Nursing Education and Curriculum development

Wubshet E.(RN,MSN, Ass. Professor in AHN)
1
Arba Minch University
College of Medicine and Health
Science
School of Nursing
3/22/2023

3/22/2023
2 Wubshet E.(RN,MSN, Ass. Professor in AHN)

3/22/2023

Session Objectives
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By the end of this session you should be able to:-
⇨Define education
⇨Discuss the different types of education
⇨Explain the difference among the different type of
education

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GEORGE F.KNELLER;
 “In its broad sense, education refers to any act or experience
that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical
ability of an individual…
 Education is the process by which society, through schools,
colleges, univeities, and other institutions, deliberately
transmits its cultural heritage–its accumulated knowledge,
values, and skills–from one generation to another.”

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Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
 “Education is natural, harmonious and progressive
development of man’s innate powers.”
 Education inculcates certain values and principles
and also prepares a human being for social life.
 His motto was "Learning by head,
hand and heart".

Education
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 Education is processes of facilitating learning
Types of education 1) formal,
2) informal
3) non-formal

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Formal education
Learning is carried out in specially built institution such as
schools, and colleges.
What is taught is carefully structured by means of
syllabuses and timetables;
An external administrative body usually carefully
supervises the teaching provided.
Students who fulfill the set criteria are awarded
certificates.
– Informal Education
Is an alternative arrangement of education for those who cannot
attend formal institutions.
This could be through correspondence courses, summer institute,
broadcasting programs, satellite or through open university.
Learning is structured, but less structured than formal education.
In addition there is more flexibility concerning to places and
methods of learning.
Non-Formal education–
It is not pre-planned, and is quite incidental.
†It is the type of education, which the child gets
while moving and living in the community with
other persons.
†Much of the learning that goes is almost
unconscious, as child learns from his family,
friends, radio, cinema, library and environment.
†No award of certificates.

Group discussion
• What are the challenges in
education of health professionals?
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Challenges in Education
 Information overload
 High student – staff ratio
 Poor monitoring of students’ progress and
feedback
 High turnover of teaching staff
 Teachers lacking pedagogical skills training
 Lack of incentives for teachers to improve their
own performance
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 Limited opportunities to practice
and master skills
 Poor quality materials,
equipment, and up-to-date
reference materials
 Limited access to computers and
internet
 Little coordination between
different teaching units and
different levels of study
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Principles of teaching and learning
Chapter two

Session objectives
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By the end of this session you should be able to
⸎Define Teaching and Learning
⸎Describe the Purpose of teaching
⸎express general principles and approaches of teaching
⸎Discuss the How does learning occur?
⸎Explain Characteristics of learning
⸎ List Characteristics of effective teaching

BRAIN STORMING
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How did u describe the following
terms
Teaching
Learning

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What is teaching?
 "… any form of interpersonal influence aimed at
changing the ways in which other persons can or will
behave" (Gagne :1963)
 ".... an interactive process, primarily involving
classroom talk, which takes place between teacher and
scholars & occurs during certain definable activities"(
Amidon & Hunter:1967).

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 "... interpersonal activity directed toward learning by
one or more persons" ( Klauer 1985).
 "... teaching denotes action undertaken with the
intention of bringing about learning in another"
(Robertson :1987)

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Accordingly, teaching is:-
 An activity or action.
 A process. It involves a series of actions and decisions of the
teacher.
 An interpersonal activity and/or process. Interpersonal
refers to the fact that teaching involves interactions between
a teacher and one or more students.
 Intentional. There is some purpose or set of purposes for
which teaching occurs.

Purpose of teaching
 It is to help student’s to;
◊acquire, retain and be able to use knowledge
◊understand, analyze, synthesize and evaluate
problems
◊ achieve skills
◊establish habits
◊develop attitudes
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Teaching approaches
 Talk to students =is a unidirectional flow of idea
 Talk with students = is much more better than the first, is
two way communication
 Have them talk together =discussion method
 Show students how = demonstration method, used to
teach skill
 Supervise them =for practical skills
 Provide opportunities for practice
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Characteristics of the Higher Education Teacher
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1. Good knowledge of the subject he/she teaches
2. An understanding of how students learn.
3. A concern for students' development.
4. A commitment to scholarship.
5. A commitment to work with and learn from
colleagues.
6. Continuing reflection on professional practice

What is learning?
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 Learning: a change in behavior, perceptions, insights,
attitudes, or any combination of these that can be repeated
when the need arise.
 Learning is about change: the change brought about by
developing a new skill, understanding something new,
changing an attitude.
 Learning is a relatively permanent change, usually brought
about intentionally and purposefully.

Group discussion
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Think over and list down the characteristics of
effective teaching.
each group contain 5 member.
Ur discussion should be post and present it(10min)

Characteristics of effective teaching
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Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.
 Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
 Making use of a variety of learning activities.
 Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the
lesson.
 Encouraging pupil participation and getting all pupils
involved.

Effective teaching cont’d…
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 Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to
pupils’ needs.
 Delivering a well-structured and well organized
lesson.
 Providing pupils with positive and constructive
feedback.
 Ensuring coverage of the instructional objectives.
 Making good use of questioning techniques.

Principles of teaching
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→There a number of principles that may guide the
teaching & learning process
Ramsden (1992) identifies six key principles of effective
teaching in Higher Education as follows:
→Teachers should have an interest in the subject and
be able to explain it to others
→There should be a concern and respect for students
and student learning

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∫ Appropriate assessment and feedback should be
provided
∫ There should be clear goals and intellectual challenge
∫ Learners should have independence control an active
engagement
∫ Teachers should be prepared to learn from students

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Teaching-Learning is more effective
when
Students
are ready & want to learn (Law of readiness)
are aware of what they need to learn (clear learning
objectives)
participate in their learning
are encouraged to apply critical thinking and
alternative approaches
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when
New KSA
build on what students already know or have
experienced ( The Law of Association)
are realistic, relevant, and can be put to immediate
use
are demonstrated to students, applied by students,
and integrated into the students’ world
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when
Adequate opportunities are given for students to
practice and to receive feedback on their
performance (The law of Exercise)
Feedback to students on their performance is
immediate, constructive, and nonjudgmental
Teaching is interesting, pleasant, and exciting----
(The law of Effect)
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Teaching-Learning is more effective when
. . .
A variety of teaching
methods and techniques are
used (The Law of sense
Dependency).
Teaching moves step-by-step
from simple to complex, and
is organized, logical, &
practical.
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Factors affecting Learning
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The factors that influence learning may be classified in
to 4 categories

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 Physiological factors:
 Sense perception
 Physical health
 Fatigue
 Time of learning
 Food and drink
 Atmospheric
condition
 Age
Psychological factors
† Mental health
† Motivations and interest
† Success, praise and
blame
† Rewards and
punishment

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 Environmental factors
Working condition
Organizational setup
 Methodology of instructions
 Presentation and organization of material
 Learning by doing
 Timely testing

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CHAPTER THREE
TEACHING METHODS

session Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to
 List down the different methods of teaching
 Purpose of Lecture method
 Specify at least two advantage and two disadvantages for each
technique.
 Select a teaching method appropriate for a type of knowledge to be
delivered
 List down the Challenges to Implementing a Student centered
teaching and learning
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Factors to consider when selecting a teaching method
Is the method appropriate for the learning objective?
Certain teaching methods are more effective for helping
students learn new skills; others are more useful for
developing students’ knowledge.
Are the resources that this method requires available?
Some methods require additional materials, supplies and
equipment.
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Are special facilities required?
 Eg. Hospital wards, labs, anatomic models, etc
What is the size of the class?
 Some teaching methods are more appropriate for a small
group than for a large group.
Will the methods selected stimulate interest and add
variety?
 Even the most stimulating method becomes boring if used
all the time
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Some Teaching Methods
Definition
" The lecture is a pedagogical
method whereby the teacher
formally delivers a carefully planned
expository address on some
particular topic or problem".
James Michael Lee
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What is lecture?
 An organized verbal presentation of subject matter often
supported by visual aids
 A didactic instructional method, involving one-way
communication from the active presenter to the more or
less passive audience.
 A period of more or less of uninterrupted talk from a
teacher.
 Student – an occasion to sleep while someone talks.
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Why lecture has survived?
⇨Inexpensive
⇨Flexible
⇨Provides teachers the opportunity to perform
⇨An effective lecturer engages his students and
motivates them to learn
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Types of lectures
Expository
Lecture – Recitation
Interactive lecture
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Expository lecture
→Instructor does most of talking
→What most of students expect
→It reduces information into meaningful large piece and
fits into existing categories or sometimes forms new
ones.
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Lecture – Recitation
Encourages greater student participation
Instructor still does most of talking but often stops and
asks questions
Requests students to read specific material
Direction of interaction: instructor to class, instructor
to individual student, individual student to class.
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Interactive lecture
⇨Encourages students to students interaction
⇨Mini lecture 15-20 minutes
⇨Learning groups-complete an assignment
⇨Think – pair – share – change up
⇨Then another mini lecture
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Guidelines for teaching
effectively
Never read
Show enthusiasm
Vary format
Make eye contact
Vary voice and gesture
⸎Keep your sense of
humor
⸎Get feedback
⸎Breathing space
⸎Use examples
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 Planning lecture
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion/summary
 Introduction
Gain students attention
Expose essential content
Share your expectations
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Body of the lecture
 Must teach in ways that students’ learn best (Learning
style)
 Select teaching approach based on the highest level of
learning (interactive student centered approaches)
 Lecture should not bear the major responsibility for
conveying information (be selective, reading
assignment)
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Advantages of Lecturing
Spark interest
Provide unavailable information
Convey large amounts of information
Reach large audiences
Maintain control
Help auditory learners
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Disadvantages of Lecturing
Passive students
Inadequate feedback
Flagging attention
Poor retention
Burden on lecturer
Non-auditory learners
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As lecture continues, retention of new
material declines.

Retention of New Material
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Wubshet E.(RN,MSN, Ass.
Professor in AHN)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
First 10 Minutes Last 10 Minutes
Source: McKeachie

Challenges to Implementing a Student centered
teaching and learning
1. Lack of confidence in trying new methods
2. Fear loss of content coverage
3. Loss of control over the class
4. Lack of prepared materials for use in the class
5. Lack of background or training in the use of active
learning approaches
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LESSON PLANNING AND
MINI/MICRO TEACHING

Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
∫ Explain the concept of instructional planning
∫ Appreciate the importance of planning for effective
instruction
∫ Discuss the principles of lesson planning
∫ Recognize flow of information in a lesson
∫ Discuss core components of lesson plans
∫ Develop course outlines, unit plans and lesson plans
∫ Micro/mini teaching
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Instructional planning
 Teaching plan or lesson plan are statements that points out
what has already been done, in what directions the students
should next be guided and the immediate work to be taken up.
 It is the teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of the
classroom experience as he/she plans to occur.
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Some potential problems that may occur as a result of not
planning a lesson :
→Aimless wandering
→Failure to achieve objectives
→Needed teaching materials not available
→Poor connection with preceding or subsequent lessons
→Poor communication with students
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Quality instructional plan must include the following
core components:
Objectives
Contents
Methodology
Instructional media
Assessment mechanisms
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 Any instructional objective should contain four
elements in it
1. Verb that indicating the expected behavior
2. Content to be taught
3. Level of proficiency, and
4. Context
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 Contents: Contents are facts, theories, principles ,formulas, etc
that has the capacity to realize the learning process
 Instructional methods: Instructional methods are ways that
information is presented to students.
 Instructional media are materials that are used in the
instructional process to make easy and concrete the students
learning
 Evaluation mechanism: An assessment in lesson plan is simply
a description of how the teacher will determined whether the
objective has been accomplished.
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The Taxonomy of Educational objectives
o is a classification of the different objectives that educators
set for students (learning objectives).
o divides educational objectives into three "domains:"
Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive.
o is hierarchical; meaning that learning at the higher levels is
dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and
skills at lower levels
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Cognitive domain
 Involves knowledge and the development of intellectual
skills.
 Six major categories starting from the simplest behavior
to the most complex
 The categories can be thought of as degrees of
difficulties.
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KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION
APPLICA
TION
ANALYSIS
SYNTHESIS
EV
ALUATION
COGNITIVE
DOMAIN

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PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
 Focus on motor skill development.
 The suggested areas for use are:
 Speech development,
 Reading,
 Handwriting, and
 Physical education.
 Other areas include manipulative skills required in business training [e.G.,
Keyboarding], industrial technology, and performance areas in science, art and
music.
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PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN
PERCEPTION
ADAPTATION
COMPLEX
OVERT
RESPONSE
MECHANISM
GUIDED
RESPONSE
SET
ORGANIZATION

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Affective Domain
 addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations,
values, and emotional sets.
 Includes five hierarchical levels
 Receiving
 Responding
 Valuing
 Organization
 characterization
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AFFECTIVE
DOMAIN
RECEIVING
CHARACTERIZATION
ORGANIZATION
VALUING
RESPONDING

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FORMATS OF INSTRUCTIONAL PLANS
 No uniform format
 Differ across institutions
 However, all instructional plans include similar basic
elements
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Lesson Plan Format (Tabular)
 Topic: ________________________
 Specific Objective/s: ________________________
Students’ Activity Time Teacher Activity
Resources
Assessment
Wrap up/Reflection
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 Specific Objectives: (Begin with: By the end of the lesson
the students will be able to…..)
 Students’Activities: Include details of the activities that the
students will do and the expected outcome of the task.
 Teacher Activities: Include details of what the teacher will
be doing:
 introducing the session, organizing active learning situations,
giving instructions, intervening to facilitate students learning;
summarizing key points
 Include the key questions the teacher will ask the students in
order to check understanding and to challenge them further
 Time: Indicate how much time is to be spent on each
activity
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 Resources: Include the materials that you will use in
your lesson. Remember to include any different,
additional or altered resources for students with
special needs.
 Assessment: Identify the methods you have chosen to
assess the knowledge, skills and understanding of the
students.
 The methods may include:
 listening to pair/ group discussion, observation of an
activity, students written work, problem solving,
presentation, quiz, display, marking written work
etc.
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Cont’d…
 Reflection – you need to reflect on the following
questions after the implementation of the plan
 What went well in the lesson?
 What problems did I experience?
 Are there things I could have done differently?
 How can I build on this lesson to make future lessons
successful?
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SUMMARY
 Explain the concept of instructional planning
 Appreciate the importance of planning for effective
instruction
 Discuss the principles of lesson planning
 Recognize flow of information in a lesson
 Discuss core components of lesson plans
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Assessment of students performance

Objectives:
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
Define assessment, test, examination, measurement and
evaluation.
Explain the difference b/n diagnostic, formative &
summative evaluation.
Discuss some principles to follow in test construction (MCQ,
true/false, essay, matching, short answers).
84 Wubshet E.(RN,MSN, Ass. Professor in AHN) 3/22/2023

Common terminologies
Assessment – Systematic process of collecting data
on students performance specifically on knowledge,
attitude and practice (KAP) to determine the need for
training; to design training to meet those needs, and
after training to make decisions about an individual’s
ability to perform.
Test – Series of tasks or tools used to measure
students’ achievement.

 Examination – Formal situation in which students take
one or more tests.
 Measurement – labeling of the results obtained from a
test.
Quantitative measure, e.g., percent scored in a test
Qualitative measure, e.g., letter grade
 Evaluation – The process of collecting data pertaining to
educational process used for decision-making.

INTRODUCTION
Assessment of learning is an essential element
of education.
Without valid and reliable assessment
procedures, you will not know whether
students have achieved the learning objectives
of the program.
87
Wubshet E.(RN,MSN, Ass. Professor
in AHN)
3/22/2023

Assessment is a strategy for measuring
knowledge, behavior or performance, values or
attitudes.
It is not something that you should think at the
end of the lesson; it must be an integral part of all
planning and preparation.
Tutors can use three main kinds of assessment:
diagnostic, formative and summative.
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in AHN)
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is also called need assessment
is used prior to your teaching, it provides you with
the planning information.
helps the tutor to know what the students’ entry
level are, what they know about the lesson topic.
e.g. pre-test before providing training
Diagnostic Assessment
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is also called continuous assessment
conducted during instruction, again formally such as
test or informally like tutors either questions or
observations.
it helps the tutor to adopt teaching strategies and
methods.
 It also has a reinforcing effect to motivate students.
Formative Assessment
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in AHN)
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It is usually conducted at the end of a lesson, a
unit or a course.
It is the final measure of what was learned.
They offer an opportunity for some students to
demonstrate what they have learnt.
 Certifying assessment is one type of summative
evaluation designed to protect the society by
preventing incompetent personnel from practice.
Summative Assessment
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in AHN)
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Validity – refers to the ability of a data gathering
instrument to measure what is supposed to measure.
 It should measure the aims or the objectives set up.
Example: A clinical thermometer is a valid instrument
for measuring an individual’s body temperature, but a
sphygmomanometer is not valid for this purpose.
Qualities of a Measuring Instrument
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A yardstick is a valid instrument for measuring cloth,
but a baby scale is not valid.
In estimating the validity of a measuring instrument,
the question is “valid for what?” and “valid for whom?”
must be answered.
For example in the case of clinical thermometer, it is
valid for measuring body temperature (what) on
human beings (whom).

Reliability – is the degree to which an assessment tool
produces stable and consistent results
Inter rater reliability is a measure of reliability used
to assess the degree to which different judges or raters
agree in their assessment decisions.
is useful because human observers will not necessarily
interpret answers the same way; raters may disagree as
to how well certain responses or material demonstrate
knowledge of the construct or skill being assessed.

Test-retest _ is a measure of reliability obtained
by administering the same test twice over a period
of time to a group of individuals.
E.g. A test designed to assess student learning in
psychology could be given to a group of students
twice, with the second administration perhaps
coming a week after the first.
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For evaluation, the essential quality is validity. However,
do not forget that for an educational system considered
as a whole, it is the relevance that most important.
Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for validity. In other words, valid results are necessarily
reliable, but reliable results are not necessarily valid.
Consequently, results, which are not very reliable,
affect the degree of validity.

Test length – the longer the test, the more reliable is
the test
The number of destructors for each item –
increasing the number of alternatives or options for
each item will also increase reliability.
Group homogeneity – group similarity or
homogeneity decreases reliability because it decreases
the spread of scores.
Factors influencing reliability

Item difficulty – reliability is largest in a test with
middle range item difficulty.
Replacing items that are either too hard or too easy
will increase overall reliability.
Item discrimination – the more the items
discriminating, the more reliable is the test.
Clear test directions – if the instructor provides
complete and clear test directions, reliability will
increase.

Objective examination
 The objective type of examination includes multiple
choice, true/false, matching, completion and single
answer.
Tests and principles of test construction

 All multiple-choice items have three elements: the
stem that presents the problem, the correct answer
and the distracters.
 The stem can be in the form of either a question
known as closed item or an incomplete statement
known as open stem.
Multiple choice items

The scoring is objective
Require students to apply knowledge rather than only
provide a rote response
Guessing is reduced compared to the true-false format
Broad range of content can be tested in a short time
period
Easy to administer and score
Advantages of multiple-choice items

To produce valid questions, competence, experience,
and time are required
Difficult to construct, especially for realistic distracters
Questions need to be constantly reviewed and
revised, especially when used for summative
assessment

the stem should be a question, but may also be in an
incomplete statement that implies a question.
Eliminate all unrelated information. Do not load the stem with
irrelevant materials.
It should be a complete sentence, or a lead in to the choices.
A positive statement or a problem is preferable to a negative
one. In general, avoid negative statements such as "not" or
"except." If used, underline or capitalize the negative word to
call attention.
Principles for constructing the items (stems)

All alternatives should be roughly parallel in
concept, grammar, length, and specificity.
Be sure that there is only one correct and clearly
best answer.
Vary the placement of the correct answer randomly
among the alternatives.
Research shows that mostly teachers use "b".
Principles for developing the correct response

All options should be plausible. Incorrect alternatives should
be clearly incorrect. Omit responses that are obviously
wrong.
Options should be arranged in some logical order if possible
(i.e., alphabetical, numerical, chronological).
When words or phrases are common to all alternatives,
place them in the stem.
At least four alternative responses are necessary for a
reasonable degree of difficulty.
Principles for developing the distracters

List possible responses in a column, one under the other for
easier reading.
Make all distracters as homogeneous as possible.
Try to avoid using "all of the above" as an alternative. These
items do not discriminate well among the students. Students
need only comparing two choices. If both are acceptable
then "all of the above" is the logical answer, even if the
student is not sure of the third choice. It is also inconsistent
with the directions that "there is only one correct/ best
answer.

Avoid "none of the above" or multiple choices like 'a' and
'c' are correct. If used, it should appear as an option in all
of the items and it should be the correct answer in a
number of items.

effective for covering a great deal of material and is easy to
mark, but remember to avoid irrelevant cues.
Words such as always, none, all, never, might and generally
gives clues or imply answers.
Also be sure that your "true" statements are absolutely true,
and that your "false" statements are absolutely false.
Otherwise, they will cause confusion and errors.
Work toward a fairly equal number of true and false items.
True false items

It can sample effectively a wide range of
subject matter in a relatively short period
of time
Scoring is objective, fast and easy.
Advantages

True-false items are difficult to construct
Since there are only two alternative answers, it
encourages guessing
A large number of true-false items are required to
discriminate between higher and lower achievers.
Disadvantages

 Avoid items that include more than one idea,
especially if one is true and the other is false.
 The concept tested should be important, not trivial
facts.
 Use more false than true items.
 False statements tend to be more discriminating.
Students may be more inclined to answer "true" if they
do not know the answer.
Construction of true/false items

The true statement should not be consistently longer
than the false statement.
Mix the true/false items thoroughly. Randomly arrange
items to avoid clusters of true or false items.
Allow at least 30 seconds per question on a true/false
items.

The matching test item in its simplest form consists of
two lists of words and phrases that are to be matched.
The first list is known as a list of premises
The second, as a list of responses.
Matching items are often presented as a list of words
to be matched with a list of definitions.
Items within each list should be similar (e.g., possible
diagnoses, medications, etc.).
Matching test items

In a perfect matching exercise, the number of premises
and the number of responses is the same, and each
response can be used only once.
Imperfect matching exercises can be constructed by:
Making the list of responses longer than the list of
premises (i.e., adding a few distracters); or
Including some responses that may be used more than
once if the lists are of equal length.

It is valuable for measuring students' ability to
recognize relationships and associations such as terms
with definitions, symbols with names, questions with
answers, causes with effects, parts with functions.
It is reliable, discriminating and objective.
Much factual information can be tested in a short time.
Advantage

It is a poor measure of interpretation
and application.
The matching format cannot be used
for an entire test.
Disadvantages

Imperfect matching test items (ones with a few distracters)
are more objective than perfect matching exercises.
The perfect matching test item allows the student to
determine the last response by a process of elimination
because there are as many responses as premises, and each
response can be used only once.
It is therefore recommended that teachers use imperfect
rather than perfect matching exercises as much as possible.
Constructing matching items

Tips for writing good matching questions:
Focus the matching question on one subject.
Keep the list of statements brief (no more than 10 to 15
statements).
 If the list is long, students may spend considerable time on
one matching item even if they have a rather clear idea of
what the response should be.
Keep the matching exercise on one page; it is confusing
when it runs onto the next page.

Be very clear about the basis for the exercise. For
example, the basis is to match a contraceptive
method with its effective life.
Response options should be listed in a logical order
such as names in alphabetical order, dates in
chronological order, and numbers in the numerical
order.
The matching set should all be one page in the test.

 require the student to provide one or several responses to
a question or situation.
 They are not as easy to complete or score as MCQ or true-
false questions, but they require the student to
spontaneously respond rather than choose from a selection
of responses.
 This type of question assesses higher-level thinking, but is
less reliable because a teacher must interpret the
responses.
Short-Answer Questions

Advantages
 Completion items have the major advantages of minimizing the
likelihood of students’ guessing correct responses.
 They are easy to construct and scoring is relatively easy.
Disadvantages
 Require only the recall of factual information rather than
application
 Difficult to score because of variety of partially correct responses
that student can furnish.

Tips for writing short-answer questions
Make the questions clear and easy to understand.
 Write precise questions so that students know exactly
what response is expected.
Prepare a structured marking sheet.
 For each question, list all of the acceptable responses,
and be prepared to consider other answers that may be
equally acceptable.
 Make the marking sheet easy to understand so that other
teachers can use it if necessary.

Write some questions that involve possible multiple
responses.
This demands more from students and can address broader
content. Example: Family planning methods most appropriate
for adolescents are:
a._____________, b._________________, c.______________
Write clear directions for short-answer questions. Clearly
state if a point will be given for each correct response or if the
student must have all the correct responses to obtain one point.

An essay examination is appropriate if the purpose
of the examination is to assess students’ abilities in
any one or a combination of the following:-
Make comparisons, write descriptions, or
explain some aspects of the subject under
study.
Understand, interpret, reason out, discriminate,
and generalize.
Essay examinations

Use, apply and integrate what has been
learned.
Recall, evaluate, select and organize material
systematically.
Accuracy in expression, coherence in
composition, and writing ability.
Reach in a conclusion.

Students organize their answers with a minimum of
restraint. It minimizes the possibility of getting the
answers by blind guessing.
Constructing the examination is not time consuming.
It is quick and easy to design and administer.
It can be structured as an open book classroom
exam or a take home examination.
Advantages of essay examinations

 Students answer a small number of examinations.
 examinations are time consuming and grading can
be highly subjective.
 It is difficult to score if the questions are too broad
or ambiguous.
 Its use often results in negative student reactions
because of the scoring difficulties and ambiguities.
Disadvantages of essay examinations

According to Litwack, Skata, and Wykle (1972), the essay
item should be designed in a way that requires students to:-
Compare – Give similarities and differences.
Contrast – Stresses the differences of similarities.
Define – gives a short, clear, and accurate
statement. Do not give illustrations unless
necessary.
Types of essay questions

Criticize – point out errors or weaknesses, or find
fault with the item.
Explain – tell and show how.
Illustration – provide examples. Give a good,
clear, and pertinent example, instance or case.
Omit definitions.
List – write only a series of items. Do not discuss
or illustrate.

Outline – give the main points only, without
details, and with little or no discussion.
Prove – give evidence. List the arguments in
favor of the item.
State – express ideas briefly and clearly. Do not
discuss in detail or illustrate.
Summarize – in a short, concise manner; sum up
the main fact expected in the response.

There are two scoring methods:-
Analytic – Elements of answers are determined and
each question is graded based on whether the
elements are present or not.
Global – Read questions and sort out several piles
(average, above average, below average). Then re -
read assign grades.
Scoring essay examinations

A student performance in a test is compared or
interpreted with a reference group of learners,
either that in the same class or in a norm group
(relative).
It aims at enabling a valid discrimination to be
made between persons based on different types of
performance; it is a competent test.
norm referenced evaluation

It becomes more necessary when certain number of
persons have to be selected for admission purpose.
Grading is based on relative to the performance of the
group.

 is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to a
well defined behavioral domain.
 Here a person is “judged purely on whether or not she/he
has met the performance criteria” regardless of how other
students perform.
 Theoretically, in this system all students could earn A
grades if they meet a high standard of performance.
 Grading is less subjective when criteria are spelled out and
each learner is to the standard.
Criterion referenced evaluation

Since student’s behavior is individual and unique,
there can be no right or wrong way of performing,
but only safe ways. Example: there is no
difference to start bed making in either from the
top or bottom.
Students learn best when motivated and
positively reinforced.
Advantages of criterion referenced system

 For creativity and innovation, student should be
encouraged to solve problems and plan care in an
individual manner and not be compared with
groups.
 It crates spirits of cooperation and teamwork.
 Avoids selfishness.

 Item analysis is a process which examines student responses to
individual test items in order to assess the quality of those items
and of the test as a whole.
 is valuable in improving items which will be used again in later
tests, but it can also be used to eliminate ambiguous or
misleading items in a single test administration.
 In addition, item analysis is valuable for increasing instructors'
skills in test construction, and identifying specific areas of course
content which need greater emphasis or clarity.
137
Item analysis
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Item analysis is most useful in preparing question
bank and reviewing questions.
It is done through calculating the difficulty index
and discrimination index.
It also represents for the quality control of tests and
examinations.
Item Analysis

Evaluates the response pattern of each item within
the group tested. How many percent have
answered on each option?
Evaluates the mastery of course content.
Provide information about the level of difficulty of
each question and the ability of the test item to
discriminate between the good and poor students.
Purposes of item analysis

It improves the reliability of objective tests.
It provides a basis for revising and structuring
tests
It provides a basis for retaining or deleting
specific items.

It is applicable only to questions scored
dichotomously (1:0) the MCQ type.
It should not be applied if the total number of
students is very small (a minimum of 20 students
could be proposed as a pragmatic criterion).
Condition for application of item analysis

It is an index for measuring the easiness or difficulty of a test
question.
It is the percentage of students who have correctly answered a
test question (easiness index). It varies from 0-100%
L = H+L x100
N
H= number of correct answer in the higher group
 L= number of correct answer in the lower group
N= total number of students in both groups (H+L)
Level of difficulty index (L)

An indicator showing how significantly a
question discriminates between higher and
lower students (vary from -1 to 1).
D = H – L
½ N
Discrimination index (D)

 Award of a score to each student: Perforate your answer
sheet on the boxes corresponding to the correct answer.
 Ranking in the order of merit: proceed from the highest to
the lowest score.
 Identification of high and low groups: Form the first 27%
(high group) and the last 27% (low group) of all the students
ranked in order of merit. If more than 40 students you can use
also 33% (1/3) or ½ or if there are less than 40 students.
Step in item analysis

Calculate the difficulty index of a question
Calculate the discrimination index of a
question
Critically evaluate each question

In calculating the difficulty index, the higher the index
denotes the easier is the question.
In principle, a question with the difficulty index lying
between 25%-75% is acceptable. (in that range, the
discrimination index is more likely to be high).
A test with the difficulty index in the range of 50% - 60%
is very likely to be reliable.
Interpretation

In calculating the discrimination index, the higher the
index denotes the more a question will distinguish
between high and low scores.
When a test is composed of questions with high
discrimination indexes, it ensures a ranking that clearly
discriminates between the students according to their
level of performance, i.e., it gives no advantage to the
low group over the high group.

In other words, it helps you to find out the best students.
0.4 and over: Excellent question
0.3: Good question
0.2: Marginal question-revise
Under 0.15: poor question, most likely to be
discarded
0: No discrimination at all
Negative number is a bad item

Exercise 1: On dividing group of 21 students into 3
groups of 7 each, based on the basis of the total
score of each student, it is found that for the first
item 7 students in the high group and 4 from the
lower group have got the right answer.
Calculate the difficulty index, the discrimination
index, and give your decision based on the analysis.

Exercise 2: On dividing the group of 45 students in to 3
groups of 15 each, on the basis of the total score of each
student, it is found for the first question that 9 students out
of 15 in the high group and 3 out of 15 in the low group
have given the right answer. For this question the difficulty
index is:
a. 12% c. 30% e. 60%
b. 27% d. 40%

Under the same condition, the discrimination index is:
a. 0.12 d. 0.40
b. 0.27 e. 0.60
c. 0.3
On the basis of these indexes, which of the following decisions
would you take concerning this question?
a. It should be discarded from the question bank
b. It should be referred to a drafting committee for revision
c. It should be retained in the bank as it is
d. A decision other than a, b, or c

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152
Processof Curriculumdesignand
development

Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
æIndicate areas of faculty involvement in designing
a curriculum.
æDefine the terms course and design in the
curriculum terminology.
æDiscuss the steps used in the course design
process using specific examples.
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Introduction
ò Curriculum development is not carried out in
isolation from other activities, but is part of an
iterative planning, development, implementation and
review cycle.
ò The word curriculum derives from the Latin currere
meaning ‘to run’. This implies that one of the
functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or
design which enables learning to take place.
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¦ Curricula usually define the learning that is
expected to take place during a course or
programme of study in terms of knowledge,
skills and attitudes.
¦ They should specify the main teaching, learning
and assessment methods and provide an
indication of the learning resources required to
support the effective delivery of the course.
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Con’t…
¦ A curriculum is more than a syllabus.
¦ A syllabus describes the content of a programme
and can be seen as one part of a curriculum.
¦ It should be noted that the term can be used to
describe development at different levels: Faculty
Level, Departmental Level and Unit level
3/22/2023

The curriculumDesign Process
Curriculum development and design in the light
of two main schools of thought, the objectives
model and the process model.
Although the two models are not mutually
exclusive, they do represent two different
philosophical approaches.
3/22/2023

Objectives model
The objectives model takes as its major principle
the idea that all learning should be defined
In terms of what students should be able to
do after studying the programme,
In terms of learning outcomes or learning
objectives.
This model was developed by Ralph Taylor
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This model has the following characteristic features:
Ù It makes objectives fundamental to a curriculum testing
process, which could be impossible without them.
Ù It facilitates communication
Ù The model helps for accurate method of evaluation.
Ù It makes evaluation mandatory in view of the purpose of
curriculum.
Ù End determines the means.
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Criticism
 Learners takes passive role because what is to
be learned is predetermined by others;
 Behavioral objectives can become so numerous
that a teacher can spend more time writing than
teaching.
 Educational outcomes are often unpredictable;
3/22/2023

The process Model
The process Model of curriculum planning came as
alternative model recently.
This model was developed by Lawrence Stenhouse.
 It was articulated in opposition to the objective
model.
The process is an open mind and evaluation is done
based on institutional resources.
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Û The process model assumes that content and
learning activities have an intrinsic value and
they are not just a means of achieving learning
objectives and that translating behavioral
objectives.
Û The process model depends a lot on the quality
of the teacher.
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Stenhouse argued that there were four
fundamental processes of education:
ò Training (skills acquisition)
ò Instruction (information acquisition)
ò Initiation (socialization and familiarization with social
norms and values)
ò Induction (thinking and problem solving)
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The Process model of curriculum planning claims that:
ï Means determines the end.
ï End results should be open- You don't expect the
same result among students;
ï The educational achievements are accepted
depending on concrete conditions where the
instructional process took place
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 Self assessment, reflection, project, and continuous
evaluation are an integral part of education.
 The individual is helped to develop skills go out and
explore the world.
 The learner has more control over, and
responsibility for learning becomes more
empowered.
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Situational Analysis Model
The situational analysis model:
¦ Emphasizes on the concrete life situation of the
society
¦ It demands considering the economic, social,
political, cultural, environmental etc.
¦ The curriculum needs to reflect and be based on the
activities, problems, and future aspirations of the
society.
3/22/2023

The objectives approach to systematic course design,
which is commonly used in Ethiopia, involves the
following steps:
1. Situational analysis
2. Objectives formulation
3. Content derivation
4. Selection of appropriate methods and media
5.Determination of evaluation procedures and
schedules.
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Step1:Needs Assessment / Situational Analysis/
Diagnosis of Needs
ò The first step in the curriculum development process
is to clearly state the issue that encouraged the
initiation of a curriculum development effort.
ò Need assessment at least describe the rationale,
problems, logics, facts, and figures related with
health (socio-economical) issues that would
influence the reader for the need of a specific
program.
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An educational need is a discrepancy between
an existing set of circumstances and some
desired set of circumstances.
These discrepancies can be described in terms
of knowledge, attitude, and performance.
Existing of circumstances ----- Gap = Needs ----
Desired set of circumstances
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In order to design a course that is suitable, we
need to know the following information about
students:
Academic background and experience
Motivation
Demographic information
Learning styles and habits
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Step 2: Objective Formulation
ò Objectives are the “breaking down” of the graduate
outcomes at general, intermediate and specific in a
manner that allows logical acquisition of content and
processes.
Levels of Objectives
ò There are three domains of learning objectives: the
cognitive, the affective and the psychomotor.
ò This domain is referred as Bloom taxonomical
model of educational objectives
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Step 3: Content Derivation
¦ Content derivation involves the discipline you teach
in view of the course objectives.
¦ Contents: - are elements of a subject matter, which
help the learner in the acquisition of knowledge, the
development of skills, habits, attitudes, values.
¦ Contents are the experiences help the individual to
achieve the required changes.
3/22/2023

Criteria for the Selection of Contents:
æThe Validity of subject matter; - achieve the
objectives
æThe Significance of subject matter; - Essential
one
æAppropriate balance of scope & depth; -coverage
æAppropriateness to public needs and interests;
æThe durability of the subject matter (test of
survival) 3/22/2023

Curriculum Organization is based on four
principles
- Continuity - One learning experience should
reinforce another; vertical recurrence of
concepts, ideas skill
- Sequence - Order of contents and courses; what
must come first and what must follow and why?
- Scope - Coverage
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Integration/vertical; and horizontal relationship
å Vertical integration describes the blurring of
boundaries between pre-clinical and clinical
courses.
å It also describes the educational experiences
from one week to the next, from one semester to
the next, from one year to the next have to be
organized in such way the present experiences
to build.
3/22/2023

Horizontal integration describes how knowledge
and skills from many disciplines are clustered
around themes such as body.
It can be described based on relationship among
the curriculum experienced on several subjects.
3/22/2023

Howwillyouorganize what youteach(sequencing)?
ö Topic-by-Topic or Parallel Theme Approach: Topics
are treated independently of one another and can thus be
studied in any order. Topic1,
ö Chronological Sequence or Historical Approach:
Here events happening over a period of time are
presented in the same order in which they happened.
ö Causal or cause-effects chain approach: Here the
content is presented in cause and effect order. Example
diseases, which are caused by bacteria, virus….
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 Structured or Discipline’s own logic approach: In a
discipline one topic sometimes cannot be learned
without prior understanding of some other topic.
 Problem-centered approach: In this approach content
is organized in the form of concrete problems, which are
presented to the learner for exploration and solution.
 Spiral approach: Here the same topic is repeated over
and over again as the course develops each time at a
more complex level. Example: CBTP course.
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Criteria for Selection of teaching Methods
include:
å Objectives
å Nature of Content
å Learners learning style
å Facilities at hand
å Teacher's personality (education and training)
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Step 4. Selection of teaching methods and
media
 Selecting the teaching methods and instructional
media considers the following :
Ù The number of students taking the course
Ù Available resources such as time and space
Ù Available media
Ù The lecturers competency in using a given method
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Step 5. Setting the evaluation method
In course design evaluation is important for
different reasons among others:
 It enables us to determine the extent to which course
objectives have been achieved by our students;
 It provides us with feedback information based on
which we can improve our course
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Course Evaluation for Revision
 When designing a course, we should also plan
for it evaluation. It is necessary that we review
the objectives, content, and organization,
methods, and media as well as evaluation
process.
Source of Information
à Student’s assessment
à On implementation
à At the end of the course, 3/22/2023

Methods of Evaluating the Curriculum
Analysis of Health Needs
Since the purpose of the curriculum is to train
people to solve health problems, you need to
look at analysis of health statistics and decide on
the need of curriculum improvement or change.
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Con’t…
Critical Incident Studies
Critical incidents are finding of some common
points from the health workers that are uncertain
or not competent to handle the situation through
discussion.
This shows a mismatch between training and
practice. E.g. Role conflict.
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Supervisors Report
Asking advice from supervisors and then take
action based on their comments if possible.
Feedback from Stakeholders
Use of questionnaire and interview will help for
such responses. These could be collected from
MOH, regional or Zonal department heads,
teachers, students, and others.
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Types of evaluations and their purposes
 Needs Assessment: To identify KAP needed for
acceptable job performance, for selection of
contents (common before in-service training is
given).
 Baseline Evaluation: To determine the trainee’s
levels of KAP before training (pretest).
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Input Evaluation: used to assess the elements
associated with the training. Costs, recruitment
(selection of trainers, and trainees), curriculum
plans, venue, materials, etc.
Process Evaluation: is conducted periodically
during the training, adapt to schedule, content,
approach.
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Outcome Evaluation: conducted to assess the
needed behavioral change after training.
Impact Evaluation: is conducted to determine the
long term effect of training on:
 Individual job performance
 Organizational performance
 Program performance
 Effect on target population
 Regional or national health indicators.
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Steps of curriculum development at department level
1. Background of the Department (not
exceeding one page)
 Development history of the department
 Type, number and evolution of programs
and activities
 Rationale for curriculum review process
(short and general)
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2. Department's Goals and Objectives
2.1 Goals
¦ Department goals are statements that show the
focus of activity or actual destinations, which are to
be achieved in a given period.
¦ They are statements of strategy showing tile or
cover intention.
¦ They need to drown from the University mission
statements, which are derived from the national aims
of education.
3/22/2023

The department goals should:
 Reflect the mission of inset university regarding
teaching, training, research and community service;
 Be general in their nature and they are written in
every short and precise language;
 Indicate the overall end product of the department;
 Indicate essential function of the department;
 Depicts (show) what the department stands for.
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Example:
To train secondary school teachers that have
subject area knowledge and Pedagogical skills;
To produce graduates who could work as
practitioners and researchers concerning
enhancing quality of human life by applying
psychological principles and techniques.
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2.2. Specific Objectives of the Department
æIt has more detailed objectives reflecting all
programs and activities of the department.
æThey should be written in general or specific
forms.
æThey need to reflect the department's program(s).
3/22/2023

Example ~ department of teacher Education
College
To train secondary school teachers who have
mathematical knowledge and pedagogical skills. etc
provide training in the field of teacher education
Conduct research on curriculum design and
implementation
Train adult and life long learning experts
3/22/2023

3. Programs of the Department
List all programs-including research programs,
degree programs undergraduate and graduate,
diploma programs, minor programs, service
course programs, etc
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4. Curriculum/Curricula of program(s)
 each program must have a distinct curriculum.
4.1 Rationale of the Curriculum
Justifications for designing the present curriculum‘
Review results of different bodies in the University
Observed needs of society, learner, market, etc,
Stakeholders needs and responses, identified
strengths and weakness of the old curriculum.
Survey results if available.
3/22/2023

4.2, Graduate profile-
 These reflect competencies and behaviors that the
graduates need to show after the completion of the
educational or training program.
 The behavioral changes need to include:
a) Execution of tasks, duties, activities, responsibilities
etc, in his/her field with skill, efficiency and
effectiveness;
b) Skills in applying knowledge in the solution of problems
in different circumstances; 3/22/2023

Graduate Profile
Upon completion of the B.Sc. nursing program, the graduates will be
able to:-
1. Provide basic physical care for patients with self care deficit and
altered physiologic functions in any clinical specialty
2. Use critical thinking. (Collects and analyzes relevant data,
establishes priorities, makes appropriate decisions for
implementation and evaluates achievements)
3. Actively participate in the disease prevention and control at various
levels.
3/22/2023

4.3 Program requirements
4.3.1 Admission Requirements (if different from
general university requirements give justification)
3/22/2023

Sample admission requirements for regular
students
 Admissions to all regular undergraduate programs are
processed as per the procedures set by the Ministry of
Education.
 The student must come from a background of Natural
Science
 Medically fit (having no lack of harmony of physical
body that can reason for failing to carry out the given
professional duty).
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4.3.2 Graduation Requirements
 Graduation requirement will be according to the working senate
legislation of University and relevant rules and regulations.
 Thus, a student enrolled in the BSc Midwifery program is eligible for
graduation if and only if he/she.
 Has taken all the required modules for the program as follows:
 General courses= 56 ECTS./16 courses/
 Professional/core courses =188ECTS /66 courses/
= A total of 244 ECTS
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4.3.3 Degree Nomenclature (both in English
and Amharic)
DEGREE NOMENCLATURE
 Up on successful completion of this program the
graduate will be awarded “THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING" in
English and “የባችለር ሳይንስ ዲግሪ በነርሲንግ “in
Amharic.
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4.4 Teaching Learning Methods and Materials
(Major Ones)
Strategies such as lecture, lab. field, tutorials,
etc. including delivery modes such as regular,
outreach, distance, continuing etc. and materials,
such as texts, libraries, laboratories, audiovisual
materials, computers and other IT facilities.
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4.5 Resource Profile
 Human Resource staff profile (available staff) and
critical shortages
 Material-available buildings, library, other facilities,
etc. and critical needs (with justification);
 Administrative structures including standing and
committees, such as examination committee,
curriculum committee, etc.
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4.6 Quality Assurance-
å This should answer whether the program is
managed in a transparent way and whether
problems can easily be seen if and when they arise.
å Program management monitoring systems (clear
areas of responsibility and accountability)
å Curriculum evaluation guide that involves formative
and summative evaluations.
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ö A mechanism of standardization of course
offerings, such as course outlines, exam
content, external audit, such as external
examiners, etc.
ö Staff Evaluation mechanisms
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4.7. Selections and Sequencing of Courses
4.7.1 Selection -show change of courses (old and new)
 Major compulsory
 Major elective
 Minor compulsory
 Minor elective
 Supportive courses
 General education
courses
 Professional courses as
applicable

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207
207

4.7.2 Sequencing (course offerings)
 Schedule of course in the whole program
 Course numbering-note that course codes need to
be four፡
First digit represents YEAR
Second digit tells to which module the course belongs,
The third digit indicates the code given by the
department to differentiate courses within the semester
The last digit represents SEMESTER.
NursM2111
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5. Course Development
 A course is the main part of the curriculum of the
department program(s).
 The curriculum development process demands the
selection of models.
 According to the Ethiopian education, the objective
model has been in use for decades.
 The course development using the objective model
follows the following steps:
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5.1 Course Description
It describes the nature of the course giving with
emphasis on major areas of the course.
Theoretical and practical skills the course
provides to the learner.
It is a summary like presentation of a course in
one paragraph reflecting the nature of the course
content, objectives and methods.
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5.2 Course Objectives
Are statements which indicate the expected
learning outcomes in terms of cognitive
(knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation), skills
(abilities in manipulating mental and motor
abilities) and values (attitudes, habits,
convictions, interests etc), outcomes.
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5.3 Course Content
 Contents are the elements of a subject matter (facts,
main ideas, concepts, principles, laws and theories,
procedures, methods, activities, etc, that help the
students acquire the knowledge, form the values and
develop the skills.
 The selection of contents for a course requires
checking the contents for their validity, significance,
learn-ability durability, contribution to societal
development, etc.
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5.4 Mode of Delivery/Presentation Strategy/ Method of
teaching/strategies
Are the ways or the means to present the contents to the
learner so as to achieve the desired/intended objectives,
are to be cited as a component of the course.
They are to be selected by considering the objectives,
contents, the learners, the resources and the teacher's
personality.
However, participatory methods that enhance active
learning are encouraged.
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5.5 Resources required
¦ The materials required in offering the course
should be listed.
¦ These include audio-visual materials,
computers, charts, graphs, maps, real objects,
etc. that facilitate learning.
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5.6 Mode of Assessment /Evaluation
å The different instruments that can be used for
assessment of the students` achievement will be
suggested.
å Quizzes, tests, observation techniques, peer and
self-assessment mechanisms, portfolio evaluation,
procedure and product evaluation etc. can be listed.
å This helps to assure quality of the training.
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5.7 Reference Materials
All those reading materials (published and
unpublished useful to offer the course shall be
listed.
Both the teacher and students refer to the
reading materials.
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Task
 Assume that your department is going to develop a
program for undergraduate level. Taking this into
account, develop a program that shows:
1. Introduction and Rationale
2. Department goals and objectives
2.1 Goals
2.2 Department objectives (at least 4 objectives)
3. Graduate Profile
4. Program of the department
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5. Develop a course (Use the format of the University
College/ Institute)
Course description
Course objectives
Course Content
Mode of Presentation
Resources to be used
Mode of Assessment/evaluation
References
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thank you
For your active attention !!!
219 3/22/2023

Nursing Education and Curriculum development

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