This document provides an overview of acids, including their definition, classification, nomenclature, reactions, and factors that influence acid strength. It defines acids as proton donors and gives examples like H2SO4 and HCl. Acids are classified as binary, oxy, mineral/organic, strong/weak based on their composition and dissociation. Key reactions include those with metals, bases, and ammonia. Factors like H-A bond strength/polarity and oxidation state determine relative acid strengths. The document also discusses acid indicators and their uses.
The three main categories of chemical compounds are acids, bases and salts. These compounds are always part of our daily lives in terms of what we eat and use. The human body contains some very common acids like dilute hydrochloric acid in the stomach, which aids in digestion of food. If the contents of our stomach become too acidic, it results to a burning sensation in the stomach. Acids and bases also regulate metabolic activities in the human body through equilibrium processes. Acids contain hydrogen ions (H+). A base is a substance, which on dissolving in water yields hydroxyl ions (OH-) as the only negative ions. Salts are formed by the combination of an acid and base.
Non- aqueous titrations are those in which the titrations of too weakly acidic or basic substances are carried out using non-aqueous solvents so as to get sharp end point.
Such titrations can also be used for the titration of the substances not soluble in water.
The speed, precision and accuracy of the non-aqueous method are close to those of classical acidimetric and alkalimetric titrations.
First reported successful quantitative titration of organic acid and base in non-aqueous solvent: 1910.
To an understanding of non-aqueous acid base titrimetry the theories of acid and base is very important. The theories are:
Acids are hydrogen containing compounds that dissociates to yield hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Bases are compounds that dissociates to yield hydroxide/hydroxyl ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
University of Southern Mindanao
2 BS Pharmacy A (AY: 2023-2024)
PHARM 12 - Physical Pharmacy
All About pH and Buffers This contains the topics about Acids, Bases and Buffers.
REFERENCES
7.1A: Acid-Base Theories and Concepts. (2017, June 3). Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/07%3A_Acids_bases_and_ions_in_aqueous_solution/7.01%3A_Introduction/7.1A%3A_Acid-Base_Theories_and_Concepts#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20primary%20theories
Applied Physical Pharmacy (2014) McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN: 978-0-07-180442-4
Abdella, S., Abid, F., Youssef, S. H., Kim, S., Afinjuomo, F., Malinga, C., Song, Y., & Garg, S. (2023). pH and its applications in targeted drug delivery. Drug Discovery Today, 28(1), 103414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2022.103414
Admin. (2022, December 1). Ionization Of Water - Nature of Water, Detailed explanation of Self Ionization of Water and Pure water’s Ion. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/ionization-of-water/
Byju’s. (2022, July 4). Is NaCl it An Acid or Base-. https://byjus.com/question-answer/is-nacl-an-acid-or-base/
Johnston, M. (2023, April 9). Hydrogen: What’s the difference between H, H2, H+, H- and OH- ? Watermatters.
https://www.watermatters.ca/blogs/articles/hydrogen-what-s-the-difference-between-h-h2-h-h-and-oh
Libretexts. (2023, July 18). 14.2: Ionization of Water. Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/14%3A_Ionic_Equilibria_in_Aqueous_Solutions/14.02%3A_Ionization_of_Water
Niederquell, A., Stoyanov, E. V., & Kuentz, M. (2023). Physiological buffer effects in drug supersaturation - A mechanistic study of hydroxypropyl cellulose as precipitation inhibitor. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 112(7), 1897–1907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2023.02.013
pH of Salts in Water | Department of Chemistry | University of Washington. (n.d.). https://chem.washington.edu/lecture-demos/ph-salts-water#:~:text=Since%20this%20reaction%20produces%20OH,sodium%20acetate%20solution%20is%20basic.
The three main categories of chemical compounds are acids, bases and salts. These compounds are always part of our daily lives in terms of what we eat and use. The human body contains some very common acids like dilute hydrochloric acid in the stomach, which aids in digestion of food. If the contents of our stomach become too acidic, it results to a burning sensation in the stomach. Acids and bases also regulate metabolic activities in the human body through equilibrium processes. Acids contain hydrogen ions (H+). A base is a substance, which on dissolving in water yields hydroxyl ions (OH-) as the only negative ions. Salts are formed by the combination of an acid and base.
Non- aqueous titrations are those in which the titrations of too weakly acidic or basic substances are carried out using non-aqueous solvents so as to get sharp end point.
Such titrations can also be used for the titration of the substances not soluble in water.
The speed, precision and accuracy of the non-aqueous method are close to those of classical acidimetric and alkalimetric titrations.
First reported successful quantitative titration of organic acid and base in non-aqueous solvent: 1910.
To an understanding of non-aqueous acid base titrimetry the theories of acid and base is very important. The theories are:
Acids are hydrogen containing compounds that dissociates to yield hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Bases are compounds that dissociates to yield hydroxide/hydroxyl ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
University of Southern Mindanao
2 BS Pharmacy A (AY: 2023-2024)
PHARM 12 - Physical Pharmacy
All About pH and Buffers This contains the topics about Acids, Bases and Buffers.
REFERENCES
7.1A: Acid-Base Theories and Concepts. (2017, June 3). Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/07%3A_Acids_bases_and_ions_in_aqueous_solution/7.01%3A_Introduction/7.1A%3A_Acid-Base_Theories_and_Concepts#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20primary%20theories
Applied Physical Pharmacy (2014) McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN: 978-0-07-180442-4
Abdella, S., Abid, F., Youssef, S. H., Kim, S., Afinjuomo, F., Malinga, C., Song, Y., & Garg, S. (2023). pH and its applications in targeted drug delivery. Drug Discovery Today, 28(1), 103414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2022.103414
Admin. (2022, December 1). Ionization Of Water - Nature of Water, Detailed explanation of Self Ionization of Water and Pure water’s Ion. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/ionization-of-water/
Byju’s. (2022, July 4). Is NaCl it An Acid or Base-. https://byjus.com/question-answer/is-nacl-an-acid-or-base/
Johnston, M. (2023, April 9). Hydrogen: What’s the difference between H, H2, H+, H- and OH- ? Watermatters.
https://www.watermatters.ca/blogs/articles/hydrogen-what-s-the-difference-between-h-h2-h-h-and-oh
Libretexts. (2023, July 18). 14.2: Ionization of Water. Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/14%3A_Ionic_Equilibria_in_Aqueous_Solutions/14.02%3A_Ionization_of_Water
Niederquell, A., Stoyanov, E. V., & Kuentz, M. (2023). Physiological buffer effects in drug supersaturation - A mechanistic study of hydroxypropyl cellulose as precipitation inhibitor. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 112(7), 1897–1907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2023.02.013
pH of Salts in Water | Department of Chemistry | University of Washington. (n.d.). https://chem.washington.edu/lecture-demos/ph-salts-water#:~:text=Since%20this%20reaction%20produces%20OH,sodium%20acetate%20solution%20is%20basic.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
3. Introduction:-
An Acid is any hydrogen containing
substance that is capable of donating a
proton or hydrogen Ion to another
substance.
4. The word “Acid” is derived from
Latin word “ACIDUS” meaning
“SOUR”
It refers to the sharp odor and sour
taste of many acids
5. Arrhenius Definition:-
Any substance that , when dissolved in water, increases the
concentration of hydronium ion (𝐻3𝑂+
) is called an Acid.
Thus Acids are proton donors or electrons acceptors.
EXAMPLES:-
𝐻2S𝑂4, HCl, C𝐻3COOH
14. Binary Acids
It is an acid which consists of only two elements, of
which one is hydrogen and the second is a non metal
element.
EXAMPLES:-
HCl, HF, HI
15. Oxyacid
It is an acid which consists of more than two
elements, of which one is hydrogen, one is oxygen
and at least one is other element
EXAMPLES:-
𝐻2S𝑂4, 𝐻3P𝑂4, HN𝑂3
16.
17. Based on Chemical Reactions
Lewis Acid:
A compound or ionic specie which can accept an electron
pair from a donor compound.
EXAMPLE:
C𝑢2
, 𝐹𝑒2+
, 𝐹𝑒3+
Uses:
Used as ligands in coordination chemistry
18. Lowry- Bronsted acid
A substance which donates an 𝐻+
ion or a
proton and forms its conjugate base.
EXAMPLE:-:
HCl, C𝐻3COOH, N𝐻3
19. Arrhenius Acid:-
A substance which has a hydrogen atom and can
easily give hydrogen ion or proton in its aqueous
solution.
EXAMPLES
𝐻2S𝑂4, HBr
20. Based on origin:-
Mineral Acid:
It is any acid derived from any inorganic compound that dissociates to
produced hydrogen ions in water.
EXAMPLES
𝐻2S𝑂4, HN𝑂3
Uses:
In Chemical Industry as feed stocks for the synthesis of other
chemicals, both organic and inorganic.
21. Organic Acid:
An organic compound that is characterized by weak acidic
properties and does not dissociate completely in the presence of
water.
EXAMPLES:-
C𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, 𝐶2𝐻2𝑂4
Uses:
In foods as acidulants, flavourants, or preservatives, inactivating or
inhibiting the growth of spoilage microorganisms.
22. Based on acidic strength:-
Strong Acid:
An acid that is completely dissociated in an aqueous solution. It is a
chemical specie with a high capacity to lose proton.
EXAMPLES:
HCl, HBr
Uses:
In batteries, used to start vehicle motors
In the industrial production of explosives, dyes, paints and
fertilizers
23. Weak Acid:-
An acid that does not completely dissociate in solution.
EXAMPLE:-
C𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, 𝐻3𝑃𝑂4
Uses:
In the preservation of acid foods, due to effective
antimicrobials in their protonated form
29. Nature Of Acids
Sour Taste
Turns Blue Litmus Red
Turns Methyl Orange to Red
Acids are Electrolyte
Strong Acids Destroy Fabric
PH Less than 7
Cause Burn on Skin
