This paper represents a short narrative history of the Foot & Mouth Disease outbreak (FMD) in the UK, 2001. It seeks to demonstrate that there are obvious messages arising out of a review of the history of the outbreak. In particular this paper suggests that there are structural confusions inherent in the framework of disease control and response, whereby policies adopted to serve one outcome have precisely the opposite consequence.
The document discusses phylogeny and its role in modern taxonomy. It explains that phylogeny is the study of evolutionary relatedness between species through phylogenetic trees, which function similar to family trees. Phylogenetic trees show how species have evolved over time from common ancestors. Modern taxonomy uses phylogenetics and DNA barcoding to more accurately determine evolutionary relationships compared to traditional taxonomy which was based on physical characteristics.
This document is an assignment on the topic of crop evolution. It discusses speciation, which is the development of a new species. Speciation occurs when populations of the same species become reproductively isolated through changes in alleles that affect phenotype and prevent interbreeding. Reproductive isolation can happen through seasonal changes, mechanical changes in genitalia, or behavioral changes in courtship rituals. The document provides references on plant variation and evolution, the evolution of plant exploitation, and the origin and phylogeny of flowering plants.
This document discusses cell division and its importance. It covers:
- The importance of mitosis and meiosis in producing new cells and ensuring genetic material is passed down.
- The stages of mitosis and meiosis, including prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
- How meiosis results in genetic variation through independent assortment and crossing over, producing gametes like eggs and sperm.
- Applications like tissue culture and cloning. Consequences of uncontrolled mitosis like cancer are also addressed.
The document summarizes the whole-genome shotgun approach to genome sequencing. It describes the four main steps: 1) cutting DNA into overlapping fragments, 2) cloning fragments in vectors, 3) sequencing each fragment, and 4) using computer software to order sequences into an overall sequence. This approach skips mapping and directly sequences random fragments. It is now widely used and has increased sequencing speed and decreased costs.
This powerpoint gives a clear picture on inbreeding and also about outbreeding of higher organisms. This also explains the advantages and disadvantages of the above said topics. the methods of inbreeding and reasons for inbreeding also given in this powerpoint.
This document discusses factors involved in macroevolution, including adaptive radiation and orthogenesis. It provides examples of adaptive radiation in Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands, where 14 species evolved from a common ancestor to fill different ecological niches. Orthogenesis is the assumption that evolutionary changes occur in a straight line, such as the parallel reduction of side toes in unrelated artiodactyl genera. Allometry also plays a role, describing the relationship between organism and part size and how diversity arises from changes in relative part sizes within a common body plan.
This document discusses species and speciation. It covers four major evolutionary forces and reviews natural selection. It defines species concepts, including the morphological, biological, and phylogenetic species concepts. The biological species concept defines species as groups that can interbreed. The phylogenetic concept defines them as exclusive monophyletic groups. Speciation involves isolation, divergence, and secondary contact without gene flow. Isolating mechanisms like temporal, spatial, and behavioral barriers can lead to reproductive isolation and the emergence of new species over time through processes like adaptive radiation.
This document discusses speciation and the evolution of new species. It defines different types of speciation, including allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation. Reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, with both prezygotic barriers that prevent interbreeding and postzygotic barriers affecting the viability of hybrid offspring. Speciation occurs over long periods of time through either gradual evolution or punctuated equilibrium. The document also covers taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, extinction, and adaptive radiation.
The document discusses phylogeny and its role in modern taxonomy. It explains that phylogeny is the study of evolutionary relatedness between species through phylogenetic trees, which function similar to family trees. Phylogenetic trees show how species have evolved over time from common ancestors. Modern taxonomy uses phylogenetics and DNA barcoding to more accurately determine evolutionary relationships compared to traditional taxonomy which was based on physical characteristics.
This document is an assignment on the topic of crop evolution. It discusses speciation, which is the development of a new species. Speciation occurs when populations of the same species become reproductively isolated through changes in alleles that affect phenotype and prevent interbreeding. Reproductive isolation can happen through seasonal changes, mechanical changes in genitalia, or behavioral changes in courtship rituals. The document provides references on plant variation and evolution, the evolution of plant exploitation, and the origin and phylogeny of flowering plants.
This document discusses cell division and its importance. It covers:
- The importance of mitosis and meiosis in producing new cells and ensuring genetic material is passed down.
- The stages of mitosis and meiosis, including prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
- How meiosis results in genetic variation through independent assortment and crossing over, producing gametes like eggs and sperm.
- Applications like tissue culture and cloning. Consequences of uncontrolled mitosis like cancer are also addressed.
The document summarizes the whole-genome shotgun approach to genome sequencing. It describes the four main steps: 1) cutting DNA into overlapping fragments, 2) cloning fragments in vectors, 3) sequencing each fragment, and 4) using computer software to order sequences into an overall sequence. This approach skips mapping and directly sequences random fragments. It is now widely used and has increased sequencing speed and decreased costs.
This powerpoint gives a clear picture on inbreeding and also about outbreeding of higher organisms. This also explains the advantages and disadvantages of the above said topics. the methods of inbreeding and reasons for inbreeding also given in this powerpoint.
This document discusses factors involved in macroevolution, including adaptive radiation and orthogenesis. It provides examples of adaptive radiation in Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands, where 14 species evolved from a common ancestor to fill different ecological niches. Orthogenesis is the assumption that evolutionary changes occur in a straight line, such as the parallel reduction of side toes in unrelated artiodactyl genera. Allometry also plays a role, describing the relationship between organism and part size and how diversity arises from changes in relative part sizes within a common body plan.
This document discusses species and speciation. It covers four major evolutionary forces and reviews natural selection. It defines species concepts, including the morphological, biological, and phylogenetic species concepts. The biological species concept defines species as groups that can interbreed. The phylogenetic concept defines them as exclusive monophyletic groups. Speciation involves isolation, divergence, and secondary contact without gene flow. Isolating mechanisms like temporal, spatial, and behavioral barriers can lead to reproductive isolation and the emergence of new species over time through processes like adaptive radiation.
This document discusses speciation and the evolution of new species. It defines different types of speciation, including allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation. Reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, with both prezygotic barriers that prevent interbreeding and postzygotic barriers affecting the viability of hybrid offspring. Speciation occurs over long periods of time through either gradual evolution or punctuated equilibrium. The document also covers taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, extinction, and adaptive radiation.
Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random fluctuations. Over many generations, genetic drift usually results in the loss or fixation of an allele. The rate of genetic drift depends on population size, with smaller populations experiencing greater drift due to chance fluctuations. Genetic drift can lead to loss of genetic variation and influence how populations diverge genetically over time.
This document discusses modern evolutionary classification and how it differs from Linnaean classification. It explains how to make and interpret cladograms using shared derived characters to show evolutionary relationships between organisms. DNA sequences are also used in classification. Cladograms place organisms in clades based on shared ancestors and can be used to classify organisms differently than traditional taxonomic groups. Constructing cladograms involves identifying derived characters in organisms.
There are two types of chromosomes, Autosomes and Sex chromosomes
Autosomes are those chromosomes that are not involved in sex determination.
Sex chromosomes are those chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism.
A human somatic cell has two sex chromosomes: XY in male (hetero-gametic) and XX in female (homo-gametic).
Non Random Mating to change Genetic Equilibrium through Inbreeding in small...GauravRajSinhVaghela
This document discusses random mating and non-random mating in populations. It describes assortative mating where individuals mate with similar partners, and disassortative mating where individuals mate with dissimilar partners. The effects of these on genotype frequencies are explained. The concept of genetic equilibrium is introduced. Inbreeding is discussed for idealized, isolate, and real populations. Formulas are provided for the rate of inbreeding increment under different population structures. Effective population size is also covered as it relates to rates of inbreeding and genetic drift in small populations.
Incomplete dominance results in a blending of the dominant and recessive alleles such that the phenotype is intermediate between the two pure phenotypes. Codominance results in both alleles being fully expressed together in the heterozygote such that the phenotype shows a combination of both. Examples include snapdragons that are pink when heterozygous for red and white alleles under incomplete dominance, and human blood types that are type AB when heterozygous for the A and B alleles under codominance.
Gene cloning involves inserting DNA fragments from one source into plasmids or bacteria. This allows for the production of multiple copies of the gene. Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase are used to cut and paste DNA fragments into plasmids. The plasmids are then inserted into bacteria which replicate, producing many copies of the gene. Libraries of cloned DNA fragments can be stored in bacteria or plasmids. The library can be screened to identify clones containing genes of interest using probes complementary to the target gene. Expressed genes can be studied by producing their protein products in bacterial or eukaryotic cells.
This document summarizes regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. It discusses how bacteria regulate genes through the operon model, including repressible and inducible operons like the trp and lac operons. In eukaryotes, it describes various levels of gene expression regulation, from chromatin structure and histone/DNA modifications, to transcription factors and epigenetic inheritance. Gene expression can be regulated at the stages of transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and degradation.
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution responsible for random changes in a gene pool through chance changes in allele frequencies in populations over time. It tends to have a stronger effect in smaller populations and can reduce genetic variation through allele losses. There are two types of genetic drift: bottleneck effect, which occurs after disasters reduce population size, and founder effect, which happens when new colonies are formed through migration.
- The document summarizes DNA sequencing techniques and DNA cloning methods that are used in genetic engineering and biological research.
- It describes how DNA sequencing relies on the principle of complementary base pairing and how the first automated sequencing technique was chain termination sequencing developed by Sanger.
- It explains how DNA cloning involves inserting foreign DNA into plasmids, which are then inserted into bacterial cells to produce multiple copies of the gene of interest for research purposes. Restriction enzymes and ligases are used to combine DNA fragments.
Sex limited traits and sex-influenced traitsVerbIT
This document discusses and provides examples of sex-limited and sex-influenced traits. Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one sex, such as milk production only occurring in female mammals. Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more strongly in one sex, for example baldness patterns being more common in human males. The key difference between the two is that sex-limited traits are only expressed in one sex while sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes to varying degrees.
This was presented on Mar 31, 2015 at Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, NY at the 3rd BTI Bioinformatics Course http://btiplantbioinfocourse.wordpress.com/
The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
One major challenge is the time consumed by the interplay between the taxonomist and the publisher in preparing taxonomic data and going to print. Breaking this bottleneck requires seamless integration between compilation of the descriptive taxonomic data and the publication upon which the data are based
Natural selection can cause microevolution by increasing the frequency of alleles that improve fitness over generations. Fitness refers to an organism's reproductive success relative to others. Natural selection can act on traits determined by single genes or polygenic traits from multiple genes, which often form a bell curve distribution. The distribution may narrow under stabilizing selection, shift under directional selection, or develop peaks under disruptive selection.
Phylogenetic trees reconstruct evolutionary relationships by grouping taxa with shared derived characteristics inherited from recent common ancestors. This document discusses methods for building phylogenetic trees, including cladistics which uses shared derived homologies (synapomorphies) to determine relationships. It also examines evidence for the evolutionary relationships of whales. Molecular studies of transposable elements and additional fossil evidence support whales evolving from artiodactyl ancestors, rather than being the sister group to artiodactyls.
- Drosophila melanogaster was one of the first organisms studied genetically due to its small size, short life cycle, high reproduction rate, and many genetic variants.
- Crosses were set up between red-eyed and white-eyed Drosophila strains to study inheritance patterns. The F1 and F2 progeny were examined to determine phenotypes.
- Most crosses showed Mendelian inheritance ratios, but some showed deviations, suggesting asymmetric or sex-linked inheritance patterns. Further test crosses were conducted to understand the genetics.
Population Genetics & Hardy - Weinberg Principle.pdfSuraj Singh
This document discusses population genetics and the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium. It defines key terms like allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, and gene pools. It also describes how to calculate allele frequencies and genotype frequencies in a population. The document concludes by explaining that under certain conditions like a large panmictic population with random mating, the genetic structure will remain in equilibrium with allele and genotype frequencies remaining constant from generation to generation based on the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
Systematics is the study of the historical relationships between biological organisms and the understanding of biodiversity. It aims to trace phylogeny and classify taxa in an evolutionary context. Systematics encompasses fields like taxonomy, classification, nomenclature, biogeography, and phylogenetics. It determines the unique and shared properties of species and higher taxa, classifies life to make diversity accessible to other disciplines, and has contributed insights in areas like epidemiology, agriculture, and conservation through accurate identification and classification of organisms.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
Hello decorah "fall is coming swiftly"Val Heike
This document is a collection of journal entries and notes from various dates in 2016 discussing a variety of topics. It mentions a half-sister Diana who is accused of elder abuse and controlling their mother's living situation. It also discusses history lessons watched on PBS about electricity usage and the oil industry. Green Bay Packers games and a visit to a fire station are briefly noted.
Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random fluctuations. Over many generations, genetic drift usually results in the loss or fixation of an allele. The rate of genetic drift depends on population size, with smaller populations experiencing greater drift due to chance fluctuations. Genetic drift can lead to loss of genetic variation and influence how populations diverge genetically over time.
This document discusses modern evolutionary classification and how it differs from Linnaean classification. It explains how to make and interpret cladograms using shared derived characters to show evolutionary relationships between organisms. DNA sequences are also used in classification. Cladograms place organisms in clades based on shared ancestors and can be used to classify organisms differently than traditional taxonomic groups. Constructing cladograms involves identifying derived characters in organisms.
There are two types of chromosomes, Autosomes and Sex chromosomes
Autosomes are those chromosomes that are not involved in sex determination.
Sex chromosomes are those chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism.
A human somatic cell has two sex chromosomes: XY in male (hetero-gametic) and XX in female (homo-gametic).
Non Random Mating to change Genetic Equilibrium through Inbreeding in small...GauravRajSinhVaghela
This document discusses random mating and non-random mating in populations. It describes assortative mating where individuals mate with similar partners, and disassortative mating where individuals mate with dissimilar partners. The effects of these on genotype frequencies are explained. The concept of genetic equilibrium is introduced. Inbreeding is discussed for idealized, isolate, and real populations. Formulas are provided for the rate of inbreeding increment under different population structures. Effective population size is also covered as it relates to rates of inbreeding and genetic drift in small populations.
Incomplete dominance results in a blending of the dominant and recessive alleles such that the phenotype is intermediate between the two pure phenotypes. Codominance results in both alleles being fully expressed together in the heterozygote such that the phenotype shows a combination of both. Examples include snapdragons that are pink when heterozygous for red and white alleles under incomplete dominance, and human blood types that are type AB when heterozygous for the A and B alleles under codominance.
Gene cloning involves inserting DNA fragments from one source into plasmids or bacteria. This allows for the production of multiple copies of the gene. Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase are used to cut and paste DNA fragments into plasmids. The plasmids are then inserted into bacteria which replicate, producing many copies of the gene. Libraries of cloned DNA fragments can be stored in bacteria or plasmids. The library can be screened to identify clones containing genes of interest using probes complementary to the target gene. Expressed genes can be studied by producing their protein products in bacterial or eukaryotic cells.
This document summarizes regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. It discusses how bacteria regulate genes through the operon model, including repressible and inducible operons like the trp and lac operons. In eukaryotes, it describes various levels of gene expression regulation, from chromatin structure and histone/DNA modifications, to transcription factors and epigenetic inheritance. Gene expression can be regulated at the stages of transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and degradation.
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution responsible for random changes in a gene pool through chance changes in allele frequencies in populations over time. It tends to have a stronger effect in smaller populations and can reduce genetic variation through allele losses. There are two types of genetic drift: bottleneck effect, which occurs after disasters reduce population size, and founder effect, which happens when new colonies are formed through migration.
- The document summarizes DNA sequencing techniques and DNA cloning methods that are used in genetic engineering and biological research.
- It describes how DNA sequencing relies on the principle of complementary base pairing and how the first automated sequencing technique was chain termination sequencing developed by Sanger.
- It explains how DNA cloning involves inserting foreign DNA into plasmids, which are then inserted into bacterial cells to produce multiple copies of the gene of interest for research purposes. Restriction enzymes and ligases are used to combine DNA fragments.
Sex limited traits and sex-influenced traitsVerbIT
This document discusses and provides examples of sex-limited and sex-influenced traits. Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one sex, such as milk production only occurring in female mammals. Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more strongly in one sex, for example baldness patterns being more common in human males. The key difference between the two is that sex-limited traits are only expressed in one sex while sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes to varying degrees.
This was presented on Mar 31, 2015 at Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, NY at the 3rd BTI Bioinformatics Course http://btiplantbioinfocourse.wordpress.com/
The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
One major challenge is the time consumed by the interplay between the taxonomist and the publisher in preparing taxonomic data and going to print. Breaking this bottleneck requires seamless integration between compilation of the descriptive taxonomic data and the publication upon which the data are based
Natural selection can cause microevolution by increasing the frequency of alleles that improve fitness over generations. Fitness refers to an organism's reproductive success relative to others. Natural selection can act on traits determined by single genes or polygenic traits from multiple genes, which often form a bell curve distribution. The distribution may narrow under stabilizing selection, shift under directional selection, or develop peaks under disruptive selection.
Phylogenetic trees reconstruct evolutionary relationships by grouping taxa with shared derived characteristics inherited from recent common ancestors. This document discusses methods for building phylogenetic trees, including cladistics which uses shared derived homologies (synapomorphies) to determine relationships. It also examines evidence for the evolutionary relationships of whales. Molecular studies of transposable elements and additional fossil evidence support whales evolving from artiodactyl ancestors, rather than being the sister group to artiodactyls.
- Drosophila melanogaster was one of the first organisms studied genetically due to its small size, short life cycle, high reproduction rate, and many genetic variants.
- Crosses were set up between red-eyed and white-eyed Drosophila strains to study inheritance patterns. The F1 and F2 progeny were examined to determine phenotypes.
- Most crosses showed Mendelian inheritance ratios, but some showed deviations, suggesting asymmetric or sex-linked inheritance patterns. Further test crosses were conducted to understand the genetics.
Population Genetics & Hardy - Weinberg Principle.pdfSuraj Singh
This document discusses population genetics and the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium. It defines key terms like allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, and gene pools. It also describes how to calculate allele frequencies and genotype frequencies in a population. The document concludes by explaining that under certain conditions like a large panmictic population with random mating, the genetic structure will remain in equilibrium with allele and genotype frequencies remaining constant from generation to generation based on the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
Systematics is the study of the historical relationships between biological organisms and the understanding of biodiversity. It aims to trace phylogeny and classify taxa in an evolutionary context. Systematics encompasses fields like taxonomy, classification, nomenclature, biogeography, and phylogenetics. It determines the unique and shared properties of species and higher taxa, classifies life to make diversity accessible to other disciplines, and has contributed insights in areas like epidemiology, agriculture, and conservation through accurate identification and classification of organisms.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
Hello decorah "fall is coming swiftly"Val Heike
This document is a collection of journal entries and notes from various dates in 2016 discussing a variety of topics. It mentions a half-sister Diana who is accused of elder abuse and controlling their mother's living situation. It also discusses history lessons watched on PBS about electricity usage and the oil industry. Green Bay Packers games and a visit to a fire station are briefly noted.
The document summarizes strategies for encouraging responses in online surveys. It discusses the tailored design method proposed by Dillman and the leverage-saliency theory of Groves. Key response enhancing techniques include pre-notification, incentives, personalization, question order, survey length, and reminders. Combining multiple techniques can incrementally increase response rates by a few percentage points each. The effectiveness of techniques depends on respondent characteristics and survey context.
Time is Money: Customer Acquisition Researchparago
parago creates engaging solutions that inspire actions & impact results
As the most comprehensive single-source provider of incentives and engagement,
we deliver $2 billion in rewards to 50 million people worldwide each year using our
advanced technology. Our relentless focus on innovation drives better results,
making us the smart choice.
• consumer rebates & promotions
• employee rewards & recognition
• sales & channel management
• energy efficiency incentives
Este documento presenta la información de contacto del equipo de Registro y Control de la universidad Campoalto, incluyendo los nombres y correos electrónicos de los auxiliares e información de contacto de la directora. También resume las responsabilidades del equipo de Registro y Control como la gestión, actualización, certificación y auditoría de la información académica y financiera de los estudiantes. Finalmente, detalla algunos de los procesos que maneja como la asignación de usuarios y claves para sistemas, el registro de notas de los doc
Este documento presenta información sobre la gestión de la comunicación interna en las organizaciones. Explica que la comunicación interna debe ser proactiva y coherente con la comunicación externa. Además, describe diferentes perspectivas para explicar la comunicación interna como la perspectiva de recursos humanos o gestión del conocimiento. Finalmente, detalla formas de comunicación interna como la comunicación formal basada en la organización funcional y jerárquica de las empresas.
Este documento presenta el horario semanal de un estudiante de la Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca. El horario detalla las actividades diarias del estudiante, incluyendo tiempo para clases, comidas, descanso, estudio, ocio y tareas domésticas. El horario muestra una rutina equilibrada entre actividades académicas y personales durante la semana y los fines de semana.
Este documento proporciona una introducción a Twitter, describiéndolo como un servicio de microblogging que permite publicar mensajes cortos de 140 caracteres. Explica que Twitter se puede usar para compartir información breve sobre la vida diaria y seguir las actualizaciones de otros usuarios, y que también es útil para medios de comunicación para transmitir noticias e intercambiar opiniones sobre eventos en directo. Además, ofrece consejos sobre cómo crear una cuenta de Twitter y comenzar a publicar mensajes para ampliar la audiencia de un blog u otros contenidos.
Una deficiente formulación de expediente de contratación en las compras públicas hace más vulnerable al Estado a que se enfrente a una controversia que tendrá que resolverse mediante Arbitraje.
A União Europeia está preocupada com o aumento da desinformação online e propôs novas regras para combater as notícias falsas. As novas regras exigiriam que as plataformas de mídia social monitorassem melhor o conteúdo, aumentassem a transparência da publicidade política e fornecessem ferramentas para os usuários denunciarem conteúdo falso. A implementação das novas regras enfrenta críticas de que pode limitar a liberdade de expressão.
El Nuevo Marketing 2.0: ganar en la Nueva NormalidadNicola Origgi
En esta documento se da una breve pero exhaustiva descripción de la Nueva Normalidad, es decir el entorno de negocios en el cual las empresas compiten desde la crisis de 2008-2009.
El Marketing tiene que cambiar: el viejo marketing kotleriano por sí solo se ha revelado no adecuado para este nuevo entorno.
Las marcas deberán adaptarse a este nuevo entorno caracterizado por:
* la desaparición del Consumidor, sujeto pasivo, y el advento del Cliente, sujeto activo, exigente e informado;
* Los puntos de contacto infinitos y no controlables ya por la marca, gracias al surgimiento de la web 2.0 y del ZMOT
* La cada vez menor credibilidad de las marcas comparada con lo que sus clientes dicen en las redes
* Redes Sociales, penetración web 2.0, estadísticas digitales, lo móvil ya presente, etc.
Para enfrentarse a este nuevo entorno proponemos:
* Cultura Digital
* Mistica del Cliente
* Organización Flexible y resiliente
Tras la aprobación de la compra por parte de las autoridades internacionales, los ejecutivos de Oracle Corporation (NASDAQ:ORCL) anunciaban los
detalles sobre la estrategia de la compañía que resultará de su unión con Sun Microsystems
(NASDAQ: JAVA).
The document provides information about the Oak Park Career Center located in Oak Park, Michigan. It summarizes the center's services for job seekers, including workshops on resume writing and interview skills. It also describes the center's 55+ program which provides intensive career services and training resources for job seekers over 55, and some of the challenges facing older workers in today's job market such as age discrimination and myths. The document encourages job seekers to keep their skills updated and utilize free training resources and social media to expand their networks.
El documento contiene varios párrafos cortos sobre el amor y los sentimientos. Habla sobre lo que es el amor verdadero, la importancia de expresar los sentimientos a la persona amada a través de mensajes, y el deseo de estar con esa persona especial aunque a veces no sea posible.
El documento resume un viaje de 5 días a Sevilla en septiembre de 2008. Los viajeros se alojaron en un apartamento en el barrio de Triana y visitaron varios lugares emblemáticos de la ciudad como la catedral, la plaza de España y el parque de María Luisa, desplazándose a pie, en autobús turístico, coche de caballos y barco. También visitaron iglesias, asistieron a la plaza de toros y comieron en un restaurante típico de Triana. A pesar del mal tiempo,
Invitamos a los ciudadanos/as limonenses como a los turistas a ser parte de las festividades del cantón Limón Indanza.
LES ESPERAMOS CON LOS BRAZOS ABIERTOS
This document discusses using distributed hash tables (DHTs) for data sharing on mobile ad-hoc networks. It notes the increasing number of internet-enabled mobile devices and interest in ad-hoc networks that self-configure without infrastructure. The POSIT application currently uses random walk gossip to share data between devices in ad-hoc mode, but this is inefficient due to high power usage, inability to handle nodes leaving and rejoining, and potential for incomplete data transmission. The document proposes studying the use of DHTs, which could improve efficiency by reducing communication and intelligently routing data even when nodes disconnect and reconnect.
The document contains a list of URLs linking to the website http://www.frontware.com. There are over 200 URLs listed that are providing links to the frontware.com domain from other websites, directories and sources on the internet. The links cover a wide range of topics related to software, development, offerings and solutions.
The document summarizes the UK government's response to outbreaks of avian influenza and foot and mouth disease. It describes the timeline of events and reactions from various stakeholders. Key issues included a lack of internal communication within government agencies, reactive rather than strategic communication approaches, and failures to adequately address risks to human health. Lessons highlighted the need for coordinated response plans, transparent communication, and treating future crises with the seriousness of a "wartime" situation.
The document discusses livestock disease threats in the UK. It notes that increased global population and meat consumption will lead to growth in the livestock sector and increased risk of disease. Current UK policy focuses on both preventing diseases from entering the country and controlling outbreaks if they occur. Key prevention methods include surveillance, controlling diseases at their source, enforcing biosecurity measures on farms, improving animal traceability, and restricting imports and trade.
This document summarizes a cluster of 6 confirmed and 1 probable case of Legionnaires' disease caused by Legionella longbeachae reported in Scotland between August and September 2013. An investigation was launched involving local health boards, environmental health teams, and Health Protection Scotland. The majority of cases were keen gardeners who had exposure to growing media, soils, and water during their potential 2-week incubation period. An incident management team was formed to investigate the source and coordinate risk communication efforts. Environmental sampling of growing media used by cases was conducted to identify potential sources of exposure.
This document summarizes the findings of the Status and Trends of European Pollinators (STEP) Project, which studied the decline of pollinator populations in Europe. The STEP Project found that pollinator declines are being driven by a combination of habitat loss, climate change, diseases, invasive species, and pesticides. It advanced the understanding of trends affecting pollinators and suggested conservation measures. Key recommendations included developing a Red List of European Bees and tools to support pollinator monitoring, assessment and landscape management. The project highlighted the need for coordinated European policy and scientific evidence to safeguard pollinators into the future.
Livestock production, particularly beef, has significant negative environmental impacts:
1) It is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, with beef alone producing nearly double the emissions of all non-ferrous metals in Australia.
2) It consumes vast amounts of water, with beef requiring five times more water than rice to produce. The beef and dairy industries use nearly three times more water than all of Australia's towns and cities combined.
3) The sector produces around 40% more greenhouse gases than the entire global transport system and is a major source of water and land pollution worldwide.
Animal Health And Disease Monitoring In The AbattoirGina Rizzo
Ed G.M. van Klink, Pia Gjertsen Prestmo, and Andrew Grist discuss how abattoirs can be used to monitor animal health and disease. They note that all slaughter animals are inspected for diseases that could impact public health, animal health, or welfare. Abattoirs provide a cost-effective way to monitor for notifiable diseases, zoonotic diseases, and issues affecting animal husbandry through inspection and sampling. Specifically, abattoirs are important for surveillance programs demonstrating freedom from diseases like bovine tuberculosis, classical swine fever, and Aujeszky's disease. However, the authors argue that abattoir data is currently underutilized and could provide more
The document outlines the major developments and government responses in the UK public sector from early February to late March in response to the coronavirus pandemic. It shows the rapid coordination and transformative decision making required by the government response, including the biggest ever package of state support for business, NHS England taking on expanded powers, suspension of rail franchise agreements, and police enforcing a strict lockdown.
Consequences of E. coli 0157 Outbreaks to the UK with Bill MarlerBill Marler
Marler Clark Managing Partner Bill Marler's presentation on the consequences of foodborne illness outbreaks and the need for foreign countries to make food safety a priority
Overview of recent outbreaks of H5N8-High Pathogen Avian Influenza in Europe...Harm Kiezebrink
Updated outbreak assessment on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Europe, America and the Middle East. By the DEFRA, Veterinary & Science Policy Advice Team - International Disease Monitoring.
‘When Food Kills’: A socio-technical systems analysis of the UK Pennington 19...Rounaq Nayak
In 1996 and 2005, two of the largest E. coli O157 outbreaks occurred in the UK. Many people were infected after consuming meat resulting in a number of deaths. In the present study we applied a systems approach to both the outbreak reports to analyse and compare the accidents. Using the Accimap method of systems analysis, this study investigates the human errors and organisational issues involved in the outbreaks and why accidents such as these occur in the food production domain. The systems analysis carried out in this study on the two outbreaks indicates that there are both common as well as unique factors associated with the two outbreaks. The study concludes that it is necessary to address food safety from a systemic point of view and identify and solve the various problems that could arise in the system, in the pre-incubation period before the outbreak actually occurs.
1. The UK Chief Government Scientist warns that the world faces a "perfect storm" of issues around food, water, and energy by 2030 due to population growth, urbanization, and increased prosperity increasing demand for food by 40% while climate change reduces supply.
2. He argues that all means of improving food production, including genetically modified crops, must be pursued to avoid food shortages, conflicts, and mass migrations caused by these issues.
3. Food prices rose sharply in 2008 and 2010, signaling that the era of declining prices is over, and almost 1 billion people now face starvation, demonstrating the urgency of addressing these challenges.
Food Import Control in relation to Aflatoxins in Dublin Port Heather O Hanlon
Climate change is increasing the risk of aflatoxin contamination in foods like cereals, nuts and spices globally. Aflatoxins are toxic fungal metabolites produced by Aspergillus molds that can cause liver cancer and other health issues. Food import controls are important to reduce human exposure. In Ireland, the Health Service Executive samples food imports and finds some spices and nuts exceeding aflatoxin limits. More monitoring may be needed to protect public health as climate change further increases contamination risks over time.
Diabetes and Covid-19 Pandemic - A T1 Patient Perspective - Derek C Beattykomalicarol
A patient treated and cared for by NHS Scotland and NHS England
the author has in his 44 years T1D Diabetes journey experienced
surgery provided by the NHS by way of Vitrectomy, Ophthalmic
laser and correction, and Orthopedic knee correction following
a balance issue associated with IV antibiotic treatment for Otitis
Externa and Osteomyelitis associated with long term T1 Diabetes
with neuropathy. Interestingly IV antibiotic treatment led to glycemic issues offering explanation as to why on occasion glycaemia
abnormalities can occur with antibiotic treatment for infection.
Richard Young - True Cost Accounting in Food and Agricultural PolicySustainable Food Trust
This document discusses the negative external costs associated with nitrogen fertilizer use, antibiotic resistance, and pollinator loss in the UK food system. It provides estimates of the costs for each issue area: £2.9-15 billion/year for nitrogen fertilizer due to environmental and health impacts; £300 million to £1.1 billion/year for antibiotic resistance resulting from farm antibiotic use; and £3.6-5 billion/year if pollinators were lost due to their role in food production. It argues that policies need to incorporate these "true costs" through mechanisms like an EU-wide nitrogen tax. The Sustainable Food Trust's role is to explain these issues to consumers and promote more sustainable farming practices.
Sensor networks have the potential to play an important role in the food industry by helping to prevent contamination issues and ensuring food safety. The document discusses how sensor networks could be used to monitor key variables like temperature, pathogens, and chemicals throughout the food supply chain, from farming and processing to storage and distribution. This could help address many past food safety issues and help the industry comply with increasing regulations. The wine industry and maintaining the chill chain for frozen foods are provided as examples of how sensor networks are already being applied within the food industry.
A short presentation I completed to present to my lecturers and classmates as part of an introduction to my land management degree course which I started in September 2012. I drawn from all my research and decided that I am for the imposing Badger Cull, due to start in 2013.
This document discusses how the wealth of the richest people in Britain increased substantially over the past year, while many ordinary households still struggle with low wages, debt, and poverty. It provides comparisons of what the increased wealth of just the top 100 richest individuals could pay for, such as funding millions of living wage jobs, eliminating fuel poverty for many households, or paying rent for millions of renters. The aim is to highlight growing inequality and suggest alternative uses of wealth that could benefit more people.
1) A new SARS-CoV-2 variant called Omicron (B.1.1.529) was detected in late November and designated a variant of concern.
2) As of December 6th, 333 total cases of Omicron had been detected in England, with 295 in the most recent two weeks, primarily in London and the southeast.
3) Preliminary data shows rapid recent growth in S gene target failure patterns associated with Omicron, from under 150 cases as of November 23rd to 705 by December 6th.
Modelling the Impact of Regional Modelling the Impact of Regional Modelling t...EuFMD
The European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (EuFMD), one of FAO’s oldest Commissions, came into being on the 12th June 1954, with the pledge of the sixth founding member state to the principles of a coordinated and common action against Foot-and-mouth Disease.
Similar to Outbreak FMD in the UK (2001) lessons not learned (20)
Low Atmospheric Pressure Stunning is not a humane alternative to Carbon Dioxi...Harm Kiezebrink
I would like express gratitude to the HSA for their 20 years of tireless advocacy for improving pigs' welfare. Their efforts have empowered those seeking alternatives to carbon dioxide stunning. Over nearly 30 years, I've worked on animal welfare friendly stunning applications, particularly regarding stunning/slaughtering using nitrogen foam, and I believe I've found the definitive answer.
The industry originally adopted large-scale carbon dioxide stunning to optimize food production, reduce costs, and lower meat prices, which is only feasible with parallel processing (simultaneously stunning groups of pigs) rather than serial processing (stunning each pig individually). Electrocution is not viable for large-scale operations due to this need for parallel processing. Therefore, a replacement gas that lacks carbon dioxide's detrimental properties is needed, but only a few gases are suitable.
Additionally, the application of an alternative gas must adhere to several fundamental principles:
a) Applicability of the methods for stunning and killing pigs, including their scalability for large-scale application.
b) Description of the technical.
c) Animal welfare consequences associated with specific techniques, including welfare hazards (ABMs), animal-based indicators (ABIs), preventive and corrective measures, and the sufficiency of scientific literature in describing these consequences.
d) Applicability under field conditions.
Introducing a novel application for large-scale pig slaughter is complex and time-consuming before it can be expected, especially given the substantial economic and financial impact for the industry. However, there is hope on the horizon.
The alternative gas is nitrogen, and the application is based on using high-expansion foam filled with 100% nitrogen, applied in a closed container. Within a minute, all air is displaced by the foam, after which the container is sealed, and the foam is broken down with a powerful nitrogen pulse. This ensures that the foam does not affect the stunning process; the entire process can be visually and electronically monitored, and the residual oxygen level in the container is consistently below 2%. The container dimensions are identical to the gondolas used in the globally implemented carbon dioxide gondola system.
The integration of nitrogen foam technology into European regulation EU1099/2009 is nearing completion. All scientific and technical procedures have been submitted to the EU Commission, with finalization awaiting the presentation of EFSA's scientific opinion to the Commission and subsequent approval for inclusion. This final phase is anticipated to occur during the general meeting slated for June 2024.
This marks the first step toward replacing carbon dioxide in 25 years. Fingers crossed for the EU Commission's decision in June 2024!
Harm Kiezebrink
Independent Expert
Preventief ruimen bij vogelgriep in pluimveedichte gebieden en mogelijkheden ...Harm Kiezebrink
New Risk assessment model
The applications designed for farrow-to-weaner pig farms rely on a novel risk assessment model. This model, developed from a recent study, indicates that the likelihood of an undetected infection on nearby farms notably diminishes 7 to 14 days following the identification of the source farm.
This risk assessment model is based a Dutch study that is published by T.J. Hagenaars et al on June 30, 2023: “Preventief ruimen bij vogelgriep in pluimveedichte gebieden en mogelijkheden voor aanvullende bemonstering” (Preventive culling in areas densely populated with poultry, and possibilities for additional sampling).
According to this premise, instead of the standard depopulation approach of euthanizing pigs on-site, pigs beyond the immediate vicinity of infected farms are slaughtered.
Animal Health Canada is currently evaluating new strategies and technologies for managing large-scale emergency situations involving pigs. I have been actively involved in developing strategies and procedures aimed at implementing strict control measures for pig euthanasia during emergencies, with a focus on substantially reducing costs by avoiding unnecessary culling and destruction of healthy animals.
Opting for slaughtering over on-farm euthanasia not only reduces the operational burden on farms but also repurposes the pigs as a valuable protein source rather than considering them as animal waste. This approach assists in crisis management during widespread outbreaks, significantly reduces expenses, and simultaneously mitigates risks.
While this approach is influenced by the new EU regulations implemented since May 2022, it can be adapted for implementation within the context of any EU Member state, as well as in the USA and Canada.
Managing large-scale outbreaks at Farrow-to-Weaner FarmsHarm Kiezebrink
In the face of large-scale outbreaks of swine Influenza A Virus (swIAV), there's a call for exploring various strategies conducive to managing emergencies in field conditions.
Through subdivision, a customized approach can be embraced to enhance operational efficiency and effectiveness while mitigating the impact on individual farms. This tactic maximizes emergency deployment capacity and streamlines standard procedures. Moreover, leveraging the existing capacity of farming aids in alleviating scrutiny on animal welfare standards, presenting a notable advantage.
Nitrogen filled high expansion foam in open ContainersHarm Kiezebrink
On March 31, 2023 the US National Pork Board validated a study by Todd Williams, of Pipestone Veterinary Services, based on the use of high expansion nitrogen foam for the large-scale depopulation of all classes of swine, utilizing Livetec Systems Nitrogen Foam Delivery System (NFDS).
The high expansion foam produced by the Livetec Systems NFDS surrounds the animal in large bubbles filled with nitrogen with a base expansion ration of between 300 and 350 to 1, as mentioned on the information provided by the producer of the firefighting foam.
The Livetec technology, based on using Compressed Air Foam (CAF) filled with nitrogen instead of air for depopulating pigs, emerges within a critical landscape. The complexities of implementing effective emergency depopulation strategies for livestock, particularly swine, present multifaceted challenges. Livetec's approach relies on high expansion firefighting foam, aiming to euthanize pigs by submerging them in foam.
The Livetec system's claims about the effectiveness of nitrogen-filled high expansion foam for depopulating market pigs lack substantial evidence upon analysis. The discrepancy between the actual foam produced during field trials and the promised high expansion foam, coupled with the absence of concrete proof supporting the method's efficacy, discredits the technology's claims.
World bank evaluating the economic consequences of avian influenzaHarm Kiezebrink
Pandemics cause very serious loss of life, restrictions of freedom and serious economic damage. Potential pandemics all are related to our dealing with animals, both wild and domesticated.
In this Word Bank study of 2006, the effects of a severe HPAI pandemic (with a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus crossing the species barrier and infecting humans) predicted economic losses from 2-10% of the world economy.
The economic impact of the present COVID-19 crisis, caused by the SARS-CoV2 virus spreading from wild animals to humans, probably will reach the upper limits of this prediction even if the losses of life might be near the lower limits mentioned in the report (1,4 millions rather than 71 millions).
A common observation is that governments were late to react on the COVID-19 outbreak.
Pandemics are rare, so due to cost-benefit considerations emergency preparations do usually not get beyond an advisory (paperwork) phase. When an emergency eventually arises, the response is too late, too little, and with disastrous effects on animal and/or human welfare that could have been avoided. Relatively small, short-term financial savings result in big, long-term losses.
Protection against outbreaks cannot be achieved by political decisions during a crisis. Our dealing with animals, especially in animal production, must be inherently safe so that animal health and public health are protected.
This is recognized in the One Health strategy that has been adopted internationally.
An outbreak of animal disease occurs should be contained at a very early stage. This can only be realized if all farms have their own emergency plans, with equipment to deal with contagious diseases already present at the farm.
Gas alternatives to carbon dioxide for euthanasia a piglet perspectiveHarm Kiezebrink
The use of nitrous oxide as an anesthetic/euthanasia agent may prove to be affordable, feasible and more humane than other alternatives.
The neonatal stage is a critical time in the life of a pig, when they are prone to become sick or weak. This is the stage at which most euthanasia procedures are required if the pig is judged unable to recover. Any euthanasia method should be humane, practical, economical and socially acceptable to be universally accepted.
They found that nitrous oxide in oxygen appeared to be less aversive than nitrous oxide, nitrogen, or argon all combined with low (30%) concentrations of carbon dioxide or 90% carbon dioxide by itself.
This study is the first to investigate the use of nitrous oxide at sufficiently high concentrations to cause anesthesia. Nitrous oxide, commonly referred to as laughing gas, has been widely used in human surgery and dental offices for its pain-relieving, sedative and anxiolytic effects. It is cheap, non-flammable, non-explosive, legally accessible and not classified as a drug in the U.S., and already commonly used in the food industry as a propellant for food products.
Development of its use into an automated procedure will allow producers to implement it with little effort. Thus its use as an anesthetic/euthanasia agent may prove to be affordable, feasible and more humane than other alternatives.
Anoxia: High expansion foam
The Anoxia method is unique for creating an environment without oxygen under atmospheric circumstances. High expansion foam is produced by mixing nitrogen and a mixture of water and specially developed high expansion detergent, with an expansion rate upto 1:1000, meaning that 1 litre of water/foam agent mix expands up to 1 m3 foam. Due to the specially designed foam generator, the high expansion foam bubbles are filled with a > 99% concentration of nitrogen. The oxygen level surrounding the animal drops from 21% in atmospheric air to < 1 % once the animal is submerged in the foam.
Anoxia: convulsions, but no stress or pain
The animals need a constant supply of oxygen to the brain. Applying Anoxia foam, the oxygen is replaced by nitrogen. As a result the nitrogen level is raised to > 99% and the oxygen level is lowered to < 1%. Considering the natural reaction to sudden lack of oxygen the animal is rendering quickly into unconsciousness. As a consequence, behavioral indicators like loss of posture and convulsions will appear. With this in mind, unconscious animals are insensitive to perceive unpleasant sensations like pain.
Anoxia: How Anoxia foam is created
A mixture of 97% water and 3% high expansion foam agent is sprayed into the Anoxia foam generator, creating a thin film on the outlet of the generator. At the same time, nitrogen is added with overpressure into the foam generator. The nitrogen expands when it exits the generator, creating robust high expansion foam. The high expansion foam bubbles are filled with > 99% nitrogen.
Anoxia: Single foam generator systems
In practice, one Anoxia foam generator creates a volume of up to 750 liter of high expansion foam per minute. This volume is more than sufficient to fill a wheelie-bin container within 30 seconds. The most common container volumes are: M size - 240 liter; L size - 340 liter; and XL size - 370 liter. The choice of the volume of the container depends of the size of the animal and/or the number of animals that need to be stunned/killed. A lid with a chiffon that seals the container. As soon as the foam exits the chiffon, the gas supply is stopped and the chiffon is closed. The nitrogen gas concentration in the container remains at 99%.
Although commonly used in other settings, defining animal welfare as part of a corporate CSR setting is not new.
There are many ways to define CSR. What they have in common is that CSR describes how companies manage their business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society. The phenomenon CSR is a value concept that is susceptible to particular ideological and emotional interpretations. Different organizations have framed different definitions - although there is considerable common ground between them.
Some important national players of the food chain at different steps (mainly food retailers and food services) have included animal welfare in their CSR.
The Anoxia technique is developed as alternative for existing animal stunning methods that are based on the use of CO2, electrocution, neck dislocation, captive-bolt, as well as killing methods like de-bleeding and maceration.
In the past 10 years, Wageningen University and University of Glasgow conducted several studies that proved that the technique could be applied successfully for culling poultry (Proof of Principle Anoxia Technique). This was the start of the development of several applications based on the Anoxia principle, using high expansion foam filled with >99% Nitrogen that are now introduced for:
1. Stunning and killing of sick and cripple killing piglets less than 5 kg
2. Stunning and killing of sick or cripple poultry (especially poultry > 3kg) who need to be killed on the farm by the staff for welfare purposes (avoiding unnecessary stress or pain)
3. Stunning and killing poultry that arrives on the slaughterhouse but that are unfit to be slaughtered (due to injuries occurred during transportation – providing signs of possible illness etc.)
4. Stunning and killing of male pullets at the hatchery
5. Stunning and killing of half-hatched chickens and embryos in partly-hatched eggs, before destruction
6. Stunning and killing parent stock poultry
7. Killing of animals that has been stunned (captive bolt – blow-on-the-head method, etc.) replacing killing by de-bleeding
8. Culling of ex-layers
9. Culling of poultry for disease control purposes
Last November we started the launch of the commercialization of the Anoxia applications in Holland, Germany and Sweden, focusing on the areas where a solution is most needed: piglets (< 5kg) and poultry (> 3kg) on farms.
Since November 2016, the introduction of these applications took place in Holland, Germany, Sweden and Denmark
World Health Organization director- general Margaret Chan Fung Fu-chun warns bird flu H7N9 is particularly worrying as it could be a flu pandemic strain. This is because H7N9 is unique as it does not make chickens sick but is deadly in humans. Sick birds could usually provide early warning for imminent outbreaks, Chan told The Standard. This comes as Macau reported its first human case of H7N9 yesterday. "The biggest challenge for the world is the next influenza pandemic," Chan said.
Laves presentation practical experiences in the culling of poultry in germanyHarm Kiezebrink
This presentation, based on the practical experiences in culling poultry in Germany, gives an overview of the culling techniques currently in use in Germany. It is presented by dr. Ursula Gerdes, dr. Josef Diekmann and ing. Rainer Thomes.
LAVES is the Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety, located in Oldenburg, Germany. With around 900 employees they are entrusted with tasks in the areas of food and utensil inspection, feed inspection, meat hygiene, veterinary drug monitoring, eradication of animal diseases, disposal of animal by-products, animal welfare, ecological farming, market surveillance and technical process monitoring.
Berg et al. 2014 killing of spent laying hens using co2 in poultry barnsHarm Kiezebrink
September 2015: In Sweden, spent laying hens are killed either by traditional slaughter; on-farm with CO2 in a mobile container combined with a grinder; or with CO2 stable gassing inside the barn. The number of hens killed using the latter method has increased. During these killings a veterinarian is required to be present and report to the Swedish Board of Agriculture.
Data were registered during four commercial killings and extracted from all official veterinary reports at CO2 whole-house killings in 2008–2010. On-farm monitoring showed that temperature decreased greatly and with high variability. The time until birds became unconscious after coming into contact with the gas, based on time until loss of balance, was 3–5 min.
Veterinary reports show that 1.5 million laying hens were killed, in 150 separate instances. The most common non-compliance with legislation was failure to notify the regional animal welfare authorities prior to the killings. Six out of 150 killings were defined as animal welfare failures, eg delivery of insufficient CO2 or failure to seal buildings to achieve adequate gas concentration.
Eleven were either potentially or completely unacceptable from the perspective of animal welfare. We conclude that, on the whole, the CO2 whole-house gas killing of spent hens was carried out in accordance with the appropriate legislation. Death was achieved reliably.
However, there remain several risks to animal welfare and increased knowledge would appear vital in order to limit mistakes related to miscalculations of house volume, improper sealing or premature ventilation turn-off.
The latest outbreak of High Pathogen Avian Influenza in the USA and Canada in the spring of this year and the inability to avoid animal welfare catastrophes ultimately proves that new emergency response strategies are needed. Strategies that are based on taking away the source of infection instead of killing as many animals as possible within 24 hours, regardless the consequences.
The statement that “It’s possible that human infections with these viruses may occur” and that “these viruses have not spread easily to other people” is confusing. Humans can become infected without showing clinical signs. They can become the major carrier of the infection.
Especially during depopulation activities, viruses easily transmit through responders. Tasks like taking layers out of their cages and transport the birds manually through the narrow walkways between the cages, and disposal of infected animals are specific risks that need to be avoided. Simply switching of the electricity so that sick birds don’t have to be handled is not the solution.
Although humans are supposed to be less susceptible, they can become carrier of the virus. Only the highest level of biosecurity could prevent the transmission through the humans and materials that have been in direct contact with infected animals and materials.
Simply switching of the electricity so that sick birds don’t have to be handled is not the solution. Avoid killing animals is always the better option and in Germany, the discussion on the strategy based on neutralizing risks and is in the making. Avoiding situations demands a proactive role of the poultry industry.
Ventilation Shutdown: who takes the responsibility to flip the switch?Harm Kiezebrink
On September 18, 2015 the USA Government and the American egg producers announced that they would accept the Ventilation shutdown method as a method of mass destruction of poultry when other options, notably water-based foam and CO2, are not available for culling at the farm within 24-36 hours. This is actually the case on all caged layer farms in the USA, in particular in Iowa.
The Ventilation shutdown method consists of stopping ventilation, cutting off drinking water supply, and turning on heaters to raise the temperature in the poultry house to a level between 38 Celsius and 50 Celsius. Birds die of heat stress and by lack of oxygen in a process that easily takes over after a period of at least 3 days. Ventilation shutdown is a killing method without prior stunning of the birds, and as such is contrary to all international Animal Welfare standards.
Animal welfare specialists in disease control strongly oppose this introduction of the cruelest method of killing poultry that lost their economic value. The Humane Society (HSUS) described it as the “inhumane mass baking of live chickens”. With adequate preparation the alternative methods, like the water-based Anoxia foam method, can be available at each farm for immediate use in case of an outbreak. The ban of the Ventilation shutdown method should therefore be maintained and the Anoxia method should be further developed so that is suitable for application to caged layers and turkeys. In Germany, such a system is currently under development and will become commercially available soon.
The poultry industry in the USA ignores this development and asks for a formal approval of the Ventilation Shutdown method. Speaking on August 19, 2015, during the United Egg Producers (UEP) national briefing webinar, UEP President Chad Gregory explained that much research is being done concerning the feasibility of such a depopulation program.
“The government, the producers, the states and UEP, we all recognize that depopulation is going to have to happen faster and ideally within 24 hours.”
Quick depopulation of affected flocks is important, Gregory said, because the sooner a flock is depopulated, the risk of the virus going into fans and out into the atmosphere becomes smaller. Gregory said ventilation shutdown – if approved – would probably only be used in a worst-case scenario or when all other euthanasia options have been exhausted. Gregory did not elaborate on how to adequately prevent outbreaks and how to promote more animal-friendly methods.
In order to become one step ahead of an outbreak of high pathogen diseases like the current H5N2, the veterinary authorities need to stop the outbreak immediately after the first signals occur. Strict and thorough biosecurity measures are the most fundamental feature to protect poultry flocks on farms.
Without functional culling techniques, the options to effectively and efficiently cull in average more than 925,000 chickens per farm (in Iowa, USA) are limited: either by macerating the chickens alive – or by ventilation shut-down (closing down all ventilation, placing heaters inside the house, and heat the entire house to a temperature higher than 600 C).
Although both methods cause death of the birds, it has not been proven to be effective nor efficient. The primary goal to slowdown outbreaks and bring it to a complete stop but macerating live birds and killing them by heat stress and lack of oxygen would be against all International Animal Welfare standards.
Animal welfare specialists in disease control strongly oppose against the introduction of these most cruel methods of killing poultry and argue that the ban on these methods should be maintained and alternative methods need to be considered.
FLI Seminar on different response strategies: Stamping out or NeutralizationHarm Kiezebrink
During this spring, American poultry producers are losing birds by the millions, due to the High Pathogenic Avian Influenza outbreaks on factory farms. USDA APHIS applied the stamping out strategy in an attempt to prevent the flu from spreading.
With stamping out as the highest priority of the response strategy, large numbers of responders are involved. With in average almost 1 million caged layers per farm in Iowa, there is hardly any room for a proper bio security training for these responders. And existing culling techniques had insufficient capacity, the authorities had to decide to apply drastic techniques like macerating live birds in order to take away the source of virus reproduction.
This strategy didn't work; on the contrary. Instead of slowing down the spreading of the virus, the outbreaks continue to reoccur and have caused death and destruction in 15 USA states, killing almost 50 million birds on mote than 220infected commercial poultry farms, all within a very small time frame.
The question is whether the priority of the response strategy should be on neutralizing the transmission routes instead of on stamping out infections after they occur. All indicators currently point out into the direction that the industry should prioritize on environmental drivers: the connection between outbreaks and wild ducks; wind-mediated transmission; pre-contact probability; on-farm bio security; transmission via rodents etc.
Once the contribution of each transmission route has been determined, a revolutionary new response strategy can be developed based on the principle of neutralizing transmission routes. Neutralizing risks means that fully new techniques need to be developed, based on culling the animals without human – to – animal contact; integrating detergent application into the culling operations; combining culling & disposal into one activity.
This new response strategy will be the main subject of the FLI Animal Welfare and Disease Control Seminar, organized at September 23, 2015 in Celle, Germany
Dossier transmission: Transmission of Avian Influenza Virus to DogsHarm Kiezebrink
This document reports on the transmission of an avian influenza virus (H3N2) to dogs in South Korea. Several dogs exhibited severe respiratory disease and three genetically similar canine influenza virus strains were isolated. Experimental infection of beagles demonstrated that the virus could be transmitted between dogs and cause clinical signs like fever and lung lesions. The canine respiratory tract was found to contain receptors for binding avian influenza viruses, suggesting potential for direct transmission from poultry. This provides evidence that dogs may play a role in interspecies transmission of influenza viruses.
Spatio temporal dynamics of global H5N1 outbreaks match bird migration patternsHarm Kiezebrink
This document analyzes the spatiotemporal patterns of H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks globally between 2003 and 2006. It identifies three phases of the H5N1 epidemic and uses space-time cluster analysis to detect six disease cluster patterns along major bird migration flyways. The matching of outbreak clusters with wild bird migration patterns suggests wild birds may play an important role in long-distance spread of H5N1. Short-distance spread is also potentially linked to wild birds spreading the virus at sites where they overwinter or migrate through.
Spatial, temporal and genetic dynamics of H5N1 in chinaHarm Kiezebrink
The spatial spread of H5N1 avian influenza, significant ongoing mutations, and long-term persistence of the virus in some geographic regions has had an enormous impact on the poultry industry and presents a serious threat to human health.
This study revealed two different transmission modes of H5N1 viruses in China, and indicated a significant role of poultry in virus dissemination. Furthermore, selective pressure posed by vaccination was found in virus evolution in the country.
Phylogenetic analysis, geospatial techniques, and time series models were applied to investigate the spatiotemporal pattern of H5N1 outbreaks in China and the effect of vaccination on virus evolution.
Results showed obvious spatial and temporal clusters of H5N1 outbreaks on different scales, which may have been associated with poultry and wild-bird transmission modes of H5N1 viruses. Lead–lag relationships were found among poultry and wild-bird outbreaks and human cases. Human cases were preceded by poultry outbreaks, and wild-bird outbreaks were led by human cases.
Each clade has gained its own unique spatiotemporal and genetic dominance. Genetic diversity of the H5N1 virus decreased significantly between 1996 and 2011; presumably under strong selective pressure of vaccination. Mean evolutionary rates of H5N1 virus increased after vaccination was adopted in China.
Different environmental drivers of H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and wild birdsHarm Kiezebrink
Different environmental drivers operate on HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and wild birds in Europe. The probability of HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry increases in areas with a higher human population density and a shorter distance to lakes or wetlands.
This reflects areas where the location of farms or trade areas and habitats for wild birds overlap. In wild birds, HPAI H5N1 outbreaks mostly occurred in areas with increased NDVI and lower elevations, which are typically areas where food and shelter for wild birds are available. The association with migratory flyways has also been found in the intra-continental spread of the low pathogenic avian influenza virus in North American wild birds. These different environmental drivers suggest that different spread mechanisms operate.
Disease might spread to poultry via both poultry and wild birds, through direct (via other birds) or indirect (e.g. via contaminated environment) infection. Outbreaks in wild birds are mainly caused by transmission via wild birds alone, through sharing foraging areas or shelters. These findings are in contrast with a previous study, which did not find environmental differences between disease outbreaks in poultry and wild birds in Europe.
Different environmental drivers of H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and wild birds
Outbreak FMD in the UK (2001) lessons not learned
1. 1
THE FOOT AND MOUTH OUTBREAK 2001: LESSONS NOT YET
LEARNED- Professor David Campbell, Professor Bob Lee
Introduction
The foot and mouth outbreak of 2001 generated costs totalling no less than £9 billion,
and with at least £3 billion in direct cost to the public sector.1
Amongst these direct
costs were significant sums of compensation to farmers. The largest single payment
was some £4.2 million, but 59 farmers in total received more than £1 million and 323
farmers more than £500,000.2
These figures represent compensation paid for losses
incurred, but the private sector, particularly in tourism and supporting industries, but
also in the food chain, suffered revenue losses of about £5 billion, much of which
went uncompensated. Hundreds of businesses failed, and alongside this misery the
outbreak produced unspeakable cruelty to animals.
This paper represents a short narrative history of the outbreak, made necessary if for
no other reason than the government still resists calls for a public inquiry, and the
three inquiries to date provide only a fragmented picture. It seeks to demonstrate that
there are obvious messages arising out of a review of the history of the outbreak, and
argues that the Government has to date shown few signs of heeding any of these. In
particular this paper suggests that there are structural confusions inherent in the
framework of disease control and response, whereby policies adopted to serve one
outcome have precisely the opposite consequence. The primary example of this is
that, in order to pursue a policy of stamping out the disease, the Animal Health Act
1981 provides for such levels of compensation to farmers that all risks of disease are
1
There are different estimates of the precise costs of the foot and mouth outbreak. The figure used by
Defra is £9bn, see DEFRA and DCMS The Economic Cost of Foot and Mouth in the UK: A Joint
Working Paper (DEFRA, London, March 2002). The National audit office suggest a somewhat lower
figure, though one which exceeds £8bn (see HM Comptroller and Auditor General, The 2001 Outbreak
of Foot and Mouth (Stationery Office, London, June 2002)(hereafter “NAO Report”). Part of the
explanation for this lower figure is that although there were considerable losses to tourism, the NAO
report allows that money was expended elsewhere in the economy, reducing the net economic loss. In
an astonishing piece of forecasting the Centre for Economics and Business Research predicted in early
March 2001 that the overall cost would amount ot £9bn – ‘Bill for farms crisis hits £9bn’ Sunday
Times 18 March 2001, cited in Barclay, C ‘Foot and Mouth Disease’ Research Paper 01/35 (House of
Commons Library, London, March 2001).
2. 2
externalised leaving little incentive for on-going precaution. Similarly, payments set
at generous levels to encourage the declaration of the disease to allow its stamping out
reached such a level that it positively encouraged deliberate infection of animals.
A second theme is the failure to appreciate that significant difficulties in controlling a
virulent disease arise out of the promotion of intensive forms of agriculture supported
by EU agricultural policy. Thus, the disease spread in a manner beyond all
expectations because those expectations showed little awareness of the scale of
animal shipments. Similarly, when dealing with the outbreak, there were significant
shortfalls in the regulatory response to risk essentially because scientific modellings
of the problem, often geographically and intellectually remote from the infected areas,
made assumptions not borne out in the conditions of modern agriculture. Measures
taken as a result led to a loss of trust and the exercise of powers for which there was
no legal basis. However, we see from the Government’s approach in holding three
studies of the problem rather than a single public inquiry that there will be no holistic
response and that issues connected with the future of farming3
, which we would assert
are central to understanding and dealing with foot and mouth are ring-fenced from
‘Lessons to be Learned’4
.
The outbreak
First suspicions of the disease arose following a veterinary inspection on pigs at the
Cheale Meats Abattoir at Brentwood, Essex on 19 February 2001. Although the
disease was confirmed the following day, the five mile exclusion zone at the Essex
abattoir was not put into place until 21 February 2001.5
The tracing of the animals
passing through the abattoir suggested a possible source of infection at a farm run by
Bobby Waugh in Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumbria. A five mile exclusion zone was
established around this farm on 23 February 2001. However, it is also known that
sheep sent to Hexham Market on 13 February were infected. There were 3,800 sheep
2
See NAO Report, Part 4 and Table 51.
3
Policy Commission on the Future of Farming and Food Farming and Food (Cabinet Office, London,
January 2002) (hereafter ‘Farming and Food’).
4
Anderson, I Foot and Mouth Disease 2001: Lessons to be Learned Inquiry Report (Stationery Office,
London, July 2002) (hereafter ‘Lessons to be Learned’)
5
Studd, H ‘Foot and Mouth at Essex Farm Complex’ Times (21 February 2001).
3. 3
passing through Hexham Market on that day and 120 dealers attending the market.6
It
follows that in contrast to the dilatory conduct of MAFF in declaring an exclusion
zone in Essex, hundreds of potentially infected animals were being dispersed widely
across the country.
Bobby Waugh has been positioned as the villain, Admittedly, animal husbandry at his
farm clearly left a great deal to be desired. He is now banned from owning or dealing
in animals for 15 years. However, certain curiosities remain. In an outbreak of foot
and mouth in France in March, 31 sheep were tested. 21 of those sheep proved
negative, but 10 proved positive, with 7 testing highly positive.7
These sheep were
transported to France from Wales before the end of January which would certainly
seem to raise doubts as to the date and location of the outbreak as accepted in the
published reports. The MAFF explanation, endorsed by the Anderson Report, is that
the French testing probably represented “false positives”.8
This constitutes an
astonishing coincidence.
If we accept that the pig farm in Heddon-on-the-Wall was a source of the outbreak,
there is a simple regulatory mechanism that may have prevented the outbreak itself
and much of the anguish that followed. The overwhelming explanation for the
transmission of foot and mouth to the pigs would have been the use of unprocessed
pig swill, probably containing meat illegally transhipped from Asia. There is
speculation as to how such meat would have made its way into pig swill, and
suggested sources are Chinese restaurants in the Newcastle area, or army camps in the
locality. Yet only just over one percent of pig farmers used pig swill, and the saving
over other sources of swill are minimal – about £5 in the lifetime of a pig.9
The simple
regulatory solution, taken by DEFRA10
as an interim measure, was to ban the practice
of feeding swill to pigs in the U.K. Astonishingly, however, this ban has yet to be
6
See NAO Report at para 1.7 and Cumbria Foot and Mouth Disease Inquiry Panel Cumbria Foot and
Mouth Disease Inquiry Report (Cumbria FMD Group and Cumbria County Council, Carlisle, August
2002) p.25, and Elliott V ‘£900 sale of sheep led to rapid outbreak’ Times 27 February 2001.
7
This is pointed out by the campaigning website, Warmwell, which draws attention to the fact that
Dutch versions of the spread of the disease are impossible to reconcile with official views in the UK, as
the Dutch trace their own source of infection to the French staging post at Mayenne– see further
www.warmwell.com/30Julydate.html
8
Lessons to be Learned, p.52. The sheep tested were located at Mayenne (supra).
9
Brown D ‘Did pigswill cause foot and mouth?’ Guardian 26 March 2001.
4. 4
confirmed as a permanent measure,11
even though the EU may be moving in this
direction.12
Ironically, early in 2001, in the North East of England, in Crook, a dealer in pig swill,
Andrew Clement, was found to be passing unprocessed swill to farms. In a
breathtaking example of the potential shortcomings of criminal law based regulation,
given the eventual costs of the foot and mouth outbreak, Andrew Clement was fined
£400 by the magistrates.13
As for illegal importation of meat, inspection costs of
imported meat by port health authorities, passed on to the importer, are charged at £30
per tonne, so that a 40 foot container with 30 tonnes might cost £2,800 to inspect. In
contrast, the maximum fine before the Magistrates’ Court is £5,000.14
There would
seem to be incentives rather than disincentives to shippers to evade inspection and
engage in illegal importation. Needless to say, although wider powers were given to
prohibit the movements of meat imports at the time of the foot and mouth outbreak,15
there have been few other changes to the regulatory regime.
The disease spreads
Ten years prior to the outbreak, there were more than one thousand abattoirs in the
UK in 1991. In the ten years that followed more than two thirds of these abattoirs
closed.16
Some closures resulted from the imposition of new EU standards.17
However, alongside this were significant changes in food production and
10
See an amendment to the animal by products regulations banning the inclusion of meat products in
swill
11
The Government line is that the ban remains an interim measure – see Commons Answer to question
by Gordon Prentice MP by DEFRA Minister, Elliott Morley, on 20 June 2002 (H.C. Col 479W).
12
As there is much sense in this provision as a measure to protect against BSE, and EU agreement at a
meeting of agriculture ministers in June 2001 approved this in outline – see DEFRA, Bovine
Spongiform Encelphalopathy: A Progress Report (DEFRA, London, June 2001).
13
Elliot V and Webster P ‘Smuggled meat blamed for Epidemic’ Times 27March 2001, and see
Harris, P and Browne, A ‘Smuggled meat threatened UK with catastrophic viruses’ Observer 1April
2001, alleging that numbers of meat inspectors had declined at Dover Port Authority from seven down
to one in an eight year period.
14
The Products of Animal Origin (Import and Export) Regulations (S.I. 1996/3124)
15
The Products of Animals (Import and Export) (Amendment) (England) Regulations 2001 (S.I.
2001/1640).
16
See H.C Debate 11 November 2001, col.111 in which David Taylor M.P. states that only just over
300 abattoirs remain, some 60 per cent having closed in the previous 15 years, and see Kennard R and
Young R, The Threat to Organic meat from Increased Inspection Charges (Soil Association Report,
Bristol, September 1999) “10 years ago there were 1,400 slaughterhouses in the UK. There are now
barely 350…”.
5. 5
consumption. More than 80 percent of the meat which we consume is now handled
through a major supermarket chain.18
The desire of many such retailers to produce
meat which is presented to the consumer, uniformly dressed and packaged, means the
concentration of meat production in certain chosen abattoirs. This is turn demands
considerable movement of live animals. At the outbreak of the disease, one
transportation company based in Somerset disclosed that it moved over one million
head of cattle per annum.19
It feared that foot and mouth would kill its business. At
the same time, many companies connected with agriculture found that they were not
ruined by the outbreak of the disease, but actually made significant windfall profits
helping with the slaughter and disposal of cattle. Chief among these is the Scottish
waste contractor, Snowie, which is reported to have billed £38.4 million for work
undertaken at the time of the outbreak in facilitating the disposal of slaughtered
stock.20
However, one must question the utility of many such cattle movements. For example
Britain imports 125,000 tonnes of lamb. However, at the same time it exports
102,000 tonnes.21
There can be little doubt that this seemingly pointless activity
results from a Common Agricultural Policy which promotes intensive farming,
requiring ever larger markets, rather than locally based patterns of rearing, supply and
consumption. On the face of it the subsidies in the CAP promote cheap food even to
the point of surplus. However, to this we must now attach the billions of pounds of
cost attaching to the foot and mouth outbreak to which the transportation of live
animals contributed. However, worse than that, these policies actually create the
very conditions necessary to stimulate endemic outbreaks of disease. Not long after
the foot and mouth, MAFF introduced a 21-day restriction on stock movements after
initial shipment. Explaining the need to introduce such a measure a “Cabinet
Minister” is quoted as saying:
17
For an account of the impact of EU Regulation on the closure of abattoirs in the UK see: Shaoul, J.E.,
"BSE : For Services Rendered? The Drive for Profit in the Meat Industry". The Ecologist, Vol 27, No 5,
1997.
18
See David Taylor M.P. (fn 16 – supra).
19
O’Donnell J ‘Ripple effect of foot and mouth crisis’ Sunday Times 4 March 2001.
20
NAO report Table 55.
21
Lucas C M.E.P., Stopping the Great Food Swap; Re-localising Europe’s Food Supply
(Greens/European Free Alliance, Strasbourg, March 2001).
6. 6
“Nobody took account of the extent to which dodgy farmers moved sheep
around to claim quota payments. That is the true story.”22
This is a reference to the practice of “bed and breakfasting” farm animals so that the
numbers of animals forecast for the farm, early in the season, are actually available to
the farmer at the time of inspection, thereby avoiding any shortfall in quota
payments.23
If the farmer has a shortfall in forecasted numbers, the “Cabinet
Minister” is alleging that farmers merely borrow animals in order to ensure a higher
quota payment.
This is but one consequence of CAP subsidies and consequential distortion of the
market. The first of the Inquiry reports following foot and mouth, Farming and Food,
points to many other unwelcome outcomes. These include: the separation of
producers from their market; the distortion of price signals; and the masking of
inefficiencies in production. As far as direct payments for livestock are concerned, the
report calls for a decoupling of subsidies from levels of production as an interim
measure:
“Farmers do need assistance in adjusting to reduced support and some
compensation is justified for falling asset prices. However, anything other than
short term assistance frustrates the objectives of reform, keeps farmers from
the market and continues to encourage practices which may harm the
environment.”24
With the onset of the foot and mouth disease, cattle and sheep movements were
tightly controlled. However, even in the aftermath of these controls there were over
700 investigations into illegal movements.25
One story which would have remained
untold had it not coincided with the very outbreak of the disease, is worth
recounting.26
It is impossible to calculate the prevalence of the type of illegal
22
Prescott M and Leake J ‘Ministers hit out at farmers’ Sunday Times 25 March 2001, and see Lobby
Briefing dated 26 March 2001 from 10 Downing Street.
23
See the comments of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland: ‘the dealer network
encourages the so-called "bed-and-breakfasting" of animals to satisfy quota rules’ Committee on
Church and Nation Proposal to Introduce a 20 day Standstill Period following Movements of Sheep
and Cattle (Church of Scotland, Edinburgh, March 2001).
24
Farming and Food at p.21.
25
Leading to 195 cautions and 30 prosecutions most of which seem to have led to conviction (Lessons
to be Learned para. 3.58.
26
Much of what follows is taken from accounts in The Sunday Times beginning with Sheenan M and
Kearney V, ‘Gardai quiz dealer on outbreak’ 4 March 2001.
7. 7
movement of sheep demonstrated by this account, but it seems highly unlikely that the
incident was an unusual one.27
It was brought into high profile because of the
coincident timing of the foot and mouth outbreak. The episode concerns an Irish
cattle dealer widely referred to as the Kerryman. The Kerryman purchased 271
hoggets for between about £35-42 each at Carlisle Market on 19 February 2001. The
sheep headed for Cairnryan for transhipment to Lurgan Abattoir in accordance with
the paperwork submitted. However, the cattle truck seems to have stopped at a farm
in Lockerbie on the way to the ferry, and Lockerbie became the source of the outbreak
in Scotland.28
The sheep did not arrive at the Lurgan Abattoir. Once in Northern Ireland, the driver
was diverted by a telephone call, to a farm in Meigh, South Armagh. As a “favour”,
the farm owner there allowed the animals to rest. In return for this favour the farmer
kept 21 sheep, thereby extending the outbreak to Northern Ireland. Overnight the
following night, the sheep crossed the border into the Republic, arriving at an abattoir
in Athleague at 4.00am. The Kerryman met the cargo, carrying false paperwork
which claimed that the sheep were despatched from an innocent farmer in Westport in
the Republic of Ireland. By this time, ear tags identifying the sheep as British had
been removed. The sheep were slaughtered, packed, labelled and despatched to
France as fresh Irish lamb.
As a result of this activity, foot and mouth was introduced into Ireland for the first
time in 60 years.29
The purpose of this subterfuge seems to have been twofold. Irish
lamb attracted a premium of about £10 per head over and above the price that could
have been obtained for British lamb. In addition, the Kerryman was able to obtain a
27
As demonstrated by the fact that the dealer in this instance sought immunity from prosecution in
return for the provision of information relating to illegal transhipments; Cowan R, ‘Dealer seeks
amnesty for help in tracing infected sheep’ Guardian 13 March 2001. This was apparently unsuccessful
as he was sentenced to three months imprisonment in Dublin District Court on 25 January 2002.
Similarly, the second case of foot and mouth in France in 2001 resulted from ‘fraudulent’ trading in
British sheep: ‘I particularly regret that constraints which will seriously penalise an entire industry are
probably the result of fraudulent practices’ French Agriculture Minister Jean Glavany reported –see
BBC News Report ‘Fraud spreads French Outbreak’ 24 March 2001.
28
Elliott V and Webster P ‘Fear of epidemic as Scotland hit’ Times 2 March 2001.
29
Knowles N.J, Davies P.R. and Samuel A.R. ‘Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease
virus: The current situation in Europe and the Middle East’ in Research Group of the Standing
Technical Committee of the European Commission for the Control of Foot and Mouth, Report of the
Session held at Moen Island (FAO, Rome, September 2001).
8. 8
four percent VAT rebate available to processors of slaughtered lambs emanating from
the Irish Republic. For a profit of about £3,000, foot and mouth spread from England
to three other countries. These ill-gotten gains would have remained undiscovered
except that the tracing of the infected animals from the Armagh farm led to the
tracking down of the Kerryman.
Handling the outbreak
One of the many extraordinary aspects of the FMD outbreak was the initial
confidence of MAFF that they could control the spread of disease, notwithstanding
the widespread nature of the cattle and sheep movements. By the end of the first
week in March the Chief Veterinary Officer issued the following statement:
“Most of the animals if they are going to develop the disease…should be
showing signs last week and this week and possibly some overflow into next
week. So the first evidence is that because we stopped all movements, we stop
the spread of disease.”30
This can be placed alongside the similarly optimistic view expressed, on the same day
by the Director of the Institute of Animal Health, whose laboratory was central to the
control of the outbreak:
“My understanding is that the vast majority, if not all the current cases, are on
farms with a link to the original outbreak and that is good news…everything
that has happened so far might have been predicted. Had the disease taken off
and moved out of control we would have expected to see cases with no
connection to the original source by now.”31
With hindsight, this optimism was hopelessly misconceived. As the disease did not
peak until the end of the first week of April, and, then, only after the introduction of
the horrendous, contiguous, cull Policy (described below). This statement of the
Chief Veterinary Officer would only have been true if issued a whole month later.
30
BBC Radio Interview quoted in Henderson M ‘Vets more confident of halting outbreak’ Times 7
March 2001.
31
Ibid.
9. 9
Statements such as those above produced the impression that MAFF was in control of
the outbreak of FMD and in the process of eliminating it. The Anderson Inquiry
states that “the government departments were not greatly involved at this stage,
largely because MAFF was not asking for help”.32
The report into the 1967 outbreak
of foot and mouth disease had made the following major recommendation:
“arangements should be made to seek assistance from the armed services at an early
stage in a foot and mouth outbreak”. 33
This recommendation seems to have been
ignored. It was not until the last week in March, over a month after the initial
outbreak that the military were introduced. Moreover, the Anderson Inquiry suggests
that the complacency within MAFF about disease control affected the entire
Department:
“Individual groups and managers not directly involved with the outbreak
remained focused on their own targets. There was no incentive to release staff
to help in the fight against FMD.”34
The Anderson Inquiry also states that around eighty percent of the vets in the State
Veterinary Service (SVS) helped to tackle the swine fever outbreak of 2000, even
though that was confined to just 16 cases.35
In contrast, the foot and mouth disease
spread via some of the largest livestock dealers in the country. In Devon, William
Cleave, the first person to be affected through dealings at the Hexham Market, was
one of the largest operators in Devon, working from thirteen different sites.36
It seems
to be accepted that this was the sole source of introduction of the disease into the
region, but Devon eventually suffered 173 confirmed cases of foot and mouth disease.
The Devon Inquiry reports that the State Veterinary Service had been “run down over
the last two decades and was greatly over-stretched during the outbreak and its
aftermath”.37
When it became clear that the SVS could not cope, additional vets
32
Lessons to be Learned section 9.1.
33
Duke of Northumberland Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Foot and Mouth Disease 1967/68
(Cmnd 3999, HMSO, London, 1969) Chapter VIII and Recommendation 50.
34
Lessons to be Learned para. 9.2.
35
Ibid.
36
Gillan A, ‘Panic felt across the west country’ Guardian 27 February 2001
37
Mercer I, Crisis and Opportunity; Final report of the Devon Foot and Mouth Inquiry (Devon Books,
Tiverton, 2002)
10. 10
including vets from abroad or trainees were recruited to assist. However, the
goodwill of the vets was not enhanced by the public payment structures. The fee
offered to vets was £160 per day.38
At the same time, valuers were being paid on a
much more generous pay scale. In order to ensure that farmers did not resist the
slaughter of animals, valuers were given an incentive to value generously by linking
their payment to the value of the cattle destroyed. It became necessary to put a ceiling
on the operation of this formula, and this was set at £1,500 per day.39
Questions of compensation
Indeed, a short comment on methods of compensation may help to more fully
understand the nature of the slaughter and disposal of animals. From the outset,
MAFF were keen that there would be little argument in relation to the slaughter of
infected stock. Payments were intended to be generous. However, as is shown above
that the top price for two-year old sheep at the Carlisle Market at the outset of the
outbreak was £42 per head. In contrast, the average value across the first four weeks
of the outbreak was £100 per head in compensation. This figure eventually peaks at
£300 in July 2001. Similarly, the average compensation payment for cattle tripled
during the course of the outbreak.40
The Animal Health Act 1981 demands the payment of compensation, and this is to be
based on the value of the animal immediately prior to infection.41
Although there is
no definition of “value” within the Act, it is accepted that MAFF were operating on a
market value basis. However the problem with this is that there was no functioning
market during the outbreak. Moreover, as millions of animals were destroyed, one
might expect the valuation of stock to rise in order to reflect the subsequent shortage
of stock. However, there were other factors at work. Obviously MAFF appointed
valuers, but under the legislation, it was also open to the farmer to appoint a valuer
also. It became clear from very early in the outbreak that over ninety percent of
38
NAO Report para 3.39.
39
Ibid at 4.13
40
Ibid at 4.6.
41
Section 1 of the Act allows the Minister to make such orders ‘as he thinks fit’for ‘the purpose inany
manner preventing the spread of disease’. Most famously thispower has been used to pass theprimary
regulations, The Foot and Mouth Disease Regulations1983 (S.I. 1983/1950. Section 34(7) of the Act
contains an order-making power in respect of compensation to be paid, giving rise to a series of Foot
and Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) Orders.
11. 11
farmers were likely to do so, and in practice it became easier to allow the farmer to
choose the valuer. As one might expect, in rural communities, word soon got round
as to which valuers were the most generous. Moreover, the valuers themselves had
personal incentives to inflate value. In the end the Government paid £10 million in
valuation fees, and in almost one in five valuation days the £1,500 cap was reached.42
Given the significant uplifts in value, resistance to slaughter was limited to farmers
with rare breeds, some organic producers, or, in some cases, to owners of pet animals.
This is not to say that farmers were happy to see their animals slaughtered, as there is
considerable evidence that many farmers were devastated by the experience and even
quit the land. However many accepted the inevitability of slaughter and accepted the
payment.
Equally, it must be stressed that many farmers affected by the outbreak went
uncompensated. Diseased cattle, and those taken out in the contiguous cull (see
below) received compensation. There was also compensation assistance for “welfare
killings”. These arose out of the need to kill animals in circumstances that were often
distressing such as lambs born in the field that could not be moved, but were literally
drowning in the fields in an unusually wet Spring. Many farmers could not get their
animals to market and were not allowed to move them during the outbreak. These
animals had to be fed and watered at significant cost with no outlet for sale, and long
after their market value had peaked. These farmers joined many other people in the
rural business community in suffering losses which effectively went uncompensated.
To promise compensation in this way, as the legislation does, is to remove all
incentives to precaution. This is not to accuse farmers of reckless or even careless
conduct in spreading the disease. Elsewhere, we explore the economic basis of this
policy, and argue that the real iniquity is in a system that promotes the conditions
whereby the outbreak and spread of the disease are promoted precisely because of this
failure to internalise the risk.43
Not surprisingly in the circumstances, fewer than one
in ten farmers carried insurance, but bizarrely, where they did, neither the
Government nor the insurers withheld payments. It followed that a minority of
42
NAO Report at 4.13
12. 12
farmers received two sets of payments at levels far exceeding market value prior to
the outbreak, while neighbouring farmers received nothing. In the circumstances,
reports of deliberate infection, and offers to supply the virus seem credible.44
Yet
bizzarely in introducing the aborted Animal Health (Amendment) Bill, the Minister,
rather than questioning the entire approach to compensation provided for specific
criminal law powers to deal with deliberate infection.45
Mass slaughter
On 11 March, Nick Brown, Minister for Agriculture appeared on ‘Breakfast with
Frost’.46
He stated that the disease was under control and when pressed repeated that
he was “absolutely certain” in this view. As the Anderson Inquiry points out, there
was no evidential basis for this view. 34 cases of foot and mouth had been notified in
the two days prior to that Sunday; 164 cases had been confirmed in total, and in
Cumbria alone there were over 40,000 carcasses awaiting disposal. In the words of
one farmer giving evidence to Anderson:
“We felt absolutely insulted and patronised by these lies that we were told.”47
It is likely also that these continuing assurances from MAFF delayed the effective
control of the disease. It was almost a further two weeks before the Cabinet Office
Briefing Room (COBR) was open to co-ordinate work across all departments in
handling the disaster. Indeed, the speculation must be that the complacent statements
of MAFF constituted an attempt to retain departmental control.
Coinciding with the introduction of COBR was the Contiguous Cull Policy. This was
a policy to destroy on a precautionary basis “animals within the 3 kilometre zones”.48
43
REF
44
Certainly DEFRA found it necessary to send out warnings about deliberate infection – see DEFRA
Position on Deliberate Foot and Mouth Disease Infection (DEFRA, London 13 July 2001) BBC news
also reported that EU anti fraud inspectors had voiced suspicions of deliberate infection (17 August
2001).
45
Elliott Morley in evidence to the Select Committee on Environment Food and Rural Affairs (6
November 2001 at para 131) admitted that Maff strongly suspected but could not prove any cases of
deliberate infection, but was introducing stronger powers to deal with the problem nonetheless.
46
A transcript of this interview is available on the CD rom annexes to the Anderson Report at Annex E
– Media Transcripts.
13. 13
The very announcement of this statement caused consternation, since, in effect, the
policy only applied to sheep and pigs, but this was not immediately made clear.
Alongside the Contiguous Cull Policy was a target to slaughter infected stock within
24 hours and dispose of the carcass within 48 hours. Overseeing the operation of this
policy was the FMD Science Group. This group included Sir John Krebs, Chairman
of the Food Standards Agency, together with David King, the Chief Scientific Adviser
and Jim Scudamore, the Chief Veterinary Officer. It included also a group of
epidemiologists which largely specialised in human epidemiology and aimed to
produce a method to bring the disease under effective control. They did so, but at
enormous cost.
The Anderson Report is extremely defensive in relation to the FMD Science Group,
describing them as experts and stating that:
“Many of the public accusations levelled at the work are based on limited
knowledge of the statistical and mathematical techniques they employed…the
highly specialist nature of their work made it difficult for other FMD experts
to engage with the detail, especially when they themselves were under huge
pressure of work in managing the outbreak. ”49
There is however another view of the work of the FMD Science Group as expressed
to the Devon Independent Inquiry by a veterinary surgeon:
“Their idea was to control the disease by culling in contiguous farms. That is
absolutely fine if you are sitting in front of a computer screen in London.
However, it is different on the ground. A person in London will just see the
47
Anderson Report at p.81; a MORI poll for the Times conducted between 22 -27 March 2001 showed
that 66 per cent of urban residents, rising to 77 per cent of rural residents were dissatisfied with the
Government’s handling of the foot and mouth outbreak – Times 29 March 2001.
48
Statement by Nick Brown – see Anderson at p.89. This statement was made by the Minister on 15
March but not implemented (except for some areas of Scotland) until 28 March. In fact, the FMD
Science Group eventually recommended a more restrictive approach based on a smaller radius because
the 3k cull was felt to be ‘neither practical nor likely to be legal’ (Anderson, p.93). In fact the 3k radius
is not accidental but emanates from the protection zone demanded by Art.9 of EU Directive 85/511. A
protection zone is not by any means a ‘cull’ zone. However, notwithstanding the modification to a
smaller area, in parts of the country such as Cumbria, the 3k cull seems to have been retained with the
contiguous cull used to ‘expand’ the slaughter (Cumbria Foot and Mouth Disease Enquiry Report
p.41).
14. 14
numbers and will say that they have to be taken out. That is why it was
carnage by computer.”50
What in effect the FMD Science Group did was to model the likely spread of
infection from farm to farm in order to bring the disease on to a downward trajectory
such that the rate of spread would always become smaller. Beyond doubt, this was
achieved, but the approach was later admitted to have been “over draconian”.51
The
approach took no account whatsoever of the possible variable conditions of spread
according to factors such as geography. It made no allowance for natural barriers
which might restrict spread. It made no distinction between inspected species, though
it is clear that pigs present by far the greatest risk through exhalation. The model may
well have overestimated wind spread. This is a common source of transmission of
this highly infectious disease, but there is some evidence to suggest that in relation to
this particular strain of virus, direct contact was a much more important mode of
transmission. Finally, no distinction was made between different farming practices in
different regions, and the contiguous cull Policy allowed for no assertion that a farmer
had exercised rigorous bio-security measures. Any farm within a three kilometre
radius had its animals culled.
In describing “carnage by computer”, well in advance of the Anderson Inquiry, the
witness of the Devon Independent Inquiry shows great foresight. The Anderson
Inquiry went on to show that the geographical information system deployed was
generally used for the purpose of calculating CAP subsidies. In the words of the
Inquiry:
“Information is frequently out of date, on occasion by several years. It was
sometimes difficult to pinpoint the location of livestock accommodation
within an individual holding, or identify the operator of that land.”52
49
Anderson at p 91.
50
Wendy Vere, Vetinary Surgeon giving evidence to the Devon Inquiry – supra n.37.
51
Statement by Dr Neil Ferguson for the Chief Scientist’s Advisory Group as reported by Highfield R
‘Tactics used on half the farms “were inefficient” ’ Daily Telegraph 22 May 2001.
52
Anderson at p.72.
15. 15
There are many stories of slaughtermen arriving at the wrong location, but of course
farmers could not know, however good their own bio-security, that they were not
within a contiguous cull area.
According to the Meat and Livestock Commission, ten million animals were killed.53
One in three diagnoses appear to have been incorrect. This is not surprising, given the
generation of veterinary scientists with no effective experience of FMD. However,
this figure relates to confirmed diagnoses (which were nonetheless wrong) but where
there was thought to be no time for confirmationa policy of “suspected slaughters”
was pursued. Four in every five of these suspected slaughters did not involve an
actual outbreak of foot and mouth. It is worth recalling when reading these figures,
that each of these suspected slaughters then involved contiguous farming units often
within the three kilometre radius. On average, there would be four such units.
This produces a ripple effect, and it means that long after the actual onset of disease
has peaked, numbers of animals killed continued to grow. In total, 2,026 farming
premises said to be infected produce pre-emptive culling on a further 8,131 premises.
In the first week of the Contiguous Cull Policy there were 48,000 animals slaughtered
each day. In two days in Devon 32,000 animals were slaughtered. In the week
beginning 25 March, there were 293 infected premises “confirmed” as suffering from
FMD. By the week beginning 6 May 2001 there were 49 such premises, but by mid-
May, the daily slaughter had risen to 80,000 animals.54
Vaccination
One recurrent controversy in the light of this mass culling of animals is whether or not
vaccination might have been a more efficient way of controlling the disease. It is
important to understand from the outset that prophylactic use of vaccines prior to any
outbreak was not an option.55
This is because of EU policy that abandoned routine
vaccination in favour of a policy of stamping out FMD outbreaks when they occur in
53
In fact 10,791,000 of which the vast majority (9.5m) were sheep – see unpublished work By Jane
Connor of the Meat and Livestock Commission as reported by Robertson C, ‘Slaughter toll three times
the official figures’ Sunday Post 20 January 2002.
54
Figures extracted from the various reports but particularly from the NAO Report.
55
See Directive 85/511/EEC as amended. Vaccination could be used as an emergency measure once an
outbreak had occurred but only if all vaccinated animals were then slaughtered.
16. 16
Member States. Phasing out of routine vaccination was adopted as a policy in 1990
on the basis that stamping out would prove cost beneficial.
EU policy cannot be divorced from wider international trade policy in this area. This,
in particular, is influenced by the OIE whose International Animal Health Code has
been adopted by the WTO as the basis on which international trade might be restricted
in the interests of disease control.56
Under the Code, countries without FMD, and not
practising the policy of vaccination will achieve disease free status where there has
been no outbreak within a 12-month period. Where foot and mouth disease then
occurs, if the outbreak can be restricted by stamping out, then disease free status will
be regained within a 3-month period of the last slaughter of diseased stock where this
is followed by serological surveillance.
However, because FMD free status for Member States in Europe who do not use
vaccination depends on there having been no vaccination within the last 12 months, it
was clear that the UK was worried about the time that it might take to regain status as
an FMD country not using vaccination.57
It is important to understand that FMD
poses no questions of food safety, and indeed many countries of the world, outside
Europe, pursue a policy of routine vaccination, in the manner of many other European
states, including France and Germany, prior to the adoption of modern EU policy.
There is no doubt, however, that the Code offers more favourable treatment to the
one-third of countries without FMD and choosing not to vaccinate, thereby giving
market advantage to European and North American farmers. In part, therefore,
insofar as FMD could have been prevented by vaccination or its outbreak curtailed by
its usage, the immense costs of culling were incurred in order to comply with an
56
The OIE is responsible for laying down international standards on animal health and international
trade in animals and products of animal origin and for adopting resolutions on the control of animal
diseases. The standards are recognised by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) as standard
international health regulations (in particular within the framework of the Agreement on the application
of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures - SPS Agreement): see European Parliament Directorate
General for Research Position of International Organisations on Vaccination against Foot and Mouth
Disease (EU Parliament 22 May 2002).
57
In fact, ironically, although as a result of the decision not to vaccinate, Britain was free to resume
beef exports in February 2002, in fact no exports took place until September 2002 because as part of
the serological surveillance requirements, the EU insisted on abbatoirs handling only beef for export,
and it was not until permission was given to slaughter domestic and exported meat together that beef
exports became a realistic proposition – see Meat and Livestock Commission Press Release ‘Export
Cheer for British Beef’ dated 17 July 2002.
17. 17
entirely artificial rule of international trade less connected with food safety than with
policies of competitive advantage.58
Given the legal restriction on preventative vaccination, the issue also arises as to
whether or not the use of vaccination could have curbed the outbreak more
effectively. Obviously, if this was to happen, it would have been necessary to act
swiftly, using vaccination to limit the disease. This was the policy pursued by the
Netherlands, which suffered an outbreak coinciding with that in the UK.59
The
Netherlands adopted a policy of ring vaccination; vaccinating all animals in the radius
of an outbreak. It nonetheless slaughtered the animals that were vaccinated, in order
to restore its status as an FMD country without vaccination. The number of animals
slaughtered was therefore significant (over one quarter million) but in the event, this
seems to compare well with the UK. It certainly allowed the more humane slaughter
and orderly disposal of the animals. The Netherlands was disease free by 25 June
2001, and in the event only a three-month, rather than a one-year restriction, was
applied by the OIE, meaning that the Netherlands was in a position to recommence
animal export prior to the last case of foot and mouth in the UK on 30 September
2001.
However, it seems that early vaccination in the face of the FMD outbreak was not an
option. The Chief Veterinary Officer has admitted that:
“No estimate (had) been made of the human resource requirements for a
vaccination programme…The assumption (was) made that a stamping out
58
See the EU press release dated 26 March 2001:“Should the further development of the situation
make it necessary for the EU to decide to introduce large-scale vaccination, the immediate consequence
would be that third countries would prohibit the import of all live animals and non-treated products
from the EU. This would lead to very severe losses in terms of trade and employment.” (DG Health and
Consumer Protection.
59
One oddity of the foot and mouth outbreak in the Netherlands is that according to the Dutch
Ministry of Agriculture Nature management and Fisheries is that the source of the outbreak was the
importation of calves from Ireland which the Dutch Ministry accepts were disease free on leaving
Ireland, but which became infected in France. The infection occurred acording tp the dutch ministry
when the Irish calves were laid up at a holding point in Baroche Gondoin, Department of Mayenne. See
Information document on ‘Foot and Mouth Disease in the Netherlands’ available at www.minlnv.nl.
There had been a scare an earlier scare also in northern France, nearer to Rouen, but MAFF insist that
the tests in question were false positives (Anderson Report p.52). Positive tests would mean that FMD
was rife in the UK by the time of the ‘outbreak’ sincealthough they were only slaughtered in France on
18. 18
policy would be operated first and that, if sufficient trade resources were
immediately available as outlined, vaccination could be avoided.”60
In fact, as part of its contingency planning requirement under EU law, issues such as
the emergency use of vaccination should have been considered, and plans should have
been in place to access emergency vaccine. Interestingly, the United States
Department of Agriculture Policy for the Control of Foot and Mouth Disease contains
the following statement:
“Emergency vaccination can play an important supporting role in the control
of FMD outbreaks in FMD-free countries such as the United States.
Vaccination can help contain the disease quickly if it is used strategically to
create barriers between infected zones and disease free zones.”61
However, even if MAFF was in no position to take the sort of action described above,
as an early means of suppressing the outbreak, as the Anderson Report shows, it
became necessary to consider vaccination on a number of occasions during the
outbreak. This failure of advance planning meant that considerable time and effort
was devoted to consideration of vaccination on many occasions during the course of
the outbreak. On each occasion, it was ruled out. This was in the face of an almost
doctrinaire approach adopted by the NFU. Ben Gill stated that this position was
adopted largely to protect international trade status:
“Vaccination would directly affect the marketing and trading of animals, meat,
meat products and milk both within the UK and the EU and internationally.
Yet it remains quite unclear as to how or why such restrictions would be and
how long they would be in place.”62
Complicit also in this approach were the major food manufacturers though, not
apparently, the retailers. This was on the basis of supposed consumer opposition to
7 March, they left the UK (Abergavenny) at the end of January 2001 – some three weeks prior to the
first UK case.
60
Anderson Report at p124.
61
Animal Health Inspection Service, Foot and Mouth Vaccination (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
January 2002).
19. 19
the sale of products from vaccinated stock. This is notwithstanding the fact that they
were widely consumed over many years in Europe prior to 1989; that cattle are
regularly exposed to vast numbers of injections for other purposes; and that, the
consumer voice seems to have been best represented by the farming union and the
food manufacturers.
In one sense, this matters little in relation to the likely containment of the outbreak,
since, once the early opportunity was missed, the options became stark. Either one
could have vaccinated the farm animal population on a long-term basis (an option not
available under EU law), or, vaccination could have been used in order to promote the
more humane and orderly killing and disposal of stock. One might have expected the
NFU to have supported this, but it did not. Its resistance runs the risk that, in view of
the gross suffering of the animals involved, consumer attitudes to meat consumption
have been more adversely affected by the cruel killing and pyre burning of animals
than by any policy of vaccination. Interestingly, the NFU has recognised that its
position is unsustainable In the aftermath of the Anderson Inquiry it issued the
following statement:
“The NFU recognises the recent developments in vaccination research. All
reports have recommended that emergency vaccination should be considered
as an addition to the slaughter of infected animals and dangerous contacts.
The NFU welcomes the call from the Royal Society for swift action to put the
final scientific and practical steps in place to allow emergency vaccination to
become a real option.”63
The vaccination debate is bedevilled by confusion and misunderstanding. For
example, in terms of consumer resistance, the UK imports almost 70,000 tonnes of
beef each year from countries that vaccinate against foot and mouth.64
This meat is
not marked in any separate way or subject to any special treatment. In the Dutch
62
Notice to Members ‘NFU Position on Vaccination Against Foot and Mouth’ (NFU, 22 April 2001).
63
Ben Gill ‘Statement on the Lessons to be Learned Inquiry’ (NFU, 22 July 2002).
64
This figure is an estimate. When the Soil Association wrote toDEFRA in August 2001, the ministry
admitted that it did not know how much vaccinated meat was imported. This was because: “Imports
must be accompanied by veterinary certification to guarantee that the meat accords with EU
requirements but the certificate does not have to state whether the meat came from animals in a region
where vaccination takes place’ – www.soilassociation.org
20. 20
outbreak, once cows were vaccinated but prior to their slaughter, their milk
nonetheless went into the food chain. The same would have happened in the UK had
cattle in Carlisle been vaccinated (as was the decision at one point in time). To take
another example, Professor David King, Chief Scientific Adviser, in speaking out
against vaccination, issued the following statement:
“Nation-wide mass vaccination would make it impossible to tell the extent to
which the virus is present in the country’s livestock. There are currently no
internationally recognised tests that are able to distinguish between vaccinated
and infected animals.”65
The first part of this statement seems hard to reconcile with the Anderson Report
which offers the following analysis:
“All viruses, including the FMD virus are made up of protein stock. These
proteins can be structural or non-structural. Infected animals produce
antibodies against both. However, vaccinated animals produce antibodies
against structural proteins only. A positive NSP test detects antibodies against
non-structural proteins and therefore identifies an infected animal.”66
It is the second part of King’s statement that is true and provides the real insight into
why vaccination was rejected. The NSP tests were not internationally recognised at
the time of the 2001 outbreak by the OIE. Therefore, although it might have been
possible to distinguish between vaccinated and infected animals, this would have done
little to assist in the restoration of disease free status. In short, because of
considerations largely emanating from WTO and OIE rules, the use of vaccine was
not considered on a contingency basis to attempt to supress any early outbreak of
FMD. It was continually rejected during the outbreak, particularly by the NFU, for
spurious reasons, notwithstanding the widescale cruelty and chaos brought about by
policies of mass destruction of animals.
65
King D ‘Use of vacination in the current FMD outbreak’ (Defra Statement 21 September 2001).
21. 21
The cruelty of the cull
The initial policy for dealing with the foot and mouth outbreak was the “stamping
out” of the disease. This implies that swift localised action can isolate the disease
before it is allowed to spread. It rests upon the slaughter of infected stock together
with all other animals suspected of being at serious risk of contagion. However, this
policy gave way to the contiguous cull. Such policy is different in nature. It was
based upon the rapid slaughter (within 24 hours of suspected FMD) and disposal
(within 48 hours of suspected FMD) of not merely cattle supposedly at risk through
contact or otherwise, but because they happen to be within a certain proximity of a
suspected case. As we have seen the radius of 3 kilometres of a suspected source of
FMD was commonly employed although not vital to the mathmatical model. There
are many questions of the legality of government action which attach to the FMD
outbreak. These include many civil liberties issues, many animal welfare issues,
breaches of environmental laws and bio-security measures, and considerable
examples of ultra vires action. For the most part, we address these issues elsewhere,
but it is important to say that there must be considerable doubt attaching to the powers
purportedly used to support the contiguous cull.67
The relevant provision in the
Animal Health Act 198168
reads:
“The Minister may if he thinks fit in any case cause to be slaughtered:
a. any animals with foot and mouth or suspected of being so
affected;
b. any animals which are in the same field, shared or other place
or same herd of flock or otherwise in contact with animals
affected with foot and mouth or which appear to the Minister to
have been exposed to infection of foot and mouth disease.”
66
Anderson Report at p.123
67
This is admitted by the Chief Veterinary Officer in evidence to the Anderson Inquiry: The CVO said
that a general cull of animals within 3k of infected premises could not legally have been be carried out’
– Annex B of the evidence to the Anderson Report, interview with the Chief Veterinary Officer, 19
April 2002, at para 28 and also para 31. See also Tromans S, ‘Silence of the Lambs: The Foot and
Mouth Crisis, its Litigationand its Environmental Implications UKELA Conference Proceedings’ June
2002.
68
Section 31 and Schedule 3 para 3.
22. 22
On any ordinary principles of interpretation, this would not seem to give the power to
slaughter healthy animals merely on the basis that they are located on a site proximate
to one suspected of having foot and mouth, or to ring fence a contaminated site, or
because of the fear of some future exposure, rather than actual or past exposure to
infection.69
In essence, this has been admitted on a number of occasions. For example, the
Animal Health Bill was said to have introduced “new disease control powers” for
England and Wales by amending the Animal Health Act 1981. In the Consultation
Paper it was said that:
“The new powers to slaughter animals in order to prevent disease spread will
ensure we have the means to control and eradicate an outbreak in a more
effective and efficient manner than has been possible in the past.”70
In describing why the powers would be introduced, the new powers were described as
“precautionary”. However, on 26 March 2002, the Government was defeated in the
Lords on the Animal Health Bill by 130 votes to 124. The motion to strike down the
Bill was proposed by Lord Moran notwithstanding a three-line whip by the
government. In the words of Lord Moran: “The present Bill is based entirely on
legalising and extending the mass slaughter of animals.”71
Elsewhere, Lord Moran
has described this Bill as “of a positively Stalinist nature” which was an attempt to
legalise the culling of “many thousands of healthy animals…killed last year”.72
69
Having said this the history of foot and mouth litigation is rather unusual. MAFF were injuncted at
an early stage in England from killing a pet pig, Grunty: Maff v Upton (21 June 2001, unreported) and
seemed reluctant thereafter to to chance their arm in the English Courts – though see MAFF v
Winslade (22 May 2001, unreported) which followed Westerhall (below). In Scotland, Westerhall
Farms v Scottish Ministers Court of Session, Outer House, 25 April 2001 seems to have addressed
whether the policy was precluded under EU law, which hardly addresses fully the status of the statutory
powers invoked (see the criticisms in English R, ‘Foot and Mouth in the Courts’ (2001) 151 New Law
Journal 1515. Finally in Wales, in R v Secretary of State for the Environment Food and Rural Affairs
and the National Assembly for Wales ex p Hughes [2001] EWHC Admin 738, the Court seems to have
been unduly influenced by the view that if the cull was found to be ultra vires then the compensation
payments made might also be tainted. The history of this litigation is reviewed in Tromans (op. cit.
n.57)
70
DEFRA, UK Consultation on the Animal Health Bill, 20 March 2002.
71
House of Lords Debates, Animal Health bill 2001, 26 March 2002, col 167
72
Lord Moran ‘The Noble Lords were not Content’ Country Illustrated May 2002 p.10.
23. 23
The Government spokesman in the Lords at the time of the Animal Health Bill, Lord
Whitty, told the Anderson Inquiry himself that the legality of the contiguous cull had
been “an issue”.73
The Anderson Report concludes that:
“We consider the powers to be insufficiently clear. This lack of clarity
contributed to a sense of mistrust of the Government, which was made worse
by poor communication of the rationale of the cull.”74
It is interesting to note that in those areas of the country such as parts of Devon and
the Forest of Dean where protestors against the contiguous cull were well organised,
there were a number of appeals faxed immediately to MAFF upon the service of a
notice seeking to slaughter animals. Although these cases record continuing
harassment by MAFF, in the overwhelming majority, the resistance seems to have
worked, and MAFF neither killed the animals nor litigated in the face of such
resistance.75
Where animals were slaughtered, there are accounts of significant cruelty. For
example, in South Molton in Devon, an attempt to slaughter Limousin bullocks led to
their escape for over 18 hours. One farmer witnessing the event stated that:
“There were three or four marksmen taking shots and there were certainly
more shots than the number of animals killed but I have no idea how many
were wounded.”76
Another farmer states that:
73
Annex B of the evidence to the Anderson Report, notes of interview with Lord Whitty, 8 May 2002,
para 40, adding ‘in pracice the policy had been subject to a degree of local discretion.’
74
Anderson Report at p.163.
75
Trainee solicitor Alayne Addy is reputed to have saved animals on 106 farms (including most
prominently Phoenix the calf. In each case according to press reports MAFF backed off rather than
challenge her interpretation of the law: Born M, ‘100 herds saved as trainee solicitor finds loophole’
Daily Telegraph 12 May 2001. An opinion by Stephen Tromans circulated widely among farmers with
rare breeds or others with pet animals, and was used to fend off MAFF slaughtermen; for testimonies
see www.sovereignty.org.uk
76
Farmer Gordon Willmetts as reported in the Times 15 May 2001
24. 24
“The cattle were going berserk, at least one was limping. It was obvious to
everyone what was going to happen. Once you shoot one the rest smell blood
and go wild.”77
One witness describes a bullock taking a bullet to the spine rendering its back legs
useless. It nonetheless attempted to crawl away on its front legs only until a
slaughterman caught up with it and shot it.78
Another farmer, Simon Middle, from Gloucestershire describes the cull of his 87
cattle:
“I ran out in an absolute frenzy and he was standing outside the shed, leaning
on the feeder front and shooting a them. The cattle were going ballistic,
crashing about trying to escape. It was horrendous.”79
A farmer from North Yorkshire, Chris Graham, in a statement to the RSPCA made
the following statement:
“Some of them (lambs) were still jumping and thrashing around 20 minutes
after they had been shot. They weren’t making sure that they were killed first
time. There were piles of bodies and all of a sudden lambs were jumping out.
One of the slaughter team was prodding the prone animals in the eye with a
knife and then cutting their throats if they showed signs of life.”80
The regulations governing animal slaughter are clear. The Welfare of Animals
(Slaughter or Killing) Regulations 199581
apply to the “restraint, stunning, slaughter
and killing” of animals and Regulation 70 states that this includes the killing of any
77
Ibid – from farmer Les Winslade.
78
Midgley C, ‘The cruellest months of all’ Times 24 May 2001
79
Ibid.
80
Morrison N, ‘RSPCA lawyers investigate claims of cruelty during foot and mouth culls’ Northern
Echo 3 September 2001. In the event, the RSPCA do not seem to have pursued any prosecutions. The
only prosecution seems to have been of a slaughterman caught on film taking pot shots at sheep. He
was tried but acquitted under Health anfd Safety legislation at Cardiff Crown Court in October 2002. It
was feared that ‘the rifle had enough power to injure humans in the area’; Hall S, ‘Slaughterman fired
on sheep willy-nilly’ Guardian 2 October 2002.
81
S.I. 1993 No. 731
25. 25
animal for the purpose of disease control. No person engaging in such activity
should:
a. “cause any avoidable excitement, pain or suffering to any animals; or
b. permit any animal to sustain any avoidable excitement, pain or
suffering.”
The methods laid down for slaughter or killing for the purpose of disease control are
set out in Schedule 9. They state that where captive bolt is used to stun an animal, it
then must be pithed or blood vessels in its neck severed without delay, and nothing
more must be done to the animal until it is ascertained that it is dead.
It follows that the activities described above in terms of random potshots at animals or
in terms of lambs stunned but not promptly killed are illegal. However, there has not
been a single prosecution brought by the RSPCA on welfare grounds. One reason for
this may be the wording of the offence laid out in Regulation 4 which uses a common
criminal law formulation - namely to cause or permit the suffering in question. It is
clear from environmental regulation that this formulation is strict and that it makes
liable to those in operational control of the activity in question.82
In short, it is the
authorities that are culpable under this legislation.
Conclusion
The purpose of the above account is to demonstrate that significant shortfalls in the
regulatory structure, on a large number of fronts, both contributed to the outbreak of
foot and mouth disease and also to its rapid spread. Thereafter, with the disease out of
control, further regulatory failures, not least the inadequacy of all contingency
planning, ensured that the outbreak spread in an alarming and uncontrolled fashion.
The outbreak was eventually curtailed, but only at enormous cost, of which the £10
million in economic losses is but a part when social costs are considered. The
contiguous cull eventually put an end to the disease, but at huge environmental and
82
In environmental regulation it is clear that the language is strict, and refers to operational cause, even
where the operator is not responsible for the immediate cause of the harm: National Rivers Authority v
Empress Cars (Abertillery) [1998] 1 All ER 481 (HL), and see Lawrence D and Lee R, ‘Pemitting
Uncertainty: Owners, Occupiers, and Responsibility for Remediation’ Modern Law Review
(forthcoming). In the Cardiff Crown Court case on 2 October 2002 (supra n 80) the slaughterman’s
employer, Monmouthshire Council, was convicted and fined.
26. 26
social cost, and following the slaughter of 10 million animals, most of whom were not
infected by the disease, but were killed in horribly cruel fashion.
In the face of this, it is hardly surprising that the Government refused to hold a public
inquiry. The inquiries that did take place are in themselves worthwhile. However,
their separate approaches and policy recommendations continues a trend away from
joined-up government exemplified by the handling of the outbreak. For example the
report on the future of farming, which we consider critical for the avoidance of foot
and mouth in the future, has been published separately from, and is only tangentially
linked to other proposals in the Anderson Inquiry. Similarly, many other learning
points, such as those pertaining to the procurement of legal services in emergency, are
best covered in the National Audit Office Report.
One must question the governmen’s response to this inquiry process. The Animal
Health Bill was introduced into Parliament before any of the inquiries reported. The
Bill sought to legitimise conduct that had underpinned the contiguous cull. It passed
some responsibility for bio-security on to the farming community, but was
condemned by the Bishop of Hereford as “harsh, unjust and untimely”. It certainly
did not address, in any reasoned fashion, central questions of who might appropriately
bear the risk of foot and mouth disease, nor did it seek, even at that late stage, to
accept the many shortcomings of the Government in the handling of the foot and
mouth outbreak. Yet, in introducing the Bill, there were said to be ‘guiding
principles’ which would apply to the use of the powers introduced. Amongst the
claims made are the following:
“We will act openly and transparently making widely available the guiding
principles that govern our approach…We will use powers in a way that is
proportionate to risk costs and benefits including at the local, regional and
national level. We have an underlying commitment to minimise the overall
number of animals that need to be slaughtered by using the powers in a timely
and targeted way and by taking appropriate preventative action where this is
justified. The Government will be fully accountable for its use of the
slaughter powers…We will seek to consult wherever time permits, including
27. 27
with the relevant local interests, before taking a decision to exercise the
slaughter powers.” (Emphasis in the original)83
.
As they say in all of the standard examination questions: “compare and contrast”.
Readers may wish to do so in the knowledge that the Animal Health Bill was
introduced late in 2001 without consultation and passed through the House of
Commons without amendment. It is hard to escape the conclusion, in the light of the
foot and mouth outbreak, that the words and phrases emphasised by the Government
in its own guiding principles are nothing more than regulatory buzz words, devoid of
all true meaning and substance.
David Campbell
Robert Lee
Cardiff Law School
ESRC Centre for Business Relationships, Accountability, Sustainability and Society
83
Consultation on Animal Health Bill (supra n.70) under ‘Key Criteria’.