The document summarizes key events in the decline of the Ottoman Empire from the 1700s onwards. It discusses early military defeats that showed weakness, as well as internal reasons for decay like poor rulers and an outdated military. Reform attempts are outlined, such as those by Mahmud II and the Tanzimat reforms, but these failed to fully address the issues. Revolts and resistance to changes weakened the empire further. The Balkan Crisis and World War I ultimately led to the empire's fall.

1. Presented By
 Maham Tahir
 Iqra Tariq
 Laraib Azad
International Islamic University
Islamabad

2. The Ottoman Empire
and Suleiman
Poets produced works
in the Turkish
language.
Painters produced
detailed miniatures
and illuminated
manuscripts.
The royal architect
Sinan designed
magnificent mosques
and palaces.
Society was divided
into four classes, with
“men of the pen” and
“men of the sword” at
the top.
Non-Muslims were
organized into millets,
or religious
communities.
Suleiman had
absolute power.
Ottoman law was
based on Sharia.
The Ottomans
recruited
government and
military officers from
conquered people.
ARTS
SOCIETY
GOVERNMENT

3. The Sick Man of Europe
Decline of the Ottoman
Empire

4. Questions
 How did the military defeats of the 1700s signal
the decay of the Ottoman Empire?
 What were some of the reasons for internal
decay?
 How did Sultan’s attempt to reform?
 How did revolts and rebellions lead to further
disintegration
 What was the significance of the Eastern
question?
 What was the Balkan Crisis of 1876-1878?
 How did World War I lead to the empire’s fall?

5. Military Defeats of the 1700s
 1683: defeat after the siege of Vienna shows
Ottoman weakness
 Christian forces carve away at Ottoman lands
 Treaties of Karlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz
(1718) strip Ottoman of Hungary and
Transylvania
 Lose land in 1710s to Peter the Great
 Lose Crimea (Balkan Peninsula) to Catherine
the Great in late 1700s

6. Signs of Internal Decay
 Poor rulers and weak corrupt government
 Sultans want to modernize face opposition
from influential old groups and clerics
 Janissary army becomes outdated and
refuse to change
 Sultan Selim III assassinated by
Janissaries in 1807 after attempting to
modernize army and navy

7.  General lack of interest in industrialization
 Minority groups such as Christians and Jews
carry out trade with the west
 Competition with West  decline of local
artisans

8. Attempts at Reform
 Sultans modernize and secularize
government bureaucracy
 Boost western ideas, science and
technology
 Sometimes meet resistance from the
clergy

9.  (Mahmut II) Born July 20, 1784; died July
1, 1839, in Istanbul. Turkish sultan from
1808 to 1839.
 Mahmud II carried out a series of reforms
to overcome feudal disunity, create a
centralized governmental and
administrative apparatus, and bring a
chiefly superficial “Europeanization” to the
country.

10. Mahmud II (1808-1839)
 Built a small professional
army
 Tricks Janissaries into
revolting
 Crushes rebellion and
disbands Janissary corps
 Gets control over Ayan
 Begins policy of
westernization

11. Reforms, implemented in the 1820’s and early 1830’s
1. Included the abolition of the Janissary Corps.
2. Liquidation of the military fief system.
3. Establishment of ministries of the European type.
4. Elimination of the governor-generals’ right to
maintain their own troops.
5. Establishment of some secular schools and military
academies.

12. Failure of Reforms
 These reforms failed to eliminate the root causes of the decline of the
Ottoman Empire and its gradual loss of economic and political
independence.
 The rise of the anti-Turkish national liberation movement in the Balkans
and the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29 led to independence for Greece
and autonomy for Serbia, Moldavia, and Walachia. Mahmud II suffered
serious defeats in armed conflicts with the Egyptian pasha Muhammad Ali
(in 1831-33 and 1839).
 Military defeats combined with the privileges granted by Mahmud II to
Great Britain and France in the trade agreements of 1838 led to an increase
in Turkey’s dependence upon the European powers.

13. The Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II
 Janissaries - Took Christian
boys and made them slaves
 Under Mehmet II - By 16th
century they had control of
Mediterranean and Black
Seas fought with Portugal over
control of Indian Ocean-
 Mehmet aimed to recreate
Byzantine Empire as an
Islamic state attempted to rely
heavily on Italian culture and
fashion

14.  Western style reforms Tanzimat
 Established diplomatic corps & exchanged
ambassadors
 Westernization of military
 Officer`s education
 University education reorganized
 State run postal and telegraph systems
 Railways introduced
 Legal reforms
 Constitution written
Reforms of Mahmud II and 1876

15. The wearing of beards‫داڑھی‬ in the Ottoman military was regarded by
Mahmud II’s officials as
A. A sign of traditional Turkish dress and
retained to encourage nationalism.
B. Too close to the styles worn by the
rebellious Greeks and so deemed
treasonous. ‫غداری‬٬‫بغاوت‬
C. A sign of virility ‫بہادر‬٬‫مردانگی‬٬‫زور‬ and so
encouraged among officers.
D. A fire hazard, and so they ordered that
beards be removed.

16. Janissary Revolt in Serbia
 Tensions between Sultanate and
Janissaries led to revolt in 1805
 Serbian peasants helped defeat
Janissaries
 Serbs took opportunity and broke from
Empire (!)

17. Results of Revolt
 Selim III suspended reform program 1806,
but
 TOO LATE to prevent massive uprising in
Istanbul
 Selim captured and executed (gulp) before
capital recaptured

18. Traumatic episodes such as the Janissary revolt in
1805 taught the Ottomans that reform
A. Was hopeless.
B. Needed to be carried out more gradually
and sympathetically.
C. Needed to be carried out systematically
and forcefully.
D. Could only be carried out with the help of
the Europeans.

19. Tanzimat reforms from 1839 to 1876
 Westernization of education was introduced to other facets of Ottoman
society
 University education was reorganized
 Postal and telegraph systems were introduced; newspapers were
established
 Legal reforms were mandated
 New constitution along Western lines appeared in 1876 as the culmination of the
reforms.
 Artisans suffered from the opening of the empire to Western trade
 Introduces western communication systems
 Western style laws and constitution
 Some increased rights for women, Women gained little from the reforms

20. Army and Society in the Early
Tanzimat Era (1826-1853)
 1829 – Greeks gained independence
w/help of Britain, France, Russia
 Sultan Mahmud II saw loss of Greece as
sign of weakness in Ottoman financial and
military organization.
 Used outrage over loss of Greece to pass
reforms.

21. Tanzimat Reforms
1. Creation of new army corps
2. Elimination of Janissaries
2. Reduction of political power of
religious elite (Ulama)

22. Tanzimat Reforms (cont)
 Sultan Adul Mejid continued reforms in
1839
1. Military cadets sent to France &
Germany for training.
2. Military education model for general
education.
3. Foreign subjects taught, foreign
instructors employed
4. French became linga franca in
education

23. Effects of Tanzimat Reforms
1. Growth of wealth and influence of urban
elites (vis traditional nobles, janissaries,
Ulama)
2. Cultural and social effects including
European clothing styles, equal access
to courts for all males, equalization of
taxation

24. Limits to the Tanzimat Reforms
1. Rights and political participation for men
only.
2. Reforms decreased influence of women.
3. Cash economy and competitive labor
market drove women from work force.

25. Conclusion
 Using his long reign efficiently against any other center of power, Mahmud II
successfully modernized the Ottoman Empire, by transforming it into a centralized
and reform-oriented state.
 The Janissaries had become a social class, which engaged in trade etc. This
brought the elimination of the Janissaries. The abolishment of the Janissary corps
was also a step in Mahmud II’s plans for acquiring complete authoritative power.
Although some of the ayans did accomplish modernization in their localities, for
Mahmud II they were all obstacles to his rule over the people. So they were also
eliminated.
 Indeed, Mahmud II was the first Sultan to attain direct personal rule. The state had
always been personified in Sultan’s personality. However, other administrative
institutions all the time existed to control Sultan’s deeds. Mahmud II gained so
much power that no other institution could restrict his personal authority. In this
sense Mahmud II was the first among the Ottoman sultans.

26. Conclusion
 After gaining enough power to go on with any reform, Mahmud II increased the structural
power of the military and the civil bureaucracy. By setting apart the educational roots of
these two institutions from the traditional medrese system, he sowed the seeds of the
reformist, secular elite both within the military and in the civil bureaucracy.
 It is necessary to keep in mind that Mahmud II’s each and every reform served his
centralization policy. Each new, reformed institution added to his personal authority. Berkes
admires Mahmud II as a true reformer, because Mahmud II had a state project in his mind.
Establishment of cabinet-like institutions and rise of a new, open-minded intelligentsia were
parts of Mahmud II’s state project, which factually entailed further centralization and
eventually the absolute personal power of the Sultan. Especially the abolishment of the office
of Grand Vezir, and pushing the Þeyh-ul Ýslam office out of the scope of reform activity left
the Sultan’s personality as the only dominant power in conduct of the state.
 Tanzimat was a natural result of Mahmud II’s policies, just as the Young Turks. Mahmud II,
as a result of his centralized state philosophy, transferred the power, in order to reform and
improve the state and the people, from the Sultan to a handful of progressive elite, and this
elite has hold that power until today.

27. Muhammad Ali in Egypt
• Emerged as the ruler of the region
• He introduced Western-style military reforms
• Enabled him to ignore the Ottoman sultan
• Muhammad Ali extended his control to Arab
Syria
• Economic reforms based on commercial
crops
• Export of cotton less successful

28. Reforming Egypt
 Main goal: a European-style Egypt
 Nationalized all land so he owned all the
production of land
 Raised taxes on the people who previously owned
all the land
 Monopoly on trade in Egypt
 Established a modern navy

29. Agricultural Reforms
 1813: sharing of common land (changed the state of
the fellaheen in Egypt)
 Took hold of the lands from the Mamelukes
 Improved the irrigations systems
 Cultivation of cotton in Delta starting 1822

30. Educational Reforms
 Educational system was founded in 1811
 Took effort to educate all people in his country,
especially girls
 Established many schools particularly in rural areas
 Offered scholarships for students to go study
outside of Egypt

31. Muhammad Ali in Egypt
• Muhammad Ali’s Khedive successors
• Muhammad Ali's successors continued his general
plans with disastrous results.
– Cotton production expanded at the expense of
food products.
– As a single export commodity, cotton vulnerable
to price, demand swings in world market
– Educational reforms were limited to the elite
– The general population barely profited from the
reforms.

32. Muhammad Ali in Egypt
• By the middle of the 19th century
– Khedives were heavily in debt to European creditors
– Europeans were attracted to Egyptian cotton and the plan to construct the
Suez Canal
– Islamic intellectuals met in Egypt to discuss means of expelling the
European threat
» Some argued for strict Islamic religious observance
» Others for greater Westernization in science and technology
» The two groups were unable to reconcile their different approaches.
• French and British investors
– Held the majority of shares in the Suez Canal
– Urged their governments to intervene directly in Egypt
– An Egyptian army rebellion under Ahmad Orabi
– British send military units to Egypt in 1882
– Thereafter the administration of Egypt was in the hands of British consuls.

33. Military Reforms
 Conscripted peasants to work in the
army
 Invited Turks into the country to lead
his army
 Created Western-styled schools to
train doctors, engineers, and
veterinarians to supply services for
his army
 Sent soldiers to European countries
for training in modern techniques

34. Industrial Reforms
 He tried constructing a modern industrial
system to process raw materials.
 Created factories
 Created a cotton industry
 He tried constructing a modern industrial system
to process raw materials.
 Created factories
 Created a cotton industry

35. Failures of Reforms
 Muhammad Ali was unable to sever ties with
Ottoman Sultanate
 Industrial experiments failed, due to Egypt’s lack of
power sources and a skilled working class
 Agricultural sector declined due to excessive
taxation and monopoly on trade
 Financial requirements increased because of military
campaigns

36. How did Muhammad Ali come to Power
 Napoleon & French invade and defeat Mamluks
 Ali comes to power in chaos after British chase French
out
 Build an out-to-date military
 Conscription for peasants
 French officers to train them
 Western tactics & organization of supplies

37. Wahabi War (1811-1818)
 Muhammed Ali lead a war
against the Wahabi Muslim
sect in Arabia.
 The Wahabis were trying to
capture Muslim Holy place
like Mecca and Medina.
 The Egyptians regained
their territory and settled in
the name of Ottoman
Empire.

38. Greek War of Independence (1821-
1832)
 Egypt aided the Ottoman Turks when
fighting the Greeks.
 Muhammed’s son, Ibrahim, lead the
Egyptian troops in Greece.
 But the British, French and Russians came
in to help out Greece.

39. Greek War of Independence (1821-
1832)
 The war ended, at the Battle of Navarino, in the
defeat of both the Ottoman Turks and Egyptians.
 This directly caused in their new war between the
Ottomans and Egyptians.

40. First Turko-Egyptian War (1832-
1833)
 Muhammed was hoping to receive Syria as a
token of thanks from the Ottomans
 After not receiving an reward for helping out the
Turks during the war, resulted in the First Turko –
Egyptian War.

41. First Turko-Egyptian War (1832-
1833)
 Ali invaded several major cities in the
region, as well at Constantinople.
(Ottoman Capital)
 Russia came intervened the war and in
order to restore peace, Egypt was
awarded with Syria

42. Sultan Abdul Hamid(1876-1909)
 Throw out constitution
 Reject Tanzimat
 Stress Islam
 Increase ties to Germany
 Military and educational reforms
 Censorship & authoritarianism

43. Overthrow of Ottoman Sultan in 1908
 Sultan Abdul Hamid was autocratic ruler who stopped many
reforms
 Nullified constitution
 Restricted civil liberties
 Deprived elite of power
 Bloodless coup in 1908
 Young Turks wanted to restore constitution and start reform
again
 Military was successful in overthrowing of the sultan

44. The
Crimean
Wars:
1854-1856
Sultan Abdul
Hamid II
1876-1901
The Young Turks
1889-1908
Tanzimat
Reforms
1839-1876
Sultan
Mahmud II
1808-1839

45. Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
 Constantinople remained the capital of Ottoman
Empire until 1922
 Dissolved by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
 Formed the modern Republic
 Constantinople officially renamed Istanbul in
1930

46. Decline’ and Alternative Conceptualizations of Change
Internal factors such as corruption and moral decay;
External factors such as uncontrollable trade effects or
climatic changes.
1) Military factors: the loss of military strength against the
external world
2) Economic factors: the regression of economic indicators
3) Political factors: loss of the power of central authority
against internal forces.

47. Explain the economic and military crisis that had a severe impact
on the Ottoman Empire.
 The essence of the crisis
 growing world economy and new military technologies made payment of part-time
soldiers by land grants economically unfeasible and obsolete.
 Economy
 Inflation which resulted from New World silver flooding east from Europe.
 The remaining landholders saw their fixed incomes from taxes decrease in the face of
rising inflation, Consequently, land returned to the state. Others on fixed incomes, such
as scholars and holy men, also suffered financially.
 Military
 Cannon and lighter-weight firearms altered military strategies. The Janissary corps
increased in size, raising the cost of government.
 The role of the elite cavalry diminished correspondingly. The government reduced the
number of land grants to the cavalry, who became displaced and disgruntled.
 The result
 was widespread rebellion
 Deterioration in the quality of the growing Janissary corps—who often hired
substitutes
 the continued evolution of military technology meant an increasing reliance on
supplemental and part-time troops.

48. Ottoman history (1566-1792) has been
called “the Era of Decline in Faith and
State”The Decline is relative toThe Ottoman
Golden Age
European Expansion and Advancements
And the decline was slow, gradual, interrupted
by periods of growth, and lasted for more than
three centuries
The Era of Decline in Faith and State

49. The Era of Decline in Faith and State
Ottoman Decline was caused by
 Weak leadership Selim II (aka the Sloth)
Corrupt government officials
Powerful janissaries and janissary revolts
Heavy taxes = revolts and unhappy peasantry
The Ottoman Empire was very diverse ethnically + nationalism =
many groups wanting their freedom
Trade routes changing to bypass the Middle East in favor of water
routes The

50. The Era of Decline in Faith and State
Ottoman Decline was caused by
New World silver flooding the market and
causing silver to inflate = inflation
The Ottomans signed capitulations with
the European countries = loss of revenue
Loss of intellectualism = loss of
innovation = fall behind the Europeans in
technology

51. The decline was in terms of
1. Loss of territories.
2. Loss of military power.
3. Economic and political stagnation.
The transformation was in terms of consecutive unsuccessful
attempts of the sultans and high bureaucrats to adapt the Ottoman
state to the realities of Modernity.

52. The decline started when the expansion stopped.
The expansion was in the character of the early Ottoman
state, it was in the heart of Ottoman culture, and it was also
the source of its energy.
When the sultan retired at his palace in Istanbul, the
Ottoman Empire changed its initial character; the Turks had
to change their worldview.

53. The decline affected the basics of Ottoman state structure.
i. It coincided with the rise of Europe.
ii. In the 17th century, the Ottoman army starts losing its power.
iii. The Europeans took the monopole with the trade with India, China and
penetrated in the Ottoman markets.
iv. A number of unfavorable for the Ottomans trade agreements,
called Capitulations, gave to the Europeans a footstep for aggressive
trade policy.
v. The Europeans started to sell their goods in the empire in a very high
price.
vi. The empire soon became short of gold and silver. Silver-based monetary
system of Ottomans was shaken with the discovery of the New World.
vii. The inflation became a serious problem. The Ottoman army, artisans and
producers suffered under the new economic conditions.

54. Decline of Ottoman Empire
 Problems of organization and government
within the Ottoman Empire
 The power of janissaries often overrode a
weak sultan, and military elite force
occasionally acted as “king makers”
 Frequent disputes over succession

56. THE BREAKUP OF THE OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
 1571 A.D. – decline began after several military defeats
 1683 A.D.-failed invasion of Vienna, Austria
 Economic problems
1. trade competition from Americas
2. cheap products from India & Far
East
3. development of other trade routes
4. rising unemployment & near
bankruptcy

58.  Economic weakness caused military weakness
 After losing WWI, the empire lost control of Arab lands
 By 1924, the Ottoman Empire no longer existed
THE BREAKUP OF THE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
continued……..

59. Decline
 Military Defeat—Lepanto in 1571;
Vienna—1683
 Russian expansion to Black Sea and
Austrian expansion in Balkans
 Weak Rulers: Selim (1566-1574) “The
Glutton”; Ibrahim (1640-1648) drowned
280 concubines in the Bosphorus.
 Internal disruptions—Janissaries revolt

60. Decline Continued……
 Revolts in the Balkans (Serbia in 1804;
Greece in 1821
 Failed Reforms Selim III (1789-1807)
attempts to introduce European style
military opposed by clerics and
Janissaries.
 1850s Tanzimat reforms of bureaucracy
fail due to military losses (Crimea) and
continued Balkan revolts.

61. Why the Decline
 Doctrine of Closed Revelation
 European incursions (British Land Bridge
to India; Russian and Habsburg
expansionism; European devotion to
Holy Land)

62. Decline
 After Suleyman’s death the empire began to decline over the next 300
years.
 It would gain and lose territory over those 300 years.
 By the 20th century it was weak and became known as the Sick man of
Europe.
 Ottoman Issuance of Fetva- Document November 1914
 One of the primary causes blamed for the fall of the Ottoman Empire was
the decline of the Sultanate. Among the results of the decline of the
Sultanate was the weakening of the central government's control over
the empire.

63.  The Ottoman Empire in 1914 was commonly known as
'the sick man of Europe', a sign that the once-great
power was crumbling.
The Turks had dominated the Eastern Mediterranean
for half a millennium, controlling vast swathes of Central
Europe, Arab lands as far down as Egypt and had at
one stage been knocking on the doors of Vienna and
Venice.
By the 20th century all that remained in Ottoman hands
outside Turkey was Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and
parts of the Arabian Peninsula.
Decline

64. Decline of the Empire
 By the 1600’s lost control of the silk and spice
trade
 Europeans had new sea routes – Bypassed Turks
 Government became corrupt
 Rebellions among Janissaries
 1700’s lost Crimean Peninsula, Black Sea and Sea of
Azov to Russians
 French invaded Egypt in 1798 – Had been Ottoman
 1923 – Ottoman Empire ended when Turkey established
itself as a republic

65. Turkish Ottoman Empire
Reasons for the Decline of the Empire
Opportunities to add new territories ran out because of
strengthening military power of other Muslims and of
Christians.
Janissaries or soldiers did not pay attention to the new
European weapons technologies and fell behind.
Russia seized territories in Asia.
Greece declared its independence in 1830 and Serbia in
1867.
Muhammad Ali made Egypt an autonomous region by
1820.

66. Turkish Ottoman Empire
Independent rulers collected their own taxes, so there
was limited revenue for the central government.
European trade decreased because Europeans were
focused on the Atlantic Ocean basin.
Because Ottoman empire produced mostly raw materials,
they financed many of their commercial developments
through Europe.
Capitulations allowed foreign governments to levy duties
on goods sold in Ottoman ports.

67. Mahmud II’s Reforms
 Mahmud II created system of education for boys to learn technology
and military academics.
 He established scientific, military, and technical academies.
 He tried to transfer power from military elites to the sultan by taxing
rural landlords and abolishing military land grants.
 He constructed new roads, built telegraph lines, and a postal
service.
Turkish Ottoman Empire

68. Tanzimat’s Reforms
 They drew inspiration from the Enlightenment ideas and constitutional
foundations.
 They established commercial codes, a penal code, a maritime code and a
new civil code.
 They issued decrees to safeguard the rights of subjects including public
trials, rights of privacy and equality before the law, Muslim or not.
Turkish Ottoman Empire

69. Young Turks
 Exiled Ottoman subjects living in Paris promoted reform and
used newspapers to spread the message.
 They dethroned Abd al-Hamid in 1909 and established
Mehmed Rashid as a puppet sultan.
Turkish Ottoman Empire

70. Key Terms:
 Capitulations – agreements that excluded European visitors
from Ottoman law and provided them with extraterritoriality.
 Extraterritoriality – the right to exercise jurisdiction over own
citizens.
 Young Turks – a party that wanted reform, universal suffratge,
and emancipation for women.
Turkish Ottoman Empire

71. Impact of western revolutions:
 Tanzimat reformers and Young Turks were both inspired by many
Enlightenment and constitutional ideas of the American and French
Revolutions.
 During the reign of Abd al-Hamid reformers convinced him to accept a
constitution that limited his authority and establish a representative government.
 Even though this constitutional government was overthrown, it was later
reinstated by the Young Turks.
Turkish Ottoman Empire

72.  Weak ruler
 Power struggles between government officials, religious experts &
janissaries
 Provincial official sides with land-owners, keep taxes from sultan
 Artisans losing out to imported goods don’t have advance weaponry
the best does
 European countries start to take away part of empire survived
because Europe want to keep the balance of power, British help
ottomans to keep Russians from Istanbul & control of the
Mediterranean Sea
What was the nature of 18th century crisis in the ottoman
empire and why was it not fatal?

73. The End
•During World War I the Ottomans sided with the Central
powers
•The British overtook Jerusalem and Baghdad from the
Ottomans
•Arabia then followed and rose up against the Ottoman rule
By 1918 the empire collapsed
•The Ottoman Empire
officially ended on
Nov. 1, 1922.
•Turkey was declared a republic.

74. After WWI
 In 1920, the Treaty of Sevres split the
Ottoman territory up between the Allied or
Western powers.
 France was given Syria and Lebanon
 The British controlled Palestine and Iraq
 Turkey was independent.

75. Consequences
 The Ottomans fought on the losing side
during WWI which led to the division of
former territories between France and
Britain
 Europeans did not take into account
religious and ethnic differences when
creating the boundaries for the new
countries.
 As a result there has been a lot of conflict.

76. Abdul Hamid (1878-1908) last
sultan
 Attempts return to despotic absolutism,
nullifies constitution and decreases civil
rights
 Continues to adopt western tech and
military
 Forced out with bloodless coup

77. Repression and Revolt
New reforms don’t appease
westerners and their
supporters while also
upsetting conservative ulamas
and ayans.
SO….Sultan Abdul Hamid
(1878-1908) attempts to create
order through absolute rule
His rule ends in a bloodless
coup supported by the
Ottoman Society for Union &
Progress (Young Turks)
whose goal was to restore the
1876 constitution

78. The “Sick Man” Dies
 1908 coup is supported by the military, who
introduce many reforms (education, status of
women, etc.) but there are immediate
problems:
 Factional fighting
 Outbreak of WWI
 Continued subjugation of Arab portions of the
empire
 Ottoman Empire ends in 1914

79. The Crimean War
 1854-1856
 Britain and France support Ottmans in war
against Russian expansion into Black sea
 Costly war with over 250,000 casualties
 Defeat Russia’s forces but shows
weakness of Ottoman Empire

80. As is that weren’t bad enough…
 Construction of Suez Canal in 1869
increases geographic importance of Egypt
 Unification of Italy in 1860s adds another
power into the Mediterranean
 Montenegro, Romania, and Bulgaria
struggle for greater autonomy

81. Balkan Crisis of 1876-1878
 Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and
Serbia rise up
 Turks suppress rebellion ruthlessly
 Russia attacks in 1877, and defeats in
1878
 Congress of Berlin of 1878 presided over
by Bismarck gives Montenegro, Romania,
Bulgaria, and Serbia independence

82. The Rise of the Young Turks
 Ottoman Society for
Union and Progress
a.k.a. Young Turks
formed in Paris 1889
 Goal: restore the
constitution of 1876
 Successful in 1908

83. Problems 1908-1914
 Division between military leaders 
fighting
 Young Turks struggle to keep empire
together
 Increasing Arab nationalism  more loss
of land

84. Balkan Wars & World War I
 1911-1912Italy attacks Ottoman and takes
control of remaining land in North Africa
 First Balkan War of 1912: Greece, Serbia, and
Bulgaria defeat Ottoman forces
 During WWI join the Central powers and are
defeated in 1918
 Empire collapses, remaining middle eastern
possessions rebel and are taken over by Britain
and France
 Modern State of Turkey formed in 1920s

85. Ottoman Empire during WWI

86. Gradual Fall
• Suleyman kills one son and exiles another
• Third son inherits throne but rules weakly
• Later sultans kill their brothers and leave
their
sons uneducated
• Long line of weak sultans leads to empire’s
eventual fall

87. Reform
 Stage 1: Modest Reform (18th century)
 Sultan Selim III introduces new tech. (printing press) & seeks greater
bureaucratic efficiency
 Result: Angers Janissaries & factions within the bureaucracy
 Stage 2: Reforms Continue (1826)
 Sultan Mahmud II creates a rival army to break Janissary power and also
breaks ayan power
 Farther-reaching reforms are based on western precedents
 Stage 3: The Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876)
 Reorganizes large sections of society on along western lines

88. LET SEE THE BRIEF INTRODUCTION
 1876: The proposed constitution takes effect and greatly centralizes the Ottoman government. Young Ottomans
Form New Constitution Under Abdul Hamid II
 1877-1878: Russo-Turkish War, Abdul Hamid II Suspends Constitution and Parliament
 1878: Constitution is suspended, and the writers are exiled, by Sultan Abdulhamid II.
 1898: Crete occupied by Europeans
 1902-1903: Macedonia Rebels
 1908: After years of gradual territorial loss, Young Turks push for the sultan to institute constitutional government
and guarantee basic rights, in order to reform the declining Turkish Empire. Eventually they lead a rebellion with
several military officers later that year.
 1909: Abdul Hamid II Overthrown by Young Turks in Parliament
 1910: Albania Becomes Independent
 1912: The Ottomans are defeated by Italy in a relatively small war. The Ottomans lose holdings in Africa. Italy
Conquers Libya
 1912-1913: 1st and 2nd Balkan Wars
 1914:The Ottomans enter world war one, on the side of the Central Powers, Ottomans Form a Secret Alliance
With Germany; Deport Armenians


89. LET SEE THE BRIEF
INTRODUCTION
 1915: British Land at Gallipoli
 1916: Hussein Led Revolt in Arabia Against Ottomans
 1917: Balfour Declaration
 1919: British, French, and Greek armies occupy land near Istanbul (not Constantinople)Mustafa Kemal forms a
new government. : League of Nations Mandates Formed From Former Ottoman Territories, : Ataturk Takes
Power, Attempts to Westernize Turkey
 1919-1922: War Between Turkey and Greece
 1922: Mustafa Kemal defeats Greek armies; retakes Anatolia
 1923: Assembly declares Turkey a republic with Kemal Ataturk as its president.
 1924: Ministry of Religious Affairs is abolished. Turkish government becomes effectively secular.
 1925: The Sheikh Said Rebellion erupts in Eastern Turkey, fueled by Kurdish revolutionaries.
 1926: Turkish civil code is accepted which increases rights for women and prohibits polygamy.
 1927: First Turkish census is taken.
 1928: The clause retaining Islam as state religion is removed from constitution. The Turkish Alphabet is replaced
by the Latin alphabet.
 1929: Women are given the right to vote and run for office.

90.  Once a super power, the Ottoman Empire fell because of a combination of
internal degeneration and external pressures. Loss of economic vitality
resulted as Europe circumnavigated Africa for trade and relied on the
Americas rather than the Ottoman middleman. Industrialized Europe soon
surpassed outdated Ottoman traditions. Poor leadership gave way to loss of
centralized control and the ultimate collapse after supporting Germany in
WWI.
Summary

91. Conclusions
 Like all empires throughout Islamic history and world history in general, the Ottomans did
not last forever. They were the last great Muslim empire, finally ending just one generation
ago. The reasons for their decline are many. Political corruption weakened them in the face
of Europe’s rising power. Economically, many factors (both within and outside of Ottoman
control) helped bring poverty and despair to the empire that was once the economic
powerhouse of Europe. The Islamic character of the empire was lost. And finally, the
European idea of nationalism dealt the empire its death-blow. The purpose of this series is
not to languish on past failures and mistakes. It is to educate people, Muslim and none, to
understand the mistakes of the past to help prevent the same mistakes in the future.