Neurotransmitters
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The document discusses neurotransmitters and their roles in synapses and psychostimulant addiction. It describes how neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate are involved in the "reward pathway" in the brain and can be impacted by addictive drugs. Several studies discussed used animal models to explore strategies for modulating neurotransmitters like dopamine to potentially help treat or reduce psychostimulant addiction in humans. However, more research is still needed to prove these strategies would be effective for treating addiction in people.
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![Neurotransmitters on the Synapse Velázquez-Soto, Karla Irenisse, RISE Program University of Puerto Rico, Cayey, Puerto Rico 00736 ______________________________________________________________________________ Abstract Neurotransmitters worked on the synapse in a manner that has both sides positive and negative. In drug addiction, specially, a neurotransmitter roles proceeds sympathetic that correspond to energy generation that inhibits digestion and parasympathetic promotes calming of the nerves made them digest. Amines, Amino acids and neuropeptides are the most important and influenced neurotransmitters that manipulated psychostimulant addiction on neurons. In addition, these drugs were self-administered intravenously, and then located into loci, a cerebral part that establish order and recollect memorial content. Exist many hypotheses about how they work and its possible find a treatment using same neurotransmitters that were caused drugs abuse. However, any of these hypotheses were proved with animals only, no with humans. Hopefully, in a near future can use it techniques to control psychostimulant addiction. Table of Contents Introduction Autonomic Nervous System Neurotransmitters Synapses Psychostimulant Addiction Dopamine and other Neurotransmitters ______________________________________________________________________________ Introduction Autonomic Nervous System The nervous system is engaged within any organ into our bodies. By the way, this is needed to comprehend every movement of the neurotransmitters on different synapses. Basically, the Autonomic Nervous System, knew as ANS, is part of peripheral nervous system which controls many organs and muscles, most times, by a manner involuntary and reflexive. However, can be conscious such as breathing; even thought, almost 75% of the organs and muscles like heart rate, digestion, salivation, diameter of the pupils, urination and sexual arousal. This “controlling machine” of our bodies divided by two subsystems: parasympathetic, sympathetic nervous system. (Reference No. 10 on the list) Autonomic Nervous System: Red = Sympathetic; Blue = Parasympathetic (Autonomic Nervous System, Google images 2008) Parasympathetic nervous system promotes calming nerves to regulate function, in other words, is a “rest and digests” response. An appropriate parasympathetic activity mediates digestion and consequence the absorption of nutrients. Also constrict such muscles like pupil, lens and bronchiolar diameter when is needed oxygen. Cardiac nerves, also impart within parasympathetic control of heart and myocardium. Sympathetic nervous system works as “flight or flight” response that uses energy generation to inhibit digestion. For example, Dilates pupils and relaxes the lens, allowing more light to enter the eye, accelerates heart rate and promotes contractively of cardiac cells to providing a mechanism to enhance the blood flow. Definitely, parasympathetic and sympathetic systems works in opposition, however, are complementary one to each other. Mean while, sympathetic system accelerates any function, the parasympathetic system takes a break. This is like blood pressure in the heart, were the difference systolic and diastolic pressure is that systolic is when the heart valves contraction and the diastolic is when the heart releases. Is important to mention that these two subsystems that works on the autonomic nervous system are complementary with neurotransmitters that involves non-adrenergic and non-cholinergic pathways. Non-cholinergic neurons are neurotransmitters that release acetylcholine. This pathway concentrated in specific regions of the brainstem and thought to be involved in cognitive functions, especially memory. Acetylcholine neurotransmitter works on parasympathetic nervous system and such drugs can change cholinergic activity blocking their respective receptors. Nor-adrenaline neurons increase the level of excitatory activity within the brain. Nor-adrenergic pathways are involved in the control of functions such as attention and arousal. These neurons have a important role in sympathetic nervous system, therefore, drugs easily causes changes in functions ranges as the effects in monoamine neurotransmitters receptors. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are the chemicals which allow and moderate the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses. They are also found at the axon endings of motor neurons, where they stimulate the muscle fibers. They are packaged into synaptic vesicles that are located on the pre-synaptic zone, the axon. Later, are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors in the membrane on the post-synaptic zone, the dendrite. Identify a neurotransmitter is a process that establish different properties. A chemical considered as a neurotransmitter when: the chemical is present in the pre-synaptic vesicle, are sufficient quantity in the pre-synaptic neuron to affect the post-synaptic dendrite, and are post-synaptic receptors to that chemical. Neurotransmitter can be amino acids, amines, and neuropeptides, which are shows in the table below. Small molecule neurotransmittersTypeNeurotransmitterPostsynaptic effectAcetylcholineExcitatoryAmino acidsGamma amino butyric acid (GABA)InhibitoryGlycineInhibitoryGlutamateExcitatoryAspartateExcitatoryBiogenic aminesDopamineExcitatoryNor-adrenalineExcitatorySerotoninExcitatoryHistamineExcitatory Neuropeptide neurotransmittersCorticotropin releasing hormoneCorticotropin (ACTH)Beta-endorphinSubstance PNeurotensinSomatostatinBradykininVasopressinAngiotensin II Another particular characteristic about neurotransmitters function is how they can works as excitatory or inhibitory one. This characteristic is identified when the neurotransmitters passes between the action potential stage (voltage like waves or energy used) to the dendrite. Excitatory neurotransmitter increase the probability that the target cell will fire an action potential and inhibitory neurotransmitter decrease this probability. Therefore, exist neurotransmitters that have both characteristics and effects; everything depends on the properties of the neurotransmitter and the reaction of this into the dendrites receptors. Synapse Synapse is a space between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic zones that allows neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system, to connect to and control other systems of the body. A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses; all depends of what type of neuron was. For example, synapses can connect axons to axons, axons to dendrites or dendrites to dendrites. Basically, the transition of the neurotransmitters has several parts beginning from a chemical synapse between an axon of one neuron and a dendrite of another. The electrical impulses arriving at the axon terminal triggers the release of neurotransmitters vesicles, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft to receptors on the adjacent dendrite temporarily affecting the likelihood that an electrical impulse will be triggered in the latter neuron. Once released the neurotransmitter is rapidly metabolized or is pumped back into a neuron, after a specialized enzyme digest the no functional neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters-Transition (Neurotransmitters, Google images) Psychostimulant Addiction, Experimental Evidence As mentioned before, nervous system controls all parts of the body, including organs, muscles and all the interactions between them. Definitely, neurotransmitter and the synapses parts are the beginning of all these reactions, not just into the organs, also on possible consequences if the neurotransmitters interactions failed like anxiety, irritability, emotion, mood, motivation, appetite, sexual activity, aggression and others. As is on our knowledge, these consequences are similar to the drugs abuse too, or as is called in this review psychostimulant addiction. This is one of the most problems of the society because isn’t be illegal drugs addiction, is be to any medicines, any anti-depressives and any MD prescription. Neurotransmitters as dopamine, serotonin, cholinergic and many others are completely involved into psychostimulant addiction. In the last years many scientists still studying how can manage the psychostimulant addiction starting change the neurotransmitters range. Dopamine (DA) and Others Neurotransmitters Dopamine receptors have an important role into drug addiction. Almost all addictive drugs like cocaine, nicotine, opiates, marijuana and ethanol increase DA levels on the loci. Therefore, any of these drugs are located on the loci or are administrated intravenously, inhibiting DA receptors on the dendrites. According to Gardner (2008), DA levels were increased by the reversal DA transporters to the pre-synaptic stage, causing euphoria and immediately caused psychostimulant addiction to the drug exposed. He proved in animals that exists two pharmacological strategies to manipulate DA neurotransmitters transmission and antagonist the abuse. The first strategy was to modulate DA receptors and the latter one was to modulate DA transporters. His study was with a derived of a Chinese herb called Stephanie (THP), he proved that is a non-selective D1 or D2 receptor antagonist and THP can be used as a pharmacotherapy against heroin abuse. When the cocaine or heroin enters to the DA loci altered the electrical BSR, but Gardener (2008) used THP as a substitution of cocaine doing an inhibition on the D1 and D2 dopamine receptors. As a result, he blocked loci and decreased the cocaine and heroin addiction, modulating DA receptors. Another similar study with opiates by Spector (1998), demonstrated the theory of pharmacotherapy in monoamines, like dopamine; as said Spector (1998) and cited: “The results presented here demonstrate that systemic administration of levamisole reduced the symptoms of naltrexone-induced morphine withdrawal, produced a significant increase in the levels of endogenous morphine and codeine in brain and peripheral organs, and significantly altered the metabolism of the monoamine neurotransmitters in specific brain regions…”. Basically, she proved that immunostimulant Levamisole can increase the morphine and codeine (opiates) levels. She and her co-workers did their bases on the discovered of (Goldstein et al. 1985) that identified the presence of synthesized morphine and codeine into mammalian tissues. First Spector (1998), chose two groups of rats, where the experimental group was treated with morphine and codeine. Five days later she took the experimental group and extracts the morphine and codeine using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to separate the chemicals. Later, she analyzed the monoamines neurotransmitters metabolites in lung, heart, colon and spleen. The results from these proceeds were the addictive rats to opiates decreased their dependence when the Levamisole were injected. Definitely, Levamisole doesn’t just work with bacteria and virus diseases, also increased the levels of morphine and codeine on monoamines neurotransmitters, as a manner to controlling the psychostimulant addiction to opiates. Olive (2007), did a study about the learning relevance for addiction on Glumate neurotransmitter. He specified that Glumate is the most abundant neurotransmitter on the synapses because it works with any drugs that interact into dopamine transporters and receptors. He proved that the association between drugs and specific environmental cues becomes overlearning and these types of overlearning lead drug craving and relapse. This repetition resulting in attenuates the Glumate transmission at the same time controls the abuse to drugs. Conclusion Different scientists still studying with a great emphasis the different strategies described before however were just hypothesis. These studies were just proved with animals like rats, but no with humans. Even thought, many of the articles used in this review establish that were in process, for example, people that were addicted to marijuana are be treated with methadone in substitution to marijuana and heroin Gardener (2008) mentionded on his experiment that: “The former strategy has – to date – primarily utilized DA receptor antagonists, while the latter strategy has – to date – primarily utilized indirect DA receptor agonists that can be viewed as pharmacologically substituting for the addictive psychostimulants in a manner analogous to methadone substitution for heroin.”. The methadone work as an inhibitor on specific DA receptors and is expected that with a certain time these persons can attenuates their psychostimulant addiction. Inclusive, governments as Puerto Rico and United States are paying this treatment to addicted people. In another point of view, these mechanisms can be used in a future in other types of psycho-stimulation. References ,[object Object]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/neurotransmitters-091228165912-phpapp02/85/Neurotransmitters-1-320.jpg)
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Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays important roles in many psychiatric and neurological disorders. It acts in several pathways in the brain. The mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways are involved in schizophrenia, mood disorders, and addiction. The nigrostriatal pathway controls motor movements and deficiencies can cause disorders like Parkinson's disease. Dopamine also acts in the tuberoinfundibular pathway in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Neurotransmitter systems of the brain and their functions
1. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released at synapses that transmit signals between neurons. The main neurotransmitters in the brain are acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and endorphins.
2. Each neurotransmitter system is involved in regulating key brain functions and behaviors such as movement, mood, sleep, cognition, and pain perception.
3. Neurotransmitters act via membrane receptors on target neurons, including ionotropic receptors that are ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic G-protein coupled receptors.
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because it integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals
CNS Drugs
This document provides an overview of various drugs that affect the nervous system, organized by drug class. It discusses analgesics like opioids and NSAIDs; anesthetics like general gases and local anesthetics; anti-anxiety drugs like benzodiazepines and barbiturates; anti-seizure medications; CNS stimulants; antipsychotics; antidepressants; Parkinson's disease medications; and drugs that affect the autonomic nervous system, including cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs. Mechanisms of action, effects, and side effects are described for many of these drug classes and examples.
Neurobiology in everyday life
The document discusses the reward system in the brain. It describes the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways that regulate behavior through pleasurable effects. The nucleus accumbens is a key part that reacts to rewards like food, sex, drugs and more. Addiction hijacks this system by flooding it with dopamine released unnaturally by drugs. Downregulation of dopamine receptors in this region decreases sensitivity to natural rewards and drives continued drug abuse. Understanding the neural circuitry and neurotransmitters involved in the brain's natural reward system provides insights into addiction.
The brain system reward addiction
The brain reward system is activated by natural rewards to meet biological needs, but is also activated by addictive drugs even when no needs are present. Chronic drug use causes plastic changes in the brain that contribute to addiction. Glutamate signaling plays a key role in addiction learning and craving. Future anti-craving therapies aim to target drug-induced changes in neuronal networks specific to each addiction, moving toward individualized treatment approaches.
Parasympatholytic drugs
This document summarizes parasympatholytic drugs, also known as anticholinergic or antimuscarinic drugs. It discusses the pharmacological properties and uses of atropine and scopolamine, which are belladonna alkaloids that act as competitive inhibitors at muscarinic receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system. It also describes newer anticholinergic drugs that have more selective actions, such as ipratropium bromide and tiotropium bromide for bronchodilation in respiratory disorders, and oxybutynin for urinary incontinence.
Drugs And The Central Nervous System :)
This document discusses psychoactive drugs and their effects on the brain and body. It describes four major classifications of psychoactive drugs: depressants, hallucinogens, opiates, and stimulants. It then provides details on the effects of specific drugs within each classification, including side effects and risks of long-term use. The document also discusses how psychoactive drugs disrupt the normal transmission of signals in the brain through neurotransmitters and how this can alter mood, behavior, and perception.
Pharmacology of Recovery: Dopamine, Gaba, Serotonin and Acetylcholine
Pharmacology of Recovery: Dopamine, Gaba, Serotonin and AcetylcholineDr. DawnElise Snipes ★AllCEUs★ Unlimited Counselor Training
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Provides a high-level overview of the main feel-good chemicals, practical and pharmacological ways to address chemical imbalances and how chemical imbalances can trigger a relapse.Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine and epinephrine are stress hormones involved in the fight or flight response. Norepinephrine is released by neurons and the adrenal gland, while epinephrine is produced solely in the adrenal gland. Both play essential roles in stress responses, blood pressure, and metabolism. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and cognitive functions. Imbalances in serotonin have been linked to depression, suicide, impulsivity, and aggressiveness.
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role of neurotransmitters in neuropsychriatric diseases
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Neurotransmittter and role of dopamine in psychiatry
Neurotransmittter and role of dopamine in psychiatry
Neurotransmitter systems of the brain and their functions
Neurotransmitter systems of the brain and their functions
Pharmacology of Recovery: Dopamine, Gaba, Serotonin and Acetylcholine
Pharmacology of Recovery: Dopamine, Gaba, Serotonin and Acetylcholine
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This document discusses various biological factors that can contribute to abnormal behavior, including neurotransmitter imbalances and hormonal imbalances. It describes several major neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, GABA, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine and how imbalances in these neurotransmitters have been linked to psychological disorders. Specifically, it notes that schizophrenia has been associated with too much dopamine while depression has been linked to decreased serotonin levels. The document also discusses the endocrine system and various neurohormones and how they can impact neural activity and psychological functioning when imbalanced.
The Brain And Human Behavior2
The document discusses the basal ganglia and various brain disorders associated with basal ganglia dysfunction such as Parkinson's disease. It describes the dopamine, glutamate, and serotonergic pathways in the brain and how they are affected in schizophrenia. Various neurotransmitters are also discussed including biogenic amines, amino acids like glutamate and GABA, and peptides. The concept of upregulation of neuronal receptors is introduced as a compensatory response when neurons receive too little stimulation.
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Physiology of Neuromodulation and neuromodulators. Difference between neuromodulation and synapse. Recent advances in neuromodulation, clinical application of neuromodulation.
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The document discusses that depression is caused by complex biological factors rather than a simple chemical imbalance. It involves interactions between genetics, brain chemistry, stress, and life experiences. While neurotransmitters play a role in mood regulation, depression does not result from just having too much or too little of certain brain chemicals. The brain regions like the amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus are also involved.
Neurobiological Theories of Mental Disorders.ppt
Excess norepinephrine has been implicated in several anxiety disorders; deficits may contribute to memory loss
Antidepressants 2
This document discusses antidepressant agents. It begins by describing the symptoms of depression and noting that major depression is one of the most common psychiatric disorders. Antidepressants are a class of drugs used to treat major depression by restoring mood and behavior. The document then provides a detailed history of antidepressants, describing early drugs like iproniazid and imipramine and how they led to the development of newer classes of antidepressants. It discusses the mechanisms of different classes of antidepressants including tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and atypical antidepressants.
Neurotransmitters
This document discusses neurotransmitters and their functions. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons, enabling communication throughout the body. There are billions of neurons in the body, each composed of a cell body, axon, and axon terminals where neurotransmitters are released. Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles and carry signals across small gaps between neurons. Some neurotransmitters are excitatory and increase neuronal activity, while others are inhibitory and decrease activity. Examples of both types are provided along with their roles in various bodily functions and diseases. Modulatory neurotransmitters also influence how neurons communicate.
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Addiction affects the brain's communication system by disturbing the delicate balance of neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin. Drugs can imitate or increase natural neurotransmitters, overriding the brain's feedback mechanisms and rewarding pathways. As the brain adjusts to the external substance, it produces less of its own neurotransmitters, leading to cravings. Treatment may involve medication to stabilize neurotransmitter levels, but medication must be carefully managed under medical supervision as withdrawal from drugs or improper diagnosis can impact treatment needs. Co-occurring psychiatric conditions also require concurrent treatment with addiction.
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1. The document discusses several neurotransmitters including norepinephrine, epinephrine, acetylcholine, and histamine. It describes their synthesis pathways and where they are produced in the body.
2. Details are provided on the receptors for each neurotransmitter, including subtypes. The roles of the different neurotransmitters are discussed.
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This document summarizes key concepts in psychopharmacology including neurotransmitter pathways and receptor types in the brain. It describes the major neurotransmitter systems like acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate and endogenous opioid peptides. It discusses the sites of drug action on these neurotransmitter systems and the effects of repeated drug administration in developing tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. The roles of various neurotransmitters in regulating important brain functions and behaviors are also highlighted.
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Autonomic nervous system & neurotransmitter in psychiatry
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary organs and functions. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic system prepares the body for emergencies through "fight or flight" responses like increased heart rate. The parasympathetic system allows for "rest and digest" functions like decreased heart rate and increased digestion. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals between neurons. They allow signals to cross the synaptic cleft and include acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and GABA.
Neuroleptics & Anxiolytics (Abstract)
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2) The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia which proposes excessive dopamine activity plays a role, and how neuroleptics act to block this.
3) Other indications for neuroleptics beyond schizophrenia, including bipolar mania, psychosis with other disorders, and non-psychiatric uses for their antiemetic effects.
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Neurotransmitter by Quratulain mughal
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals between neurons. They are packaged into vesicles and released into the synaptic cleft upon an action potential. Binding of neurotransmitters can have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the postsynaptic neuron. There are many types of neurotransmitters including amino acids like glutamate and GABA, monoamines like dopamine and serotonin, peptides like acetylcholine, and others. Neurotransmitters play important roles in various brain functions and physiological processes.
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This document discusses several classes of drugs that act on the autonomic nervous system and neuromuscular junction. It describes drugs that act as agonists or antagonists at adrenergic and cholinergic receptors in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It also discusses drugs that affect the release or reuptake of neurotransmitters, as well as ganglionic blocking drugs that inhibit transmission between pre- and postganglionic neurons. Finally, it summarizes drugs that enhance or block transmission at the neuromuscular junction.
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- 2. Boutrel B., A neuropeptide-centric view of psychostimulant addiction, British Journal of Pharmacology (2008); Vol. 154, 343–357
- 3. Di Chiara G., Bassareo V., Dopamine and drug addiction:the nucleus accumbens shell connection, Neuropharmacology (2004); Vol. 47 (No. 1 ) 227–241
- 4. Epstein D., Preston K., Toward a model of drug relapse: An assessment of the validity of the reinstatement procedure, Psychopharmacology (2006)
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- 6. Gardner E., Xi Z., Hypothesis-Driven Medication Discovery for the Treatment of Psychostimulant Addiction, Curr Drug Abuse Rev. (2009)
- 7. Gass J., Olive M., Glutamatergic substrates of drug addiction and alcoholism, Biochemical Pharmacology (2008); Vol. 75, 218–265
- 8. Howell L., Kimmel H., Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant addiction, Biochemical Pharmacology (2008); Vol. 75, 196–217
- 9. Spector S., Munjal I., Effects of the Immunostimulant, Levamisole, on Opiate Withdrawal and Levels of Endogenous Opiate Alkaloids and Monoamine Neurotransmitters in Rat Brain, Europsychopharmacology (1998); Vol. 19 (No.5)
- 10. Tortora G., Derrickson B., Principios de la anatomía y fisiología, Editorial Médica Panaamericana (2007); 11ma Edición, 538-544
- 11. Zhao X., Shoji S., Balanced GABAergic and glutamatergic synapse development in hippocampal neurons, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications (2005); Vol. 330 1110–1115