This document outlines the key topics covered in 5 units of an Organisational Behaviour course. Unit I defines organisational behaviour and explores its nature and scope using multiple approaches. It also examines models of behaviour processes and organisational behaviour. Unit II defines groups and their types, and explores theories of group formation and development. It also covers group decision making. Unit III defines motivation and examines theories of motivation like Maslow's hierarchy and Herzberg's theories. It also covers morale, conflict, and motivational techniques. Unit IV covers stress management, sources of stress, and coping strategies. Unit V defines organisational change and development, examining forces of change, resistance

1. ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
UNIT-I
Organisational Behaviour-definition-features of organizational behaviour-various
approaches to study of Organisational Behaviour- process of behaviour –model of
Organisational Behaviour.
UNIT-II
Group dynamics- definition-types of groups- theories of group formation- problems of
informal groups- group norms- types, meaning of group cohesiveness- five stages of
group development. Meaning and nature of group decision making – types- steps- styles-
techniques-advantages and disadvantages in group decision making.
UNIT-III
Definition of motivation and motive- nature of motivation- importance of motivation-
techniques to increase motivation- motivation and behaviour: need cause the human
behaviour –theories of motivation- Maslow‘s needs hierarchy theory, Alfred‘s ERG
theory- Herzberg motivation rtheory. Motivational techniques. Definition of morale-
factors affecting moral- cause of low morale- factors improving morale- use of attitude
scale and opinion survey- meaning, definition, features and types of conflict situations-
causes of conflict- conflict management – preventive measures and curative measures.
UNIT-IV
Stress management- Meaning and definition- nature of stress- sources of stress-extra
organizational and group stressors- consequences of stress- coping strategies for stress-
individual approachesd and organizational approaches.
UNIT-V
Meaning of changes- forces-types-managing planned change-planning, assessing and
implementing the change- causes of resistance to change- overcoming resistance.
Meaning and definition of Organisational Development- characteristics –need-benefits-
limitations-steps in OD.

2. .
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
UNIT-I
Definition:
―Organizational behavior is the study and application of knowledge about human
behavior in organizations as it relates to other system elements such as structure,
technology and the external social system‖. -Keith Devis
Nature and scope of OB:
1.A separate field of study and not a discipline only:
OB is not based on a specific discipline. It is based on multi interdisciplinary
orientation . So it is better to call OB as a separate field of study.
2. An interdisciplinary approach:
OB is essentially an interdisciplinary approach:
Because it tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines
like psychology, sociology, and anthropology to make them applicable and to study OB.
3. An applied science:
OB applies various researches to solve organizational problems which are related to
human behavior. The basic difference between OB and pure science is pure science
concentrates on fundamental research and OB concentrates on applied researches.
4.A Normative science.
OB suggests how the findings of applied science can be applied to socially accepted
organizational goals. So it deals with what is accepted be individuals and society.
5. A humanistic approach:
OB treats people as thinking , feeling human beings. It is based on the belief the human
beings have desire to be independent, creative, and productive. And if people are given
proper environment, it can be fully realized by them.
6. A total system approach:
In socio-psychological framework, man is a complex system. So this systems approach
is one which integrates all the variables affecting organizational functioning concerned
with people.
Scope of OB:
1.People:
Organization consists of groups and individual. And the groups may be large, small,
formal, informal, official, unofficial. Thy are dynamic. It may change every day. People
thing to set different goals and try to achieve it. So the organizations exists to serve
people and not the people exist to serve the organization.

3. 2.Structure:
It defines the sole relationship of people in an organization. Different people in an
organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others. It
leads to division of labor and people perform and work to accomplish the organizational
goal. Thus the structure relates to power and duties.
3.Technology:
People cannot do their work without the assistance of tools, buildings, machines,
processes and resources. So it refers to the technology which differs based on
organizations and its nature and affects the work and working conditions in large manner.
So technology brings effectiveness and at the same time restricts people in various ways.
4. Social system:
A single organization cannot exist also. It is a part of whole. There are many other
organization because one organization cannot give everything. All the organizations
influence each other. It affects the attitude, their working conditions and above all brings
competition for resources and power.
Approaches to organizational behaviour:
1. Inter-disciplinary approach:
It is an integration of all other social sciences and disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, organizational theories. etc., Man is studied as a whole so all disciplines
concerning man are integrated.
2.Human resources or supportive approach:
It is just opposite to traditional approach in which the employees were driven by the
managers. So this approach is developmental and facilitative which provides a climate
where a worker can develop self control, responsibilities and other abilities to achieve the
organizational goal.
3. Contingency approach:
Certain principles are used in all circumstances otherwise different treatment is required
in different cases after analyzing the various situational variables carefully. So it is called
situational approach.
4.System approach:
Organizational is a social system. There are so may variables in the system which are
inter-related and independent. So the manager must think over the effects of an action on
the whole or part of the system before making a decision.
5.Productivity approach:
It refers to the numerical value of the ratio of output to input. If the ratio is higher, then it
is meant that the efficiency and the effectiveness .

4. Process of behaviour:
Based on the analysis of behaviour process over period of time, four model of
behaviour process have been developed;
1.S-R model
2.S-O-R model
3. S-O-B-A model
4. S-O-B-C model
1. S-R model:
This model of human behaviour suggest that the behaviour is caused by certain
reasons. The reasons may be internal feeling(motivation) and external environment
(stimulus). The stimulus may be heat, light, piece of information etc., that directly affect
the activity of organism.
2. S-O-R model:
This model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O(organism‖) in the classical
S-R model. The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed in the organism and
followed by a behaviour.
Here O which is active, is doing some functions like scanning the surrounding,
monitoring its own action, seeking certain conditions and avoiding others ie.,
maintenance function and adjustment function.
3.S-O-B-A model:
It is acomprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and
human being. But O is not active, but it is mediating , maintenan and adjustive function
between S and R.
B refers to the behaviour. It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body
movement, talking, facial expressions, emotions, sentiments and thinking.
A stands for accomplishments and sonsequences. When behaviour acts on the
outside world, it leads to accomplishments.
4.S-O-B-C model:
It incorporates a more complex mechanism human behaviour which modifies and
extends S-O-R model. In this nmodel, S stands for the situation which is more
comprehensive than the stimuli of S-O-R model. O is the organism represents both
physiological and psychological being. B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and
covert. C stands for consequences both overt and covert.
Models of Organizational Behavior 1. Autocratic 2. Custodial 3. Supportive 4.
Collegial 5. System
Autocratic model:
In the autocratic model, the employees endured the ill treatment silently. The result is
obviously insecurity and frustration which they vent out on their family and friends. Such
behavior jeopardize their personal and social relationships.

5. Custodial model
In the custodial approach, the employees cease to depend on the managers but their
dependence on the organization increases. This helps in retaining the employees. For
example, if an organization offers regular increments, bonus, and an attractive pension
package, the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization.
The Collegial Model
Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model. The term 'collegial' refers to a
group of persons working for a common purpose. It is team/group oriented generally
conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System
behaviour model:
It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to,
and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to
those external events. This is useful because we design and program primarily to service
these events.
The Supportive Model
The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money. Good
leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization
achieve its objectives. In this model, managers believe that an inadequately supportive
work climate leads to resistance among the employees.
Unit-II
Group
Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for
common goals and develop a shared attitude.
The following are the features of the group:-
a. TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people. With a single
individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction.
b. COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that s/he is a
part of the group and be aware of his membership. If not aware, there will be no
meaningful interaction.
c. INTERACTION - Each member should share her/his ideas with others through
communication, at least occasionally.

6. d. SHARED GOAL INTEREST – Every group has a common objective. The shared goal
interest/s brings the group members together.
Types of Groups
1. Primary & Secondary Groups:-
A primary group has intimate, face to face association & co-operation e.g. family,
neighbourhood groups, friendship groups
A secondary group is formal, may not have any interest in the problems & pleasure of
others.
2. Membership & Reference Groups:
A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs.
A reference group is one with which the individual identifies. The attractiveness of the
reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who
aspires for it.
3. Command & Task Groups:
A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common
supervisor e.g. a production manager & his subordinates in his department.
A task group is usually formed to solve a problem. It is comprised of the employees who
work together to complete a particular task.
4. In-groups & Out-groups:
In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning.
The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups.
5. Formal & Informal groups:
Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall
organizational mission:
a. Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals
b. Concentrates more on the performance of job
c. People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly
d. Co-ordination of members are controlled through process, procedures etc
Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological
forces operating at the workplace.

7. a. A natural outcome at the work place & not designed and planned
b. Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal
organization
c. Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization
THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE, WHEN WE OBSERVE
THE Group Formation.
Forming
This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to
develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them.
This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop. Group
members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through
experimentation. Other members’ reactions will determine if a behavior will be
repeated. This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will
be decided.
Storming
During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise and
differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface. If the group is
unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared
goals, the group may collapse at this point. It is important to work through the
conflict at this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary for there to be
discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the
direction the group is to move in.
Norming
Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of how to get
its work done. Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted
by members of the group. Formal and informal procedures are established in
delegating tasks, responding to questions, and in the process by which the group
functions. Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole
operates.
Performing
During this final stage of development, issues related to roles, expectations, and
norms are no longer of major importance. The group is now focused on its task,
working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals. The group will find
that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new
skills and sharing roles..
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Groups

8. The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational
behavior.
Types of Groups
Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)
Small groups and primary groups: Small group has the criterion of small size such that
there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group.
Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship,
loyalty, and common sense of values among members. An example of primary group is
family. The work group of a person is also a primary group.
All primary groups are small groups. But all small groups are not primary groups.
Coalition: Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a
specific purpose. But it does not have a formal internal structure. Still its members act as
a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed.
Membership groups and Reference groups: A person is a member in the
membership group. The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to
him. Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups.
Why Do Inviduals Form Groups?
Theodore Newcomb's Balance Theory: According to this theory, persons are attracted
to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and
goals. Once the relationship is formed, a balance is maintained between the attraction and
the common attitudes. If an imbalance occurs, there is an attempt to restore the balance,
and if the balance cannot be restored, the relationship dissolves.
Exchange Theory of Group Formation: An interaction between two or more persons
has rewards and costs. Rewards from interactions gratify needs. Cost is incurred due to
anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, and fatigue.
Disadvantages of informal groups
Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems
that require astute and careful management attention.
Resistance to change.
Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective
of their "culture" and therefore resist change. For example, if restriction of output was the

9. norm in an autocratic management group, it must continue to be so, even though
management changes have brought about a more participative administration
Role conflict.
The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal
organizational objectives. What is good for and desired by informal group members is not
always good for the organization. Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of
the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the
firm.
Rumor
The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance. Ill-informed employees
communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on
employees. This can undermine morale, establish bad attitudes, and often result in
deviant or, even violent behavior.
Conformity: This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative, creativity, and
diversity of performance. In some British factories, if a group member gets "out of line‖,
tools may be hidden, air may be let out of tires, and other group members may refuse to
talk to the deviant for days or weeks. Obviously, these types of actions can force a good
worker to leave the organization.
Benefits of the informal organization
Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for
management, they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization.
Blend with formal system:Informal relations in the organization serve to preserve the
organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the
formal policies, rules, regulations, and procedures." No college or university could
function merely by everyone following the "letter of the law" with respect to written
policies and procedures.
Lighten management workload
Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal
organization is cooperating with them. This encourages delegation, decentralization, and
greater worker support of the manager, which suggests a probable improvement in
performance and overall productivity..
Fill gaps in management abilities
Employees experience frustration, tension, and emotional problems with management
and other employees. The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

10. and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly
and candidly. In faculty lounge conversations, frustrations with the dean, department
head, or students are "blown off" among empathetic colleagues.
Encourage improved management practice
Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare,
plan, organize, and control in a more professional fashion. Managers who comprehend
the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a "check and balance" on their
use of authority.
Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis
The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984, argued,
that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations. could not adequately
understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing, or how to initiate adequate
solutions..
NORMS DEFINED: Norms are generally the unwritten, unstated rules that govern the
behavior of a group. Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social
sanctioning. Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society. Norms
are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide
by the norms.
Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each
other and how far one wants to remain as a group member.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS
i) Cohesive group are highly motivated.They have increased morale.
ii)There are less conflicts .
ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group.
iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to
have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less
work anxieties.
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS
i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of
ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself.
ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low.
competition
GROUP COHESIVENESS
Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each
other and how far one wants to remain as a group member.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS
i) Cohesive group are highly motivated.They have increased morale.
ii)There are less conflicts .
ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group.

11. iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to
have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less
work anxieties.
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS
i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of
ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself.
ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low.
CARRON'S MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion
1. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
the most general and remote, refer to the normative forces holding a group together.
(contracts, scholarships, family expectations)
These influences can hold a group together, although other factors such as age, proximity,
or eligibility requirements can also play an important role.
2. PERSONAL FACTORS
refer to the individual characteristics of group members, such as participation motives.
Three Motives
task motivation (associated with task cohesion)
affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)
self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)
Carron‘s Model
3. LEADERSHIP FACTORS
include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships
they establish with their groups.
The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion.
Specifically clear, consistent, unambiguous communication from coaches and captains
regarding team goals, etc…
Carron‘s Model
4. TEAM FACTORS

12. refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports), group productivity norms,
desire for group success, and team stability.
The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance
Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect
on performance for co-acting.
Co-acting Teams--archery, bowling, golf, riflry, skiing, wrestling.
Mixed--football, baseball, track.
Interacting--basketball, hockey, soccer, volleyball.
DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY
whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion.
Circular relationship.
OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION
Team Satisfaction--an individual factor. (Circular)
Conformity--the more cohesive the group, the more influence the group has on its
individual members.
Adherence--exercise groups. Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend
more classes, arrive on time, less likely to drop out, more resistant to disruptions in
group, more likely experience positive affect related to exercise, have stronger efficacy
beliefs related to exercise.
Other Factors…
Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual
receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion.
Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group
members have been together.
The more cohesive a group is, the greater an influence it will have on individual members
to conform to the group's norms.
Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion.

13. Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive, which leads to improvements
in performance.
Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity,
feeling of cohesion increase.
Common Barriers to Group Cohesion
Clash of personalities in the group
Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group
Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and
members
One or more members struggling for power
Frequent turnover of group members
Disagreement on group goals and objectives
GROUP DECISION MAKING:
What are the advantages of group decision making?
Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would
depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it. There are
numerous advantages of group decision making:
1. Diversity: Varied cultures, age groups, gender, etc all add to the diversity of group
which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up
with.
2. Varied experiences: There are difference in fields of experience and amount of
experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences
people have had even with the same problem. This pool of experience can be a great
advantage.
3. Enhanced memory for facts: An individual may forget a particular piece of
information, but as there are a number of people involved here, there is the combined
memory of all members to recollect data.
4. Greater Acceptability of decisions: As everyone has made some contribution to the
decision, people tend to be more accepting of the decision. Also those who may not have
contributed still support it as ―the group‖ has come to this decision.

14. 5. Error detection: When there are many people working together, mistakes and errors
that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by
other team members.
6. collective understanding: The members together come to a decision after much
deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of
action to be followed.
7. Less influence of bias: Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have
to recognize and eliminate them.
8. more creative solutions: With so many people involved, more creative and innovative
solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop.
9. shared responsibility: There are a number of people involved, so no one person has to
shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision.
10. motivational effect: The group decision making may even have a motivational effect
on the team if the team is a successful one.
11. simplifies complex decisions: Many complex decisions can be made by the group
decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle.
• What are the disadvantages of group decision making?
While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual
members may outperform the group. In fact, at times, what are the very advantages of
group decision making become disadvantages.
1. Diversity: Too much diversity, or diversity when diversity is not needed, can reduce
cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process.
2. Time used: With too many people involved, more time is required to reach a decision
which reduces efficiency.
3. Group think: If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of
required information, the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think
and individual performances may reflect better results. This is particularly true for highly
cohesive groups.
4. diffusion of responsibility: As numerous people are involved, no one person wants to
assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results.
5. potential for conflict: If the group is too large, or low on cohesiveness or too diverse,
and sometimes even if none of these factors are present, there is the potential for conflict
which may reduce output.

15. 6. group polarization: People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions
in a group than individually. This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but
extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated.
7. cost to organizations: The cost in terms of time, money and resources is high where
group decision making is involved which may not always be viable.
8. competition: If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is
not motivational, group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among
individual members.
9. lack of objective direction: In a group without a leader, there may be a lack of
direction and the decisions
Motivation:
Need hierarchy theory
Main article: Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation.
The theory can be summarized as follows:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only
unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to
the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at
least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and
psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as
follows:
Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
Belongingness/Love/Friendship
Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
Self actualization
Herzberg's two-factor theory

16. Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, a.k.a. intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes
that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead
to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction.[7]
The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a
person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.
He distinguished between:
Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give
positive satisfaction, and
Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not
motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you
healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.The theory is sometimes called the
"Motivator-Hygiene Theory" and/or "The Dual Structure Theory."
Alderfer's ERG theory
ERG theory (existence, category. The growth category contains our self-actualization
and self-esteem needs. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs —
existence, relatedness, and growth hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is
concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements.. Finally, Alderfer
isolates growth needs' an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the
intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included
under self-actualization.
There are two kinds of motivation
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do
something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or
they feel that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic
motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be
ascertained[17]. Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing
material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the
intrinsic motivation of these students[18].
Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do
something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like
money or good grades).
satisfaction
employee recognition
employee motivation

17. human resources definitions
managing employees
Employee Morale:
Definition:
Employee morale describes the overall outlook, attitude, satisfaction, and confidence that
employees feel at work. When employees are positive about their work environment and
believe that they can meet their most important needs at work, employee morale is
positive or high. If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace, and feel
unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs, employee morale is
negative or low.
Improve Employee Morale
treating employees with respect,
providing regular employee recognition,
empowering employees,
offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees,
providing feedback and coaching,
offering above industry-average benefits and compensation,
providing employee perks and company activities, and
positively managing employees within a success framework of goals,
measurements, and clear expectations.
Importance of Employee Morale:
Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success. High Morale leads to success
and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake. The plays of Morale is no less important for
an industrial undertaking. The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the
Morale of its employees.
Types of Morale:
I. High Morale:
It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance. High Morale is
needed a manifestation of the employees strength, dependability pride, confidence and
devotion. Some of the advantages of high Morale such as:
1. Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization.
2. Loyalty to the organization and its leadership.
3. Good Leadership.
4. Sound superior subordinate relations.
5. High degree of employee‘s interest in their job and organization.
6. Pribe in the organization
7. Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover.
8. Reduction in grievance.
9. Reduction in industrial conflict.

18. 10. Team building.
11. Employee empowerment.
II. Low Morale:
Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest. The mental unrest not only hampers
production but also leads to ill health of the employees.
1. High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover.
2. Decreased quality.
3. Decreased Productivity.
4. Excessive Complaints and Grievances.
5. Frustration among the workers.
6. Lack of discipline.
7. Increase errors, accidents or injuries.
FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE:
Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on
the shop floor. Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers
Morale such as:
1. Objectives of the organization: Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is
highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and
objectives.
2. Organizational design: Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour
relation, particularly on the level of Morale. Large organization tend to lengthen their
channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward
communication. Therefore the Morale tends to be lower. Against this flat structure
increases levels of Morale.
3. Personal Factors: It is relating to age, training, education and intelligence of the
employees, time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them, affect the
Morale of the employees. For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training
he will have low Morale.
4. Rewards: Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the
organization. Good system of wages, salaries, promotions and other incentives keep the
Morale of the employees high.
5. Good Leadership and Supervision: The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of
employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have
better influences on the activities of the employees.
6. Work Environment: The building and it appearance the condition of machines, tools,
available at work place provision for safety, medical aid and repairs to machinery etc. all
have an impact on their Morale.

19. 7. Compatibility with fellow employees: Man being a social animal finds his words
more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow
workers. If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale
will be high.
8. Job Satisfaction: If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and
grow personality, he will certify like it and he will have high morale.
9. Opportunity to share profit: one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and
opportunity of progress in any concern. All worker should be given an opportunity of the
progress and earn high wages without any discrimination.
MEASUREMENT OF MORALE
Morale is basically a psychological concept. As such the measurement of morale is a very
difficult task to measure it directly. However the following methods are more commonly
used to study employee morale.
1.Observation Method:
Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their
behaviour, altitude, sentiments and feelings, which have developed in them. The changes
in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale.
2.Attitude Surveys:
In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being
largely employed in modern days. This method includes conducting surveys through
questionnaires and interviews. This relates what the workers are looking in and what step
should be taken to improve their approach towards work.
3.Company Records and Reports:
The records and reports relating to Labour turnover, rate of absenteeism, the number of
goods rejected, strikes and such other things, which are indicators of the level of morale.
4.Counseling:
Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health. So that they
can imbide self confidence, understanding and self control. This method is used to find
out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial
measures.
BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE
In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be
followed.
1. Two-Way Communication:-
There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as
if exercises a profound influences on morale. The workers should be kept informed about
the organization polices and programmes through conferences, bulletins and informal
discussions with the workers.
2. Show Concern.

20. Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to
show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine. Next ask their opinion
whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to
do it.
3. Job Enrichment:-
This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather
than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce
employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated.
4. Modifying the work environment:-
This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the
employees the use of music regular rest breaks.
5. Rotation of Jobs:
This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale. Job rotation helps
to reduce an employee's boredom.
6. Incentive System:
There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and
non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them.
7. Welfare Measures:
Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities
sport clubs, education for their children e.t.c…
8. Social Activities:
Management should encourage social group activities by the workers. This will help to
develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building
high morale.
9. Training:
There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work
efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get
psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them.
10. Workers Participation:
There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow
workers participation in management. Whenever a change to be introduced which effects
the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to
put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management.
11. Cognitive theories:
It takes but a few seconds to say "Nice Job" "Well done", "Marked improvement", "You
're' on the right road" or
UNIT-III
Conflict:
Nature of conflict:
We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a
threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Within this simple definition there are
several important understandings that emerge:

21. Disagreement - Generally, we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions
of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict. But the true disagreement versus the
perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another.
Parties involved -. On many occasions, people who are seen as part of the social system
(e.g., work team, family, company) are influenced to participate in the dispute, whether
they would personally define the situation in that way or not.
Perceived threat -, while perception doesn't become reality per se, people's behaviors,
feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they
confront. If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies
(solutions) that manage it (agreement), we are acting constructively to manage the
conflict.
Needs, interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define "the problem" as
one of substance, task, and near-term viability. However, workplace conflicts tend to be
far more complex than that, for they involve ongoing relationships with complex,
emotional components.
Styles of conflict
Each style is a way to meet one's needs in a dispute but may impact other people in
different ways.
Competing is a style in which one's own needs are advocated over the needs of
others. It relies on an aggressive style of communication, low regard for future
relationships, and the exercise of coercive power. Those using a competitive style
tend to seek control over a discussion, in both substance and ground rules..
Accommodating, also known as smoothing, is the opposite of competing.
Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others, trying to be
diplomatic. They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own,
which may not ever be stated, as preserving the relationship is seen as most
important.
Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict. "Perhaps if
we don't bring it up, it will blow over," we say to ourselves. But, generally, all
that happens is that feelings get pent up, views go unexpressed, and the conflict
festers until it becomes too big to ignore.
Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a
series of tradeoffs. While satisfactory, compromise is generally not satisfying. We
each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and don't
necessarily understand the other side very well.
Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common
goal. Often called "win-win problem-solving," collaboration requires assertive
communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either
individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

22. Factors affecting conflict situation:
Culture, race, and ethnicity: Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to
hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world, as well as the role of
conflict in that experience.
Gender and sexuality:Men and women often perceive situations somewhat
differently, based on both their experiences in the world .So men and women will
often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired
outcomes from the situation, as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist.
Knowledge (general and situational): Parties respond to given conflicts on the
basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand. This includes
situation-specific knowledge (i.e., "Do I understand what is going on here?") and
general knowledge (i.e., "Have I experienced this type of situation before?" or
"Have I studied about similar situations before?"). Impressions of the
Messenger: If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be
a threat (powerful, scary, unknown, etc.), this can influence our responses to the
overall situation being experienced.
Previous experiences: Some of us have had profound, significant life
experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations. These
experiences may have left us fearful, lacking trust, and reluctant to take risks
Causes of conflict :
Differing values (eg conservative v/s progressive minded)
Differing perspectives (eg limited v/s broad, domestic v/s international)
Differing ideas (creative v/s mundane)
Different styles of solving organisational problems.
Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)
Differing attitudes (rigid v/s flexible)
Differing objectives and goals.
Differing circumstances
How to manage conflicts in an organisation :
Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation.
Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context.
1. Conflict with the boss.
2. Conflict with colleagues/peers.
3. Conflict with subordinates
1. Managing conflict with the boss :
All of us have read the famous rule,
Rule no. 1 Boss is always right.
Rule no. 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no. 1.
This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time. When ever you face a
conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches.
(i) Appreciate wider perspective : The boss has wider perspective than you,
therefore please consider whether there is
something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised?

23. (ii) Do not offend his authority : Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his
authority. If you have a better idea, put it in a
manner of suggestion, avoid offending his authority.
(iii) Evaluate the impact : Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong
decision of the boss on your position in particular
and on organisation in general. Do not challenge his decision unless you have to.
(iv) Avoid bitterness : If you have to differ with your boss, just register your
point of view without making it bitter.
TOP
2. Managing conflict with peers/colleagues :
Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of "
One up manship". When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues,
try some of the following approaches.
(i) Communicate: Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you,
either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have
not communicated clearly enough. Since you do not have any authority over
them, enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind.
(ii) Conflict to Co-operation : Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a
co-operation. Strive to appreciate their point of view. Find out the ways and
means to create a 'win-win' situation. If need be ammend your approach and meet
your colleagues midway.
3. Managing conflicts with the subordinates :
In this situation you have the authority, yet you have to be skillful in managing
the conflict.
(i) Allow freedom to express : Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to
express their views freely, be patient listen to them carefully.
(ii) Allow dissent : Dissent is natural, manage disagreement constructively
(iii) Build consensus : Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert
them into the 'champions of causes' and let them reason it out with the ynical
fellows. Provide right kind of support, intervene skillfully to build consensus.
(iv) Develop a common vision : Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates
may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours. Its your responsibility
to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make
them appreciate these. Through discussion, training and counseling develop a
common vision.
TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS
1. Patient listening.
2. Empathy, understand other's point of view.
3. Avoid reacting strongly / avoid anger under all circumstances.
4. Evaluate your responses properly before responding.
5. Communicate, enter into a dialogue, convince or get convinced.

24. 6. Choose the right time for dialogue, when the other person is in a receiving
mood.
7. Avoid throwing your weight, even if you have the authority.
8. Allow dissent, manage disagreement constructively,
9. Build consensus, take people along.
10. Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your,
explain it to them with patience, train them & counsel them
In resolving conflict using this approach, you follow these rules:
Make sure that good relationships are the first priority: As far as possible,
make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect.
Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under
pressure.
Keep people and problems separate: Recognize that in many cases the other
person is not just "being difficult" – real and valid differences can lie behind
conflictive positions. By separating the problem from the person, real issues can
be debated without damaging working relationships.
Pay attention to the interests that are being presented: By listening carefully
you'll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position.
Listen first; talk second: To solve a problem effectively you have to understand
where the other person is coming from before defending your own position.
Set out the “Facts”: Agree and establish the objective, observable elements that
will have an impact on the decision.
Explore options together: Be open to the idea that a third position may exist, and
that you can get to this idea jointly.
Conflict resolution process
Step One: Set the Scene.
If you are involved in the conflict, emphasize the fact that you are presenting your
perception of the problem. Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand
other‘s positions and perceptions.
Restate
Paraphrase
Step Two: Gather Information
Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests, needs, and concerns. Ask for the
other person‘s viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or
her cooperation to solve the problem.
Step Three: Agree the Problem
This sounds like an obvious step, but often different underlying needs, interests and goals
can cause people to perceive problems very differently. You'll need to agree the problems
that you are trying to solve before you'll find a mutually acceptable solution.

25. Step Four: Brainstorm Possible Solutions
If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution, it will help if everyone has had
fair input in generating solutions. Brainstorm possible solutions, and be open to all ideas,
including ones you never considered before.
Step Five: Negotiate a Solution
By this stage, the conflict may be resolved: Both sides may better understand the position
of the other, and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all.
However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions. This is
where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that, at least
to some extent, satisfies everyone.
Unit-IV
Stress management:
Definition. Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts:
Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all
the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system. Thus, stress
has its own characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause.
The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress, which are
addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments
that are going on in the body at any time.
Causes of stress:
1. Causes of Stress at Home
o Death of spouse, family, near relative or friend.
o Injury or illness of any family member.
o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister.
o Separation or divorce from partner.
o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby.
o Children's behavior or disobedience.
o Children's educational performance.
o Hyperactive children.
o Sexual molestation.
o Argument or heated conversations with spouse, family members or friends
or neighbors.
o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected
expenditure.
o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living.

26. o Loss of money in burglary, pick-pocketed or share market.
o Moving house.
o Change of place or change of city or change of country.
2. Causes of Stress at Work
o To meet out the demands of the job.
o Your relationship with colleagues.
o To control staff under you.
o To train your staff and take work from them.
o Support you receive from your boss, colleagues and juniors.
o Excessive work pressure.
o To meet out deadlines.
o To give new results.
o To produce new publications if you are in research area.
o Working overtime and on holidays.
o New work hours.
o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded
you.
o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss.
o Change of job.
o Work against will.
o Harassment.
o Sexual molestation.
3. Other Causes of Stress
o Fear, intermittent or continuous.
o Threats: physical threats, social threats, financial threat, other threats.
o Uncertainty.
o Lack of sleep.
o Somebody misunderstands you.
o Setback to your position in society.
Sources of stress:
1. Significant Life Adjustments
Any critical life changes, both pleasant and unpleasant.
2. Daily Routines
Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an
important project zap your energy. You become accustomed to your daily activities and
easily overlook their cumulative effect on you.
3. Unrealistic Self-Expectations

27. While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals, unrealistic
expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem.
4. Interpersonal Relationships
Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to
maintain. Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased
frustration and open hostility.
Types of stress
1.Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress. We can't always avoid
stress, in fact, sometimes we don't want to. Often, it is controlled stress that gives us
our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics, giving a speech,
or acting
2.Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress. Chronic, sustained, uncontrolled
stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system, illness, and even
death. As a result, we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors
in our lives and initiate methods for managing them.
Nature of stress:
1. Stress is not nervous tension. Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even
in plants, which have no nervous system. The general manifestations of an alarm
reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb. Indeed,
stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious,
and even in cell cultures grown outside the body.
2. Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones. An adrenaline discharge is
frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body, but it plays no
conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis, tuberculosis)
although they can also produce considerable stress.
3. Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones
(the corticoids). ACTH, the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone, can discharge
these hormones without producing any evidence of stress.
4. Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only. Normal and even pleasant
activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress
without causing conspicuous damage.
5. Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis, the steady state of the body. Any
specific biologic function, e.g., the perception of sound or light, the contraction of
a muscle, eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the
active organs.
6. Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the G.A.S. as a whole. These
are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress.

28. 7. Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction. The pattern of the stress reaction is very
specific: it affects certain organs (e.g., the adrenal, the thymus, the gastrointestinal
tract) in a highly selective manner.
8. Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing. The stress response can be produced by
virtually any agent.
9. Stress is not necessarily undesirable. It all depends on how you take it. The stress
of failure, humiliation, or infection is detrimental; but that of exhilarating,
creative, successful work is beneficial. The stress reaction, like energy
consumption, may have good or bad effects.
Causes of Stress
General causes
Threat
A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed. This can include physical threats,
social threats, financial threat, and so on. In particular it will be worse when the person
feels they have no response that can reduce the threat, as this affects the need for a
sense of control.
Generally speaking, any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced.
Fear
Threat can lead to fear, which again leads to stress. Fear leads to imagined outcomes,
which are the real source of stress.
Uncertainty
When we are not certain, we are unable to predict, and hence feel we are not in control,
and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty.
Cognitive dissonance
issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments. We believe we are
honest and committed, but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises
we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie. a
social threat).
Individual stressors:
Life causes
Significant Life Adjustments
Any critical life changes, both pleasant and unpleasant.
2. Daily Routines
Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an
important project zap your energy. You become accustomed to your daily activities and
easily overlook their cumulative effect on you.

29. 3. Unrealistic Self-Expectations
While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals, unrealistic
expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem.
4. Interpersonal Relationships
Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to
maintain. Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased
frustration and open hostility
There are many causes of stress in life including:
Death: of spouse, family, friend
Health: injury, illness, pregnancy
Crime: Sexual molestation, mugging, burglary, pick-pocketed
Self-abuse: drug abuse, alcoholism, self-harm
Family change: separation, divorce, new baby, marriage
Sexual problems: getting partner, with partner
Argument: with spouse, family, friends, co-workers, boss
Physical changes: lack of sleep, new work hours
New location: vacation, moving house
Money: lack of it, owing it, investing it
Environment change: in school, job, house, town, jail
Responsibility increase: new dependent, new job
Organisational Stressors:
The UK's Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors:
1. The demands of the job
2. The control staff have over how they do their work
3. The support they receive from colleagues and superiors
4. Their relationships with colleagues
5. Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities
6. How far the company consults staff over workplace changes.
Other stress indicators at work include:
Sickness absence
High staff turnover
Poor communication between teams
Bullying
Lack of feedback on performance
Value and contribution
Technological change
Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

30. Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits
Working long hours
Boring and mundane work
One-off incidents
Uncomfortable workplace
Lack of training
Consequences of stress:
Physiological consequences:
Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive, some have a more
sensitive physiology, and find that stress impacts their blood pressure, induces
headaches, or causes other physical responses. Likewise, the way you care for your
body in terms of healthy diet, quality sleep, and regular exercise—or lack thereof—can
impact your reactivity to stress.
Coping strategies:
1.Get Enough Sleep
Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing. Lack of sleep can
negatively impact your ability to handle stress, be productive, and function properly.
Unfortunately, busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive
2.Exercise Regularly
Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally. It provides a stress release and
keeps your body healthy. It also helps your body release endorphins, which increase your
feelings of overall wellbeing
3.. Maintain Social Support
Social support can keep you healthier and happier, creating a buffer against stress.
Friends can pick you up when you‘re sad, provide insights when you‘re confused, and
help you have fun when you need to blow off steam
5. Find Hobbies
Having some ―down time‖ is important, and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from
stress and help you stay ‗in the moment‘, which is also a great way to relieve tension.
6. Pamper Yourself
Taking care of your body on the outside—with a spa treatment, for example, can work
wonders for your internal state. Don‘t overlook the importance of pampering yourself on
a regular basis, to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world.
7. Keep Your Mind Sharp
If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challenge—rather than a threat, you are better
able to handle it. And by keeping your mind sharp, you are more equipped to solve the
problems and take on the ―challenges‖ that life presents.
8. Have The Right Attitude
Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your
point of view. Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease
your stress level, but bring you more success in life and more.
UNIT-V

31. WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT?
Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations. The process
is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization, its employees and its
stakeholders. The client organization may be an entire company, public agency, non-profit
organization, volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization.
WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT?
Profitability, productivity, morale and quality of work life are of concern to most
organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals. There is an
increasing trend to maximize an organization's investment in its employees. Jobs that
previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort. Organizations
need to "work smarter" and apply creative ideas.
WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO?
OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to
organizations seeking to improve profitability, productivity, morale and/or quality of
work life. Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are:
Teambuilding
Goal Setting
Group Facilitation
Creative Problem solving
Strategic Planning
Leadership Development
Management Development
Career Management
Conflict Resolution
Developmental Education
Interpersonal Communication
Human Resources Management
Managing Workforce Diversity
Organization Restructuring
High Involvement Work Teams
Sociotechnical Systems Design
Technical Training
Total Quality Management
Often described as "change agents," OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with
experience and training in organization development, organization behavior, psychology,
education, management and/or human resources. Many have advanced degrees and most
have experience in a variety of organizational settings.

32. There are both internal and external OD consultants. An internal OD consultant is a full-
time employee with a given organization. External consultants may be self-employed or
on the staff of a consulting firm. "Externals" work with one or more clients contracting
for specific projects.
Organization Effectiveness
Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when
there are needs for assessment, planning, growth, quality improvement, teamwork and
other organizational changes.
Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved
effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units. The consultant helps the
client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and
management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities. (Some
form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting
strategies.)
Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots,
developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict.
Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better
understand and manage conflict.
Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEO's
or VP's to improve their effectiveness.
Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an
organization get where it wants to go. (Can also be applied to employee development.)
Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to
apply group guidelines that foster open communication, participation and
accomplishment.
Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify, understand, and begin to
manage their resistance to planned organizational change.
Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental and/or individual reporting
structures, identifying roles and responsibilities, redesigning job functions to assure that
the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and
service.
Project Management - The general management of specific work, blending diverse
functions and skills, usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes.
Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating
a well defined segment of finished work.

33. Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize
the relationship between people's performance, the workplace environment and the
technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity.
Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organization's mission and
vision, sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and
future resources toward fulfilling its vision.
Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities
where they must interact.
Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis, teambuilding, defining
quality and setting measurable standards, the consultant assists the organization in
becoming more cost effective, approach zero-defects and be more market-driven.
Employee Effectiveness
Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are
needs for employee improvement in skill, commitment and leadership.
Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting, career selection and job seeking
help individuals make career decisions.
Coordination & Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several
different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new
equipment, work processes, work methods, or work procedures.
Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models
to address existing problems in a systematic, creative manner.
Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact
positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed
customer expectations.
Developmental Education - Training in basic math, reading, writing and grammar.
Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information
within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening, non-judgmental
way.
Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring, compensation,
benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organization's morale and
productivity.
Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict, planning and problem-solving among
management and workforce union representation.

34. Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders.
Includes visioning, change management and creative problem solving.
Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular
focus on performance management, communications and problem solving.
Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to
employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing. Typically paid for by the
employer.
Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service.
Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate
healthy responses to stress. It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and
minimize the negative, both for themselves and others.
Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area, such as computers.
Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher
levels of productivity with the time they are allotted.
Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical
practice, assessing on-line training effectiveness and/or business impact. Assessment
focuses on course relevance, transfer and cost value.
Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where
differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive
advantage, productivity and work satisfaction.
Group Effectiveness
In formal organizations, group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions
1. Organizing work around intact groups.
2. Let the group select, train, and reward its members.
3. Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job.
4. Distributing rewards on a group basis.5. Allowing intergroup
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