Microorganisms have over the years evolved and developed resistance to available antimicrobials. This has cause a great impact to the world over health wise and socioeconomically. They are developing resistance at a very fast rate that current technologies and new drug developments in the pharmaceutical industries are unable to catch up.
Biological Activity of Essential Oil of Eucalyptus Camendulensis on Some Fung...IJERA Editor
Eucalyptus camaldulensis is a tree of the genus Eucalyptus widely distributed in Algeria and in the world. The value of its aromatic secondary metabolites offers new perspectives in the pharmaceutical industry. This strategy can contribute to the sustainable development of our country. These Eucalyptus camendulensis: has been selected for screening antibacterial. Preliminary tests performed on the essential oil of Eucalyptus camendulensis showed that this oil has antibacterial activity vis-à-vis the bacterial strains (Enterococcus feacalis, Enterobacter cloaceai, Proteus microsilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and antifungic (Fusarium sporotrichioide and Fusarium graminearum). The culture medium used was nutrient broth Muller Hinton. The interaction between the bacteria and the essential oil is expressed by a zone of inhibition with diameters of MIC indirectly expression of. And we used the PDA medium to determin the fungic activity. The extraction of the aromatic fraction (essentially oil- hydrolat) of the fresh aerian part of the Eucalyptus camendulensis was performed by hydrodistillation. The average essential oil yield is 0.99%. The antimicrobial and fungal study of the essential oil and hydrosol showed a high inhibitory effect on the growth of pathogens.
Pharmacological Applications of Isorhamnetin: A Short Reviewijtsrd
Isorhamnetin (30-Methoxy-3, 40, 5, 7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a flavonol, and it belongs to a group of plant secondary metabolites known as flavonoids. It is present in mans daily diet and is known for its biological activities such as antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. Isorhamnetin has been reported for its antioxidant and antiviral applications hence it is not only used as such, but it also has various derivatized forms which has potentials for development into drugs for the treatment of diseases caused by oxidative stress and lethal viruses. The present review reflects the pharmacological importance of isorhamnetin. S Kandakumar | Dr V Manju"Pharmacological Applications of Isorhamnetin: A Short Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2202.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biochemistry/2202/pharmacological-applications-of-isorhamnetin-a-short-review/s-kandakumar
Aluminium hydroxide, Aluminium phosphate and calcium phosphate are used as adjuvant in (TT) vaccine. In this review mechanism, potency, benefits and limitations of alum adjuvant have been discussed.
Biological Activity of Essential Oil of Eucalyptus Camendulensis on Some Fung...IJERA Editor
Eucalyptus camaldulensis is a tree of the genus Eucalyptus widely distributed in Algeria and in the world. The value of its aromatic secondary metabolites offers new perspectives in the pharmaceutical industry. This strategy can contribute to the sustainable development of our country. These Eucalyptus camendulensis: has been selected for screening antibacterial. Preliminary tests performed on the essential oil of Eucalyptus camendulensis showed that this oil has antibacterial activity vis-à-vis the bacterial strains (Enterococcus feacalis, Enterobacter cloaceai, Proteus microsilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and antifungic (Fusarium sporotrichioide and Fusarium graminearum). The culture medium used was nutrient broth Muller Hinton. The interaction between the bacteria and the essential oil is expressed by a zone of inhibition with diameters of MIC indirectly expression of. And we used the PDA medium to determin the fungic activity. The extraction of the aromatic fraction (essentially oil- hydrolat) of the fresh aerian part of the Eucalyptus camendulensis was performed by hydrodistillation. The average essential oil yield is 0.99%. The antimicrobial and fungal study of the essential oil and hydrosol showed a high inhibitory effect on the growth of pathogens.
Pharmacological Applications of Isorhamnetin: A Short Reviewijtsrd
Isorhamnetin (30-Methoxy-3, 40, 5, 7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a flavonol, and it belongs to a group of plant secondary metabolites known as flavonoids. It is present in mans daily diet and is known for its biological activities such as antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. Isorhamnetin has been reported for its antioxidant and antiviral applications hence it is not only used as such, but it also has various derivatized forms which has potentials for development into drugs for the treatment of diseases caused by oxidative stress and lethal viruses. The present review reflects the pharmacological importance of isorhamnetin. S Kandakumar | Dr V Manju"Pharmacological Applications of Isorhamnetin: A Short Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2202.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biochemistry/2202/pharmacological-applications-of-isorhamnetin-a-short-review/s-kandakumar
Aluminium hydroxide, Aluminium phosphate and calcium phosphate are used as adjuvant in (TT) vaccine. In this review mechanism, potency, benefits and limitations of alum adjuvant have been discussed.
Evaluation of Protective Efficacy of Hydro Alcoholic Extract and Methanol Fra...paperpublications3
Abstract: The objective of the study was to investigate and compare the radioprotective effect of hydroalcoholic extract (HAE) and methanol fraction (MF) of Tamarindus indica pod in mice against electron beam radiation. Animals were treated with 100 mg/Kg body weight of HAE and MF of T. indica for 15 consecutive days before exposing to 6Gy (sublethal dose) whole body EBR. The irradiation of animals resulted in an elevation in lipid peroxidation and reduction in glutathione, total antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities. Irradiated group had shown micronucleus in the bone marrow cells. Treatment of mice with HAE and MF before irradiation, reduced the symptoms of radiation sickness when compared with the irradiated group. Pretreated mice showed a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation followed by elevation in reduced glutathione, total antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase. It also showed a reduction in the micronucleus formation in bone marrow cells. The findings of our study indicate the protective efficacy of HAE and MF on radiation induced biochemical and chromosomal changes in mice may be due to its free radical scavenging and increased antioxidant levels. It also reveals MF, a better protective agent than that of HAE of T. indica.
Impact of Ready-mix insecticides on insect pests of cotton seminar Gaurang Rudani
Here is the material on insecticides mixture use on different insect pests of cotton crop with some research example. It is the post graduate seminar on this particular topic.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Lo studio “Shock and kill” sugli effetti degli inibitori delle istone deaceti...mabasta
è il documento con il quale l'articolo è stato sottoposto a "Retrovirology".
La rivista segue la politica dell'open access, sicché la copia e distribuzione del documento sono lecite.
Retrovirology. 2009 Jun 2;6(1):52
http://www.retrovirology.com/content/6/1/52
Plants are the oldest remedies to cure ailments of mankind. They are a storehouse of bioactive compounds which serve as a lead for the development of therapeutics against many diseases including skin diseases. In the present study, leaf extracts of Aegle marmelos, Nerium indicum, Ricinus communis, and Ziziphus nummularia were selected and tested against common skin pathogens, namely Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The methanolic extracts of all the four plants were subjected to an assay for antibacterial activity and minimum inhibitory concentration. As antioxidants play a significant role in skin disease treatments, all the extracts were also evaluated for their antioxidant activity. Preliminary phytochemical screening and estimation of total phenolic content were carried out to establish its correlation with All the methanolic extracts showed good activity against the selected skin pathogens with significant minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values. N. indicum and A. marmelos showed the highest zone of inhibition against all tested organisms. The extracts possessed potential antioxidant activity against reactive oxygen species with N. indicum exhibiting most potent activity. Further, preliminary phytochemical screening indicated presence high amount of alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins in A. marmelos and N. indicum. R. communis and Z. nummularia had the highest amount of phenolic content. The results of the study indicate that traditional knowledge can serve as a guideline to provide leads for further testing of potentially interesting plants to be used as modern treatment alternatives.
Solid wastes of fruits peels as source of low cost broad spectrum natural ant...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Antibacterial activity of aerial parts of thymus serphyllum linn against clin...IJSIT Editor
In the present research work in vitro antibacterial activity of methanolic extract of aerial parts of
Thymus serphyllum L. growing wild in Kashmir Himalaya was evaluated by agar well diffusion method and
broth dilution assay against nine human pathogenic bacterial strains, known to cause serious infections. The
extract was also screened for the presence of various bioactive phytoconstituents present in the plant. The
extract in the present study possess appreciable potential of inhibiting the growth of all the bacterial strains
at all tested concentrations (30, 60 and 90 mg/ml). The highest sensitivity was exhibited against
Staphylococcus epidermidis MTCC- 435 and Staphylococcus aureus with mean zones of inhibition 20.66 and 20
mm respectively at the concentration of 90 mg/ml. Salmonella typhi showed the least activity with mean zone
of inhibition of 10.00 mm at the concentration of 30 mg/ml. The MIC value ranged between 1.56 to 12.56
mg/ml. The phytochemical analysis of the crude extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids,
phenolics, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, steroids and carbohydrates. Anthraquinone
glycosides were absent. The present study clearly indicate that the crude methanolic extract of Thymus
serphyllum from high altitude of Kashmir Himalaya (2350 m) shows significant antibacterial activity in
concentration dependent manner.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Evaluation of Protective Efficacy of Hydro Alcoholic Extract and Methanol Fra...paperpublications3
Abstract: The objective of the study was to investigate and compare the radioprotective effect of hydroalcoholic extract (HAE) and methanol fraction (MF) of Tamarindus indica pod in mice against electron beam radiation. Animals were treated with 100 mg/Kg body weight of HAE and MF of T. indica for 15 consecutive days before exposing to 6Gy (sublethal dose) whole body EBR. The irradiation of animals resulted in an elevation in lipid peroxidation and reduction in glutathione, total antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities. Irradiated group had shown micronucleus in the bone marrow cells. Treatment of mice with HAE and MF before irradiation, reduced the symptoms of radiation sickness when compared with the irradiated group. Pretreated mice showed a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation followed by elevation in reduced glutathione, total antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase. It also showed a reduction in the micronucleus formation in bone marrow cells. The findings of our study indicate the protective efficacy of HAE and MF on radiation induced biochemical and chromosomal changes in mice may be due to its free radical scavenging and increased antioxidant levels. It also reveals MF, a better protective agent than that of HAE of T. indica.
Impact of Ready-mix insecticides on insect pests of cotton seminar Gaurang Rudani
Here is the material on insecticides mixture use on different insect pests of cotton crop with some research example. It is the post graduate seminar on this particular topic.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Lo studio “Shock and kill” sugli effetti degli inibitori delle istone deaceti...mabasta
è il documento con il quale l'articolo è stato sottoposto a "Retrovirology".
La rivista segue la politica dell'open access, sicché la copia e distribuzione del documento sono lecite.
Retrovirology. 2009 Jun 2;6(1):52
http://www.retrovirology.com/content/6/1/52
Plants are the oldest remedies to cure ailments of mankind. They are a storehouse of bioactive compounds which serve as a lead for the development of therapeutics against many diseases including skin diseases. In the present study, leaf extracts of Aegle marmelos, Nerium indicum, Ricinus communis, and Ziziphus nummularia were selected and tested against common skin pathogens, namely Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The methanolic extracts of all the four plants were subjected to an assay for antibacterial activity and minimum inhibitory concentration. As antioxidants play a significant role in skin disease treatments, all the extracts were also evaluated for their antioxidant activity. Preliminary phytochemical screening and estimation of total phenolic content were carried out to establish its correlation with All the methanolic extracts showed good activity against the selected skin pathogens with significant minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values. N. indicum and A. marmelos showed the highest zone of inhibition against all tested organisms. The extracts possessed potential antioxidant activity against reactive oxygen species with N. indicum exhibiting most potent activity. Further, preliminary phytochemical screening indicated presence high amount of alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins in A. marmelos and N. indicum. R. communis and Z. nummularia had the highest amount of phenolic content. The results of the study indicate that traditional knowledge can serve as a guideline to provide leads for further testing of potentially interesting plants to be used as modern treatment alternatives.
Solid wastes of fruits peels as source of low cost broad spectrum natural ant...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Antibacterial activity of aerial parts of thymus serphyllum linn against clin...IJSIT Editor
In the present research work in vitro antibacterial activity of methanolic extract of aerial parts of
Thymus serphyllum L. growing wild in Kashmir Himalaya was evaluated by agar well diffusion method and
broth dilution assay against nine human pathogenic bacterial strains, known to cause serious infections. The
extract was also screened for the presence of various bioactive phytoconstituents present in the plant. The
extract in the present study possess appreciable potential of inhibiting the growth of all the bacterial strains
at all tested concentrations (30, 60 and 90 mg/ml). The highest sensitivity was exhibited against
Staphylococcus epidermidis MTCC- 435 and Staphylococcus aureus with mean zones of inhibition 20.66 and 20
mm respectively at the concentration of 90 mg/ml. Salmonella typhi showed the least activity with mean zone
of inhibition of 10.00 mm at the concentration of 30 mg/ml. The MIC value ranged between 1.56 to 12.56
mg/ml. The phytochemical analysis of the crude extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids,
phenolics, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, steroids and carbohydrates. Anthraquinone
glycosides were absent. The present study clearly indicate that the crude methanolic extract of Thymus
serphyllum from high altitude of Kashmir Himalaya (2350 m) shows significant antibacterial activity in
concentration dependent manner.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
201104 food manufacturing and automation showtnessen
This presentation was given the 2011 Food Automation and Manufacturing Conference in Palm Beach, Florida. The presenters were Tom Nessen and Jon Cowan from Plex Systems. The presentation discusses the key components of a Food Safety Management System.
LCR Hallcrest Handbook of Liquid Crystal Technology RT006 rev01 usaJohn Romano
Comprehensive review of liquid crystal technologyThis booklet provides an introduction to thermo chromic
liquid crystals (TLCs), how the materials work and how
they are used. The major application areas are discussed
and the processing and manufacturing steps necessary
to produce reliable, optimized TLC products, for
whatever application, are described.
A variety of chemical compounds are now used in
the formulation of the thermochromic liquid crystal
mixtures themselves. Most of these compounds are
related and fall into one of several distinct groups of
chemicals allowing a general classification of TLC
mixtures to be made.
Posidonia in Athens - June 4-8 2012
It is the most eagerly anticipated event in the maritime calendar, a must-attend forum for the global shipping community. Carrying almost symbolic connotations for Greece’s most prolific of industry sectors it combines business, networking and recreation all in one package.
The ultimate biennial shipping trade event is once again on our doorstep, albeit a different one; for the first time in its 43 year-long history, its thousands of exhibitors and visitors will go through the gates of the Metropolitan Expo Centre, the state-of-the-art exhibition venue near Athens’ Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport. Spanning 46,000 square meters, the venue will further improve the image and appeal of Posidonia as the shipping industry’s finest forum and be able to comfortably accommodate exhibitors and the anticipated 17,000 visitors from nearly 90 countries who will come to Greece specifically for the exhibition. This is the fourth venue to host the exhibition following Zappeion, which hosted the first four editions in the 60s and 70s, the Passenger Terminal of OLP in Piraeus which hosted Posidonia from 1976 until 2004, before it moved to the Hellenicon Exhibition Centre at Athens’ old international airport site.
For almost half a century, Posidonia keeps constantly reinventing itself. This year in particular, apart from the switch to a new venue, the organizers are introducing the very first Posidonia Conference and Seminars program, a comprehensive schedule of meetings designed to bring together decision-makers and thought leaders from a wide range of shipping industry sectors to discuss financing, shipbuilding, technology and environmental policies. The program will take place within the fully equipped halls and seminar rooms of the conference facilities of the Metropolitan Expo Centre.
And the busy recreational calendar of the Posidonia week has been enriched this year with the inclusion of the Posidonia Golf Tournament, which joins sailing and football as the third sporting event Posidonia exhibitors and visitors can participate in. Teeing off at the idyllic environment of the Glyfada Golf Course, next to Athens’ picturesque waterfront, the tournament is expected to create new networking opportunities for attendees of the world’s most prestigious maritime affair.
“Posidonia has grown from strength to strength and keeps adding fresh components to enhance the overall experience of our exhibitors and visitors and maximize the potential networking and new business opportunities of the forum,” said Theo Vokos, Project Director, Posidonia Exhibitions S.A.
“The success and global appeal of Posidonia that has fuelled its journey of the past five decades is mainly due to the consistent pursuit for perfection and differentiation from other events which target the same audience. I guess Posidonia carries with it a tradition which is associated with Greece’s rich seafaring heritage and the unique
Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research, Vol. 18 No. 2Wagner College
The Spring 2020 issue contains papers by: Alexandra Ruth Elder; Graham Schmelzer; Maria D’Amico, Nicole Doherty and Iman Eulinberg; Gina LaRosa; Jeanine Woody; and Paige Tolbard.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE ANTIFUNGAL EFFECT OF OILS AND THEIR UNSAPONIFIABLE F...EDITOR IJCRCPS
The main objective of the study was to assess the in vitro antifungal potency of the unsaponifiable fraction extracted
from coat and bark seeds oils of Citrullus colocynthis L against pathogenic fungal strains namely Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium expansum and Fusarium oxysporum. In terms of the physico-chemical
characterization, oils under study showed evidence of quality standards relating to vegetable oils. Unsaponifiable
matter yield recorded was approximately 0.93% and 1.03%, for the seed coat oil and bark seed oil respectively.
Antifungal activity carried out by radial growth on solid medium (Potatoes Dextrose Agar acidified) revealed that the
oils and the corresponding unsaponifiable fractions exhibited complete inhibition of fungal growth. Maximal antifungal
index inhibition (IAF=100%) were recorded at 5% and 2.5% dilutions of each fraction tested. The results provided
evidence that the unsaponifiable oils fractions might indeed be potential sources of natural antifungal agents and
deserve further studies to characterize the biological compounds included in these fractions.
Keywords: Citrullus colocynthis seeds, seed coat, bark, oils, unsaponifiable fraction, antifungal activity.
Suillus species, in general, are edible mushrooms, and environmentally important that are associated
mostly with pine trees in the tropics regions. These fungi considered a remarkable source of phenolic
compounds that play a crucial role as antioxidants which may reduce the risk of most human chronic
diseases such as cancer, diabetes, asthma, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer, and others. On the other hand,
carotenoids (β carotene) are the most popular natural pigments which play an important role to protect
the plants from photo-oxidative reactions. In human, these compounds prevent oxidative stress and
expects to have antimicrobial activity. Here, the phenolic compounds were extracted with Ethyl acetate
from fruiting bodies of Suillus sp and analyzed by HPLC, the antioxidant activity (reducing power%) of
phenolic compounds was determined at the concentrations of 1, 2.5, and 5 mg/mL. Antimicrobial activity
of β carotene pigment was measured at a concentration of 100 mg/mL against some human pathogenic
bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Staphylococcus
aureus. The specific DNA region ITS was amplified and sequenced using ITS1 and ITS4 primers with
some bioinformatics analyses. The phenolic extract isolated from fruiting bodies of Suillus sp showed a
remarkable antioxidant activity by increasing the reducing power percent (from F+3 ions to F+2 ions)
comparing with the industrial antioxidant (Propyl gallate) at all used concentrations. Percent of reducing
power of phenolic compounds were 75.5, 84.9 and 95.7% at concentrations of 1, 2.5, and 5 mg/mL
respectively; comparing with PG were 65.9, 81.3, and 93.3 at 1, 2.5, and 5 mg/mL respectively. The β
carotene pigment revealed a significant antimicrobial activity at a concentration of 100 mg/mL against K.
pneumonia, E. coli, and S. aureus. The highest bacterial growth inhibition was against K. pneumonia (40
mm), followed by E. coli (36 mm) and S. aureus (31 mm), while no effect showed against P. aeruginosa.
Our outcomes revealed that the phenolic bioactive compounds can be used as a natural antioxidant
instead of the industrial antioxidants, and also a β carotene pigment could be applied as a promising
natural compound rather than using the antibiotics and other manufactured compounds to inhibit
bacteria activity.
Hurdle Technology and it's applicationsAnjaliRathi34
In the field of food safety, hurdle technology is a method of ensuring the safety of foods by eliminating or controlling the growth of pathogens. It is a gentle and effective preservation technique used for the inactivation of microorganisms to make food safe for public consumption and extend their shelf life.
Probiotics and medicinal plants in poultry nutrition: a reviewSubmissionResearchpa
The use of medicinal plants and probiotics has recently gained interest since the ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters by the European Union in 2006. They are new alternatives to bridge the gap between food safety and production. Medicinal plants are cheaper and loaded with several minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals such as: alkaloids, saponin, flavonoids, phenols, tannins etc. which allows them to perform multiple biological activities. Probiotics on the other hand, repopulates the gastro intestinal tracts (GIT) with beneficial bacteria which controls the action of pathogens and control their population, thereby reducing mortality and improving general performance of an animal by Akintayo - Balogun Omolere. M and Alagbe, J.O 2020. Probiotics and medicinal plants in poultry nutrition: a review. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 10 (Oct. 2020), 214-221. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i10.730 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/730/703 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/730
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY AND PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF NEEM LEAVES AND LEMON G...IAEME Publication
In this study, the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical constituents of neem
leaves and lemon grass oil extracts were evaluated. Oil extracts of neem leaves and
lemon grass were obtained by solvent extraction method using hexane and ethanol.
Antimicrobial activity screening of plants’ oil extracts were conducted using agar well
diffusion method and the oil extracts were tested against three gram negative bacteria
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella specie, Escherichia coli), one gram positive
bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and two fungi (Candida albicans, Rhizopus specie).
Phytochemical components of the ethanolic oil extracts were anthocyanin and
betacyanin; quinones; terpenoids and acid for lemon grass. In addition to other
phytochemicals present in lemon grass ethanolic oil extract, neem ethanolic oil extracts
tested positive to flavonoids. Lemon grass oil extract shows high activity against
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans which are
representative of the three categories of microorganisms considered. Neem leaves oil
extracts have relatively low activity against most of the selected microorganisms.
Analgesic activities of Geodorum densiflorum, Diospyros blancoi, Baccaurea ra...Uploadworld
Geodorum densiflorum, Diospyros blancoi, Baccaurea ramiflora and Trichosanthes dioica are four
important medicinal plants used traditionally in various iseases. Different parts of these plants have been used in different painful conditions
Antihaemolytic, anti-lipid peroxidative potential by purified protease inhibi...Uploadworld
Protease inhibitor was isolated and purified from the fruits of Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. (SAPI) via four sequential step procedures i.e., salt precipitation to sepharose affinity chromatography.
Comprehensive study on pharmacognostic, physico and phytochemical evaluation ...Uploadworld
Terminalia arjuna Roxb. (Family-Combretaceae) is commonly known as Arjun tree and valued for its medicinal uses. In the present investigation, the detailed pharmacognostic study of T. arjuna stem bark (TASB) is carried out to lay down the standards which could be useful in forthcoming experimental studies.
Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of methanol extract of Xanthosoma sa...Uploadworld
Xanthosoma sagittifolium is widely used in the folkloric treatment system of Bangladesh for the treatment of different diseases. The present study was conducted to evaluate the analgesic and antiinflammatory potentiality of methanol extract of Xanthosoma sagittifolium in mice.
Phytochemical screening and antibacterial properties from extract of Alchorne...Uploadworld
This study involved a survey on the use of extract of Alchornea cordifolia a medicinal plant used locally in Cameroon as traditional medicine for the treatment of infectious diseases.
A comparative assessment on paralysis and death of Indian adult earthworm (Ph...Uploadworld
The present study was carried out to investigate the paralysis and death of methanolic, ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts of aerial parts of Lasia spinosa against Pheretima posthuma. Lasia spinosa (Lour) Thwaites belonging to family Araceae, locally known as Chengmora in Assamese, is a perennial herb with watery, bitter juice with an elongated or tuberous rhizome and leaves are ethno medicinally prescribed in North-East India to cure helminthes infections.
Biochemical studies on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)Uploadworld
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plays a key role in traditional health care system for human and animals. Seeds from wheat crops possess a significant amount of phytochemicals. In Present study qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis of wheat extract was made.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...
Nanoencapsulation of essential oils with enhanced antimicrobial activity: A new way of combating antimicrobial Resistance
1. ~ 165 ~
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2015; 4(3): 165-170
E-ISSN: 2278-4136
P-ISSN: 2349-8234
JPP 2015; 4(3): 165-170
Received: 10-07-2015
Accepted: 11-08-2015
Maryam I
Cyprus International University,
Department of Bioengineering,
Institute of Graduate Studies
and Research, 98258, Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10 Turkey
Huzaifa U
Cyprus International University,
Department of Bioengineering,
Institute of Graduate Studies
and Research, 98258, Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10 Turkey
Hindatu H
Cyprus International University,
Department of Bioengineering,
Institute of Graduate Studies
and Research, 98258, Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10 Turkey
Zubaida S
Cyprus International University,
Department of Bioengineering,
Institute of Graduate Studies
and Research, 98258, Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10 Turkey
Correspondence:
Maryam I
Cyprus International University,
Department of Bioengineering,
Institute of Graduate Studies
and Research, 98258, Northern
Cyprus via Mersin 10 Turkey
Nanoencapsulation of essential oils with enhanced
antimicrobial activity: A new way of combating
antimicrobial Resistance
Maryam I, Huzaifa U, Hindatu H, Zubaida S
Abstract
Microorganisms have over the years evolved and developed resistance to available antimicrobials. This
has cause a great impact to the world over health wise and socioeconomically. They are developing
resistance at a very fast rate that current technologies and new drug developments in the pharmaceutical
industries are unable to catch up. Therefore, alternative technologies and new drug innovations are
necessary to find lasting solution to this problem. And one such technology could be nanoencapsulation
of bioactive compounds with highlighted antimicrobial activities. Plants and their constituents, like
essential oils, can be a great source of unique bioactive compounds that will be able to tackle this
growing drug resistance of pathogenic microorganisms that threaten the very existence of humankind.
Nanoencapsulation is one part of nanotechnology that has seen growing application in several industries
including pharmaceuticals and medicine, with resultant great impact. This review focus mainly on
application of encapsulated essential oils as a possible solution to drug resistance of some microbes by
enhancement of their antimicrobial activities.
Keywords: Essential oils, nanoencapsulation, drug resistance, microbes.
Introduction
For centuries, essential oils have traditionally been used in different applications including
treatment of various ailments/diseases such as cough, malaria, diarrhoea, severe headaches;
seizures etc. Essential oils are commonly found in plants and usually have a wide and complex
chemical composition. Studies have shown that their physicochemical characteristics enable
them to have great and diverse biological activities. Researchers have also highlighted that the
high content of bioactive compound such as phenols, flavonoids, terpenes and their derivatives
which are responsible for their inhibition or killing of microorganisms amongst other
properties seen in essential oils (garlic oil) and other plants part (Huzaifa et al., 2014) [46]
.
Activities against multi-resistant bacteria has also recently been elucidated, which has drawn
attention to the possibility of them being a source of novel compounds to be used in combating
microbial drug resistance. The fast growing drug resistance of infectious organisms has caused
great concerns due to its huge impact globally. No society is safe from this health threat, and
pharmaceutical companies are unable to deal with it using conventional technologies and also
due to decrease in new antibiotic development. This has given rise to the need for new
technologies, drug designs and drug alternatives that can bring lasting solutions to this
problem.
Nanoencapsulation has been proposed as one such technology that has great potential to
solving this problem. It is a branch of nanotechnology that has received a lot of attention by
researchers recently especially in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology field. There are
already approved products from such studies for clinical use in diagnostics, drug delivery,
medical devices and imaging (Sumita et al., 2003) [42]
. Nanotechnology has seen remarkable
interest in its applications in dealing with virtually all facet of microbial infection such as
microbial diagnosis, antibiotic delivery, therapeutics, vaccination and medical devices.
Nanoencapsulation involves the use of delivery vessels, also referred to as nano carriers to
encapsulate substances or bioactive molecules. They protect these molecules from
environmental factors such as pH, oxygen, light etc., serving as barrier between the molecule
and the environment. It also stabilizes volatile molecules, shielding them from oxidative
degradation, evaporation and photo-degradation (Jain, 2003) [20]
. Nano carriers in addition can
increase the antimicrobial potential of bioactive compounds like essential oils by increasing
cellular interactions between them and the microbes as a result of the very small size that
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Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Enhances cellular uptake. The review was aimed at proposing
a new way of combating antimicrobial resistance.
Essential Oils Mechanism of Action
Essential oils have a very close interaction with the
phospholipids of cell membrane due to the short extension of
their carbon chains as well as high hydrophobicity of their
constituents. Terpenes and their derivatives are able to rupture
the lipid in the cell membranes of microorganisms, upsetting
the flow of external membrane, including the mitochondrial
membrane, breaking and consequently killing the pathogens
Lv et al. (2011) [47]
, (Solorzano-Santos and Miranda-Novales,
2012 [41]
; Devi et al., 2010) [10]
. Their metabolites are able to
cross the cell membrane, binding and inhibiting specific
proteins. There been report of their attachment to or insert into
DNA or RNA. Furthermore, essential oils constituents’ show
synergy, working together and interacting by different
mechanisms not yet fully explained. This results in significant
decrease of the potential development of resistance by
microorganisms (Bassole and Juliani, 2012 [7]
; Efferth and
Koch, 2011) [13]
, great advantages essential oils have over
commercial antibiotics in the fight against infectious
microorganisms. The different combinations of active
compounds that make up these essentials oil makes it difficult
for the microbe to develop resistance quickly to them all.
Therefore, the microbe will be completely inhibited or killed
before they devise means/change their genetic make up to
escape or negate the actions or effects of the essential oils
High concentration essential oils do not pose any great health
risk to humans due to high rate at which the body metabolizes
them eliminating them through various means.
In addition, essential oils can be used in combination with
commercial antimicrobial agents to improve their activity and
decrease resistance to them. As was reported by Effert and
Koch (2011) [13]
, the nanocarriers gives protection to the active
compounds of the essential oil from enzymatic degradation by
the pathogen; modification of transport across enabling the
evasion of myriad multi drug resistance mechanisms based on
expulsion of antibiotic molecules that is efflux-mediated.
Essential oils phytochemicals have been shown to be able to
target organisms in multiple ways, and this can be used to
explain the synergism with commercial antibiotics as observed
in a number of studies. It showed outstanding enhanced
antibiotic activities of these drugs against even resistant strains
of microorganisms. This results in decrease in the overall
intake of drugs with consequent reduction of adverse effects,
making treatment safer (Hemaiswarya et al., 2008 [18]
;
Langeveld et al., 2014) [24]
. Example is seen in the experiments
reported by Ahmad et al. (2013) [2]
who combined thymol and
carvacrol, together with fluconazole. They were able to restore
fluconazole susceptibility in resistant clinical strains of
Candida.
Nanoencapsulated essential oils with enhanced
antimicrobial activity
Thyme essential oils
Thyme essential oil has been encapsulated in a chitosan-
benzoic acid nanogel, a potent antifungal, antiviral and
antibacterial agent. Its antimicrobial activity has been studied
against a substantial pathogenic microorganism such as
Salmonella typhemurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella
flexneri, Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella sonnei, Salmonella
cholereasuis and Aspergillus niger and also clinical strains of
Staphylococcus Enterococcus, Escherichia and Pseudomonas
genus Sienkiewicz et al. (2012) [39]
, with good results.
However, essentials are typically volatile compound with easy
degradability at room temperature. For that reason, different
techniques or approaches for increasing their stability and
activity are imperative. Chitosan-benzoic acid nanogel was
used by Seyede et al., (2015) [48]
to provide stability, increase
availability and activity of thyme oil. They are self-assembling
polymers, with chitosan having antimicrobial activity of its
own as was shown by Eaton et al. (2008) [12]
, and Eldin et al.
(2008) [14]
. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of nanogel
encapsulated thyme oil that was able to completely inhibit the
growth of the fungi Aspergillus flavus under sealed condition
was 300 ml/L, and a higher level of 500ml/L was required
under non-sealed, compared to the free thyme essential oil that
was only able to delay growth of the fungi at 400 ml/L and
1000 ml/L of sealed and non-sealed conditions respectively.
They discovered that the encapsulation of the free essential
oils of thyme in chitosan-benzoic acid nanogels, led to a
marked increase in their half-life and antifungal properties.
In a similar study by Wattanasatcha et al. (2012) [45]
created a
Zein colloidal nanoparticles film coated with sodium caseinate
(SC), which also served as an emulsifier, loaded with thymol.
Zein (a maize protein) nanoparticles were employed as
reinforcement in the film matrix. Thymol is among the major
compounds found in many essential oils like Thyme, Oregano
essential oils, with greater antimicrobial properties than most
other constituents. It was shown to be active against both gram
positive and negative bacteria in a number of researches that
has led to its use in many area of application such as the food,
agriculture and pharmaceuticals Sivropoulou et al. (1996) [40]
.
The aim of this work was therefore to use this essential oil in a
novel fabrication of nanosphere films, proposed to be used as
active packaging material, to confer it with antimicrobial
activity against Escherichia coli and Salmonella. The
nanosphere film showed improved physical and mechanical
properties that could make it an excellent packaging material
for protecting and preventing microbial infection. The film
showed a two phase drug release kinetic which implies its
possible use as sustained drug release material. This sustained
release ability is thought to be as a result of the Zein-SC
nanoparticles embedded in the matrix
Mentha piperita essential oils
In a similar work, Beyki et al. (2014) [8]
were able to
demonstrate an enhanced antimicrobial activity of Mentha
piperita essential oils encapsulated in chitosan-cinnamic acid
nanogels against pathogenic Aspergillus flavus. They
evaluated the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of
both the encapsulated and free essential oil against Aspergillus
flavus under sealed and non-sealed conditions. Their findings
were that the encapsulated oil had an MIC OF 500 ppm while
the free had 2100 ppm under sealed condition. The nanogel
was able to protect the essential oils from environmental
factors which led to increased stability and its performance as
an antifungal was also greatly enhanced. Furthermore, under
non-sealed condition the encapsulated oil was able to inhibit
3.
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Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
the fungi Aspergillus flavus at 800 ppm, while the free oil
could not completely inhibit the fungi even at high
concentration of up to 3000 ppm. These obtained results
further highlights the role nanogels and other nano carriers can
play in enhancing antimicrobial activities of essential oils.
Zataria multiflora essential oils
The effectiveness of nanoencapsulated Zataria multiflora
essential oil (ZEO) in chitosan nano particles was investigated
by Mohammadi et al. (2015) [28]
. The essential oil was
encapsulated in order to improve its stability and antifungal
activity against an isolate of Butyris cinerea, the pathogen that
causes gray mould disease. Using ionic gelation technique,
they encapsulated the essential oil into chitosan nano particles
with an average size of 125-175 nm. This was confirmed using
transmission electron microscopy. The encapsulation
efficiency and loading capacity of the chitosan nano particles
were determined by finding out the percentage of the essential
oil in the ZEO loaded nano particle. They did this by finding
the concentration of ZEO after lyses of the encapsulated nano
particles using hydrochloric acid solution and alcohol, as was
described before Keawchaoon and Yoksan (2011) [21]
. The
maximum encapsulating and loading efficiency were gotten at
the weight ration of CS to ZEO of 1:0.25, which translated to
45.24% and 9.05%, respectively. They recorded significant
increase in the antifungal activity at a concentration of 1500
ppm in vivo experiments, compared to the free ZEO.
Eucalyptus staigeriana essential oil (ESO)
The essential oil of eucalyptus staigeriana has been shown to
have good antimicrobial properties by a number of scientists.
The eucalyptus extracts, including its essential oils, have at
present been approved to be used as food additives, and in
cosmetic formulations. The essential oil however show
characteristic high volatility and are non-stable like other
essential oils Gilles et al. (2010) [17]
. So despite their great
antimicrobial potential, it has found limited use in the
pharmaceutical industries. With the advent of
nanoencapsulation technology, the bioactive components of
the essential oil can now be stabilized physically and protected
against the environment or physiological conditions of the
body. Their nano size will also help in improving their
availability and antimicrobial activity. According to Herculano
et al. (2015) [19]
, they experimentally showed increased
bioactivity and stability of nano encapsulated essential oil of
Eucalyptus staigeriana. They used cashew gum as the wall
material, which is a polysaccharide gotten from the plant
Anacardium accidentale exudates. It has a similar structural
property to gum Arabic frequently used Mothé and Rao (2000)
[29]
. It is hydrophilic and therefore can act as a stabilizer,
emulsifier and an adhesive. It has been proposed to be used as
substitute for the more costly gum Arabic.
The nanoparticles of the cashew gum were loaded with the
essential oil using spray dry technique previously described by
Paula et al. (2010) [33]
. Minimum bactericidal concentration of
the loaded nanoparticles was determined using the procedure
established by Sahm and Washington (1991) [36]
, against gram
positive pathogenic Listeria monocytogenes and gram negative
equally pathogenic Salmonella enteritides. The free essential
oil and cashew gum solutions were used as controls. Particle
size distribution, loading and encapsulation efficiency, zeta
potential were all determined (Paula et al., 2011) [34]
.
Herculano et al. (2015) [19]
discovered that the nano particle
had a more effective bactericidal action on the gram positive
than to the gram negative bacteria. They attributed this result
to probably be as a result of the synergistic effect between the
cashew gum and essential oil. The nanoparticles had negative
charges on their surfaces and a size range of 27.70 nm to
432.67 nm. The loading capacity was between 4.76% and
7.12% with encapsulation efficiency ranging from 24.89% to
26.80%. The stability of the nanoparticle depended upon the
CS: ESO ratio when stored within one year. Higher CG
proportion in the matrix gave more stable complex with 8%
decrease of initial oil content.
Savory Essential Oil (SEO)
In another recent study, Atef et al. (2015) [3]
conducted
experiments to determine the concentration of savory essential
oil that could be integrated into an agar based nanocomposite
films. Their aim was to prepare an active packaging film that
will have a longer protection against food spoiling microbes,
environmental degradation and in essence its shelf life. Savory
essential oil is obtained from Satureja hortensis, an herb that is
also referred to as summer savory. It is an aromatic herb
widely distributed that has found great application in culinary,
but also has well known medicinal benefits. This is attributed
to its high carvacrol content (> 55%), β-cymene (12.30) and γ-
terpinene (20.94%) among other compounds Tozlu et al.
(2011) [43]
.
Nanotechnology has opened up a new era of abundant
possibilities, including its use in improving biopolymer films
properties at a reasonable cost-price with good efficiency
(Espitia et al., 2012) [15]
. In this work, the agar nanocomposite
films were reinforced with cellulose nanoparticles so as to
enhance its properties. These novel biopolymer films are been
proposed to be used as replacements of plastic packaging
materials of petroleum origin (Rhim, 2011) [35]
. Also, Atef et
al. (2015) [3]
were able to evaluate the effects of incorporating
savory essential oil into the cellulose nanoparticle reinforced
agar-based composites on their antimicrobial properties by
testing it against gram positive bacteria (Staphylococcus
aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus) and
gram negative bacteria ( Escherichia coli). They found out that
the gram positive bacteria were more susceptible to the
nanocomposite film containing the essential oil compared to
the gram negative. This implies that incorporating savory
essential oil into the nanocomposites films to be used as active
food packaging will increase food safety and shelf life.
Melaleuca alternifolia Essential Oil
Another example of enhanced antimicrobial activity was
demonstrated by Flores et al. (2013) [16]
, where polymeric
nanocapsules and nanoemulsions containing Melaleuca
alternifolia essential oil (also known as tea tree oil) were
tested against pathogenic fungi Trichophyton rubrum. The
fungus is a dermatophyte that infects the human nails. Two
distinct sets were used in-vitro evaluation; one set used nail
powder that was first infected with the fungi and then treated
using the free essential oil, nanoemulsions and nanocapsule
containing the essential oil. They were able to confirm that the
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Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
cells were viable after 7 and 14 days. They plate counts
obtained were 2.37, 1.45 and 1.0 log cfuml-1
for the free oil,
nanoemulsion and nanocapsule respectively. The other set had
nail fragments infected with the fungus and then treated with
the formulations as in the first model. Measuring the diameter
of the fungal colony was used to obtain a 2.88 ± 02.08 mm2
(nanocapsule incorporated with essential oil), 14.59 ± 2.01
mm2
(nanoemulsion incorporated with essential oil), 40.98 ±
2.76 mm2
(emulsion) and 38.72 ± 1.22 mm2
(untreated nail). At
the end of the experiments, they found out that the two
(nanocapsule and nanoemulsions) had increased antimicrobial
activity compared to the free essential oil. This could be
attributed to larger surface area of nano material (as a result of
their very small size), which probably enable a greater
interactions between the active compounds and cell surfaces of
the microorganisms (Lboutounne et al., 2002) [25]
. But the
polymeric nanocapsule had a much higher efficiency in
inhibiting the fungal colony from growing (Flores et al. (2013)
[16]
. This could be as a result of more interaction between the
hydrophilic end of the polymer and the lipid layer of the
microbial cell membrane.
Carvacrol-Oregano essential oils
Carvacrol is one of the major and vital constituents that
contribute greatly to the antimicrobial activities observed in
most essential oils like oregano and thyme essential oils.
Carvacrol has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity that
has generated a lot interest in its potential use as an alternative
to commercial antimicrobials. A lot of researchers have
reported its ability to inhibit the continual growth of biofilms
and also prevent biofilm formation (Lambert et al., 2001) [23]
.
Among such work is that of Nostro et al. (2009) [31]
, that were
able to show remarkable decrease in biofilm biomass of
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermis, by
modifying the impenetrable matrix of the biofilm making it
accessible to antimicrobials, changing of cellular characteristic
as well as reducing the number of cells within the biofilm that
could proliferate. Biofilms are a thin layer of slimy sticky
substances that can be produced by some bacteria and other
types of microorganisms. They form a community of different
microbe protected by the robust slimy layer that can attach to
virtually all kinds of surfaces. This biofilm formation ability
has substantially increase pathogenicity of the microbes, and
treating or getting rid of them is has become even more
challenging that the free unattached pathogens. A lot of
medical devices based infections are as a result of this
microbial biofilms. The remarkable resistance showed by cells
in the biofilm towards antimicrobials and the difficulty
experienced in destruction of biofilm-based infections have
been attributed to a number of reasons, for example, high
number of metabolically active and developing cells at the
biofilm surface and low or no development in the inside
resulting to a subpopulation of persister cells (Balaban et al.,
2004 [5]
; Keren et al., 2004) [22]
. The cells within the biofilm
are protected by an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS)
matrix that cannot be engulfed by the host defence phagocytic
cells. It contains many enzymes that inactive antimicrobials
when they come in contact with it. In addition, they have
efflux pumps they use to flush out antimicrobials (Bagge et al.,
2004) [4]
. They bacteria inside the biofilm have also been
found to constantly mutate, giving rise to antibiotic resistant
strains (Driffield et al., 2008) [11]
.
In an interesting study Carvacrol was encapsulated into a nano
carrier (PLGA) for drug delivery application against microbial
films. Their aim was to design a polymeric nanocapsule loaded
with Carvacrol and test it against preformed biofilm of
Staphylococcus epidermis for antimicrobial activity. They
highlighted the effect such a material had on the matrix by
observing changes in the properties of the biofilm matrix. The
elasticity and mechanically stability of the strong biofilm
layers reduced, and this could possible allow for the
penetration of active substances or antimicrobials into the
innermost parts of the biofilm where persistent cells reside.
The nanocapsule can be used in combination with other
antimicrobial agents for a more concise and effective
eradication or prevention of biofilm forming microorganisms
and their biofilms (Li et al., 2012) [28]
. There was also a study
carried out by Santos et al. (2015) [27]
, were they prepared and
characterized Carvacrol Beta - Cyclodextrin inclusion
complexes and investigated their effects on the antimicrobial
activity against two bacteria, Escherichia coli k (12) and
Salmonella enterica serova typhemurium LTS. The
entrapment efficiency was good (83.79 ± 2.89% & 91.31
±.41%), and there was increase in the antimicrobial activity of
the encapsulated carvacrol compared with the free. This was
indicated by the minimum inhibition concentration of 300-400
µg/ml for the encapsulated as compared to that of free that was
greater than 1000 µg/ml.
Lantana camara essential oil
Lantana camara is an infamous tropical flowering plant that
has been largely used in folk medicine. It has been shown to
have diverse applications that include its use as an
antimicrobial agent (Sharma et al., 2005) [38]
. Lantana camara
essential oil has germacrene - D, E - caryophyllene,
bicyclogermacrae and α - humulene as its major constituent
(Barreto et al., 2010) [6]
; Passos et al., 2012) [32]
. Although,
Naz and Bano (2013) [30]
in their study screened the plants
extract and found that it has about 53 and 41% total phenol
and flavonoids respectively. They also evaluated the plants
extract using different solvents for its antimicrobial activity
and found out that the methanol extract had a greater activity
against gram positive and negative organisms (Staphylococcus
aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus fumigates and
Aspergillus flavus). In another study by Deena and Thoppil
(2000) [9]
showed wide range of antimicrobial activity with the
highest inhibition seen for Candida albicans Aspergillus F
solium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It was also shown to
have a remarkable inhibition of multi-drug resistant clinical
strains of microorganism, which are clinically important as
there is no single available antimicrobial agent that can inhibit
these resistant strains, making treatment of such infections
more challenging. The organisms tested were Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Vibrio cholareae and
Staphylococcus aureus (Barreto et al. 2010) [6]
.
Recently, Verma and Balasubramanian (2014) [44]
incorporated
essential oil of Lantana camara in a polymeric nanocomposite
membrane to be used as a pulsatile medium of drug delivery.
Polyacrylonite (PAN) is a polymer with unique properties and
has found applications in a great number of areas including
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Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
medical and drug delivery. Its surface is electrostatic which
attracts a lot of microbes and over dust particles, resulting in
the membrane getting contaminated and finally
malfunctioning. This necessitates the need for the surface to be
functionalized using different types of antimicrobial agents
like peptides, antibiotics. In this study, they used the essential
oil to enhance antimicrobial activity of the membrane and in
addition deliver the Eos in a pulsatile or controlled released
manner. They immobilized the essential oil on the PAN
membrane and showed it to have exceptional antibacterial
activity against E coli and Bacillus subtilis (7-10 nm zone of
inhibition). Its potential as a system that could be used for
pulsatile drug delivery was also confirmed.
Conclusion
In this review, enhanced antimicrobial activity of essential oils
through the use of nanotechnology especially
nanoencapsulation was highlighted and its great potential as a
solution to the ever growing global problem of emergence of
multi drug resistant microbes. The possibility for new and
excellent compounds like essential oils and other plant extracts
that could be used as novel antimicrobial compounds together
with the innovative nanotechnology approaches is enormous.
So even though essential oils are not without their limitations,
nanotechnology can be used to overcome such constraints.
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