3a For this characte'sttc rs
inherent in morals-e#::;il;tt^ti;as itt r"naamental principle of
nublic right (conseq"Lniv' ih relalion to.a politics that is a priori
Lnowable)-that the ft" ii tutts conduct dipend on the propo-sed
li,t,;;TJLqli:1.*-:i'ffi#t#*f ',it'f *X':",t1'.#l',';
i:l"J:i}##ir'[:J1i:,;;;r1i;ili ;il i' ni'in a priori (in a sinsre
people or in the
"tutio'i'%itaiirtttnt
peoptJs to oni another)' which
arone determines wnai is right among.men- If onlv it is acted on in a
consistent wav, this uriil;;flht itl' "l
all can' along with the
mechanism of nat"'e,ie !i"A;;i of th-e desired result and can'make
the concept of right
"iftii"'
So' for example' it is a fundmental prin-
ciole of moral politi'cs"iii"i i"-"itine itslH into a nation a people
ouehr to subscribe ,Jilril;'?rli-i;ri"rfry "s
the sole constituents of
its-concept of right, u'a tni' is not a- princiole of prudence' but is
foundedonduty'svt"*ii;ipoiiii"ahoralistsdonotevendeserve
a hearing, no matte''h-o* *utit tt"V argue that the natural mechanism
of a group or p.optt
'nio;;;t';t;cIetv
invalidates that fundamen-
tal principle ano vrtrates-it-s i"tention' or seek to substantiate their con-
tentions by use
"'
#ti*i "nJ
toat"' e*amptes of badly organized
constitutions (e'8', ;ffi;";ies wittrout ivtit*t of representation)'
This is especially *:ilesir;'fu Ju*ueine th.orv mav bring about the
evil that it proptresils'i"t 'i'ri
*"" 1i
tirown into the same class as
other living .utt'int" *[itift^"J o'fv to bttornt conscious that they
are not free in otdt"L;;;;;ilthtil o*n tvtt the most wretched of
,t+ffi .,?l*1,':[t#uJfii.*t
u, boastrul
.pro
tterb, Fiot iustia,. pereat
mundus-"Ltt it"'ill"tiJ#'J";i3} trit ioeutl in the world should
oerish,,_is u ,ouni"p,ii?ipte or rigt,t tt,"t-Z"i' u.'o'' the sinuous 319
paths of deceit ani#;;;:;'; it irust not be misunderstood nor'
Derhaps, taken as ;tfiil;i;" tt*ptv to pitts with the utmost vigour
ior one's o*"
'ienflii'il;;;ie-;onniti*itrt
moral dutv); instead'
those in power th"''li;e;;ti""a it to.pott an obligation not to denv
or dimini sh u.,rontYllt*ilt-i!;;i'I; 11!er
&slike oisvmpathv' Ab ove
all. this requires t# it?nution h!v9
"n
i't*n"r consiitution founded
on principle, or
'iii''I
una it'"i it also unite itself (analogouslv to a
universal nation) i:#;;;;;isrrtglne-ana distant nations so thev
;#ffi;;[;.Ar#liii""i"Leu'ri'"rt'i'h".t*X:f,:":ltJttlt3:
il;;;.. to Political maxims mlst no
#:m::i,'trI:*''Titrf H:ffi :Ifi i'!",i'it'-i{'}?i:t?*
supreme ttt orgn'lhiiri.ai piit.ipr.
"i-
p"iiti.it wisdom; instead'

27. JI
tt
roc a^Eg lou
uE'IESJaAIUn
bAa EursnoJ?
r I JI Jo 'paec
trtrBaJap elllp
,(ru 31 '(uotu
) auulsop aql
rruud sq;
o-rd tut,ttollo;
rBrunq ul sseu
daJuoc oql ul
sqe Eume11
Iq paauEocar
q otsuayaotd'1
I?qr uolrellrt
le aqt qrpn a1q
. e ut luasard s1
d ro; flnedec
F [Iuo perreJ
r.ou1 t141qnd
rE3 aJeql uroJ
trlUluoJ ,(lectS
md rap wtogl
n uaru Euoure
rruoJJ peJlsqe
lqqi ut '51
Jatpun
puo
s aqt'[lpnPerE
oru sroJeq eeu{
Fg aqt uaa^}eq
t'pFq,(q dn 6ut
lq [eu aclJIJcBs
r 1o slqEu aq1
louu€J scllgod
I 'IIe lB uE lou
rpqod qEnoqlle
uec scllgod anrl
) ,noq JallBlrl ou
'uaql qlll flurroguoc ur e^Bqaq slrud rpql JoJ $nru Jar{lou? auo g1}$
suorlelal Jraql q suollBu ua^a puu suolleu ur seldoad lerll pue pagdde
eq ol se^Iesuegl lluJed [0ql ler{l "a'r '[lt1eer ellFatqo arruq 1qftr go
seldrcuud arnd pql arunssB lou op e,n gr 'suorsnlcuoc lecqde{s qcns o}
ue^lrp flquproleun aq rua a1yr{ilBe uo lnd uaeq e^Br{ p1norls sEuraq
ldnrroc fgerouo8 go ecBJ ? qcns ]Bql 'l(letu"u 'uolleerc JoJ Je^eosleg,ti,
uorlucgpsnf fue epprord o1 l(cpoeql u esn ol eIqB eq ot alqrssodurl
sueas ll (uorlrpuoc Jeileq
"
ul eq IIII Jelau pua uec Jelau ecuJ uurunq
eql leql ualrg) 'dpuulpuocuoc s,trort suorssertsuerl ro; lpnE puu
'os Europ q ecua$lsJad s11 qEnorql s,norE 'a1dlcupd leJoru eql qly(
eJuupJoccu ur 1qE1r Jo sBepr aqt dldde o1 fllecpeurEerd alqu sr qclqir
'uosueJ 'aJnllnc;o sserEord snonupuoc eql qlp pua ,lno serp Jaleu
usrrr ur eldlcuud I"Joru aql Jog 'ecueprlord sagllsnt slua^e plJor
Jo esJnoc eql'Jouuerrr sql uI 'suollerauat JoIBI 01 Equre,n E sB alJas
uec faql pue 'eAE NeloureJ 0q] olq uale 'es?ec lou Um euuE srql leql
os eArAJns s[u,np [m aJBJ JIarIl Jo q8noue :lqEu /tloJllue sr sellesuaql
forlsap faql se ruaql o] suaddotl JeAe]"q^ ueql'u4q spJe^rol pasodsrp
d1sse1,ne1 se lsnf sl oq^ Jaq]oue go slqErr eql selelol^ uosrad auo ueqd
'pes?q fgenpdred aq uec ecesd euop qcq,$ uo 'lqtp go tdecuoc
eql ol pedser fuap faql ueq,n lqcatunl Euor,n pe preuaE u1 op [oq1
qEnoqfle 'raqlouu auo 6u1e8e re,n feqt pnu{ pu" acualo1lr qEnorqt 'JI
l1qcaunlBuotm nq1ouD auo lBarl lou op 'eldoed eql puc aldoed oql ro
'aldoad aql puB JalnJ erll lerll l(Bs u?c lsrleJoru lucrlgod eql 'pBJ uI
'[t[erJ s.ernleu rrerunq o1 pedde ue
qll/( suolsserEsuerl rno U? sesnJxe 1l asnucaq snoJeqreaJl pue snopep
flsnoretuep aJoru eql sl qcrqa 'serrlasrno ur aldrcupd [^a eql Jo lreJop
eql Eulranbuoc pue 'Eulceg florunbs 'Eupcepp ur slsrsuoc ll 'JaqlBJ
:uo ua{Bl eg Nnru }Bql seclJrJces prre slr^e aql o1 dn Eurpuels [1e1n1osar
q qcnu os lou slslsuoc asuc luasard eqt ut se(,,o1! toquapnD o,uuoc
pas'sllou apac au r,t,, 'aldlcurrd eql ol Eulprocce) aEurnoc erul esoqa
'engur Jo euolspq^ eql se se^Jas 1r ro; lppoqs ll IIea sB ,uruurer
sfu,np 11ftr pruuoc sq1([s1xz.r6,] ecyperd [o ereqds] aql palluo eq lou
lsnur 'uoseal Jo srupurrr uo pesuq lou eJ? [aq1 asnucaq 'qcFlrt 'ueur go
suoll"urlJur Euqaes-g1as aql ul) dyanrlcelqns 1ng 'scr1lod pue l(lgerou
uae^rpq prguoc ou [1ra11n sr araql (froeql q ''e'l) flenrpatqg
'/rols sr os Eulop ur ssartord ;r
usla 'sseupooE;o aldlcurrd (prou) arll JoJ ,(e,n saleru snql ll pu" ,o^ll
-enJlsep-Jlas pue droprperluoo-Jlas are (suosrad pepurur-e{[ Jeqlo 01
uopular ur fgercadsa) srup sll lBrll sr IrAa leroru Jo cllslJolcererlc clsulrl
-q et1l 'uaur peq Ja^eJ aJB alaql JI lspa 01 essoc lou l(1ure1roc p,n
plro/r aql '/(Bur feql l"q^ eq secuenbasuoc pcrsfqd oql lal ,(uosear
arnd qEnorql yoltd a ualgE sr aldrcuud asoqt 'lqZno eql ruo{)
IqAIJ Jo ftnp eql;o ldacuoc arnd aql uroq olrrep $nru ecuererlpB
!IJY!Id 'IVNIgdUlId
08€
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