The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were highly agricultural and developed advanced irrigation systems using canals and dykes. They domesticated animals and grew crops like barley and dates. Sumerian society had a complex government with rulers, priests, taxes, and bureaucrats to manage the irrigation. They built ziggurats, large pyramid-like temples, as dwellings for their gods.
The document provides information about ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. It discusses how they were river civilizations along fertile lands around major rivers. It also describes the development of cities and empires in Mesopotamia and the different periods of rule in ancient Egypt. Key aspects of their societies, religions, and arts are outlined as well.
The document provides an overview of Iron Age Mesopotamia, including the cultural contributions of the Hebrews. It discusses the Hebrew monotheistic religion and belief in Yahweh, the covenant, and the Ten Commandments. It also describes the Hebrew Bible, laws, social order, prophets, and the Assyrian and Persian Empires that dominated the Iron Age in Mesopotamia.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian history, culture, and society. It describes how Egypt was ruled by pharaohs for over 3,000 years and was unified around 3100 BC. Egyptian civilization depended on the fertile land along the Nile River. Egyptians also developed hieroglyphic writing, built pyramids and temples, and had religious beliefs centered around gods like Osiris and myths. Literature included poems, stories, and texts written on tombs.
The document provides an overview of the Mesopotamian civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It discusses the early Sumerian cities like Ur and Akkad, the development of writing and the wheel, as well as later empires like Babylonia and Assyria. Important leaders are mentioned, such as Sargon of Akkad, Hammurabi of Babylon, and Ashurbanipal of Assyria. Details are also given about the religion, culture, and daily life of ancient Mesopotamians.
The document lists the major empires that ruled in Mesopotamia from 3500 B.C. to 330 B.C., including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. It provides some key details about each empire, such as the Hittites being the first to use iron weapons, the Assyrians having a powerful military and conquering large areas, and the Persians adopting a tolerant ruling strategy allowing conquered peoples to keep their cultures. Frequent changes in ruling powers suggest this region was strategically important but also unstable, with empires rising and falling over millennia as new groups asserted control through military dominance
The document discusses the 10 oldest civilizations in the world. It begins by defining civilization as an advanced stage of social development and organization reached by a society. It then lists the civilizations chronologically from oldest to most recent. The three oldest are the Mesopotamian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, and Ancient Egyptian civilization. It provides brief descriptions of each civilization's origins, locations, and some key aspects of their cultures and achievements.
The document discusses the early River Valley Civilization of ancient Egypt. It describes key aspects of Egyptian civilization such as its geography along the predictable Nile River; its religion centered around polytheistic gods like Ra, Horus, and Isis; and its social structure divided into upper, middle, and lower classes. Egyptian culture is also characterized by its elaborate beliefs about the afterlife and burial practices of mummification and pyramid tombs for pharaohs. Hieroglyphic writing and numerical systems were developed, and science/technology included advanced architecture, engineering, and a calendar system.
Egyptian civilization flourished along the Nile River from around 3000 BC to 30 BC. Key aspects included a centralized government led by a divine pharaoh; a society stratified into classes like nobles, peasants, and slaves; and a polytheistic religion centered around major gods like Ra, Osiris, and Horus. The Egyptians developed a hieroglyphic writing system, made advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering through structures like the pyramids, and had technologies including brick-making and glass-working.
The document provides information about ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. It discusses how they were river civilizations along fertile lands around major rivers. It also describes the development of cities and empires in Mesopotamia and the different periods of rule in ancient Egypt. Key aspects of their societies, religions, and arts are outlined as well.
The document provides an overview of Iron Age Mesopotamia, including the cultural contributions of the Hebrews. It discusses the Hebrew monotheistic religion and belief in Yahweh, the covenant, and the Ten Commandments. It also describes the Hebrew Bible, laws, social order, prophets, and the Assyrian and Persian Empires that dominated the Iron Age in Mesopotamia.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian history, culture, and society. It describes how Egypt was ruled by pharaohs for over 3,000 years and was unified around 3100 BC. Egyptian civilization depended on the fertile land along the Nile River. Egyptians also developed hieroglyphic writing, built pyramids and temples, and had religious beliefs centered around gods like Osiris and myths. Literature included poems, stories, and texts written on tombs.
The document provides an overview of the Mesopotamian civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It discusses the early Sumerian cities like Ur and Akkad, the development of writing and the wheel, as well as later empires like Babylonia and Assyria. Important leaders are mentioned, such as Sargon of Akkad, Hammurabi of Babylon, and Ashurbanipal of Assyria. Details are also given about the religion, culture, and daily life of ancient Mesopotamians.
The document lists the major empires that ruled in Mesopotamia from 3500 B.C. to 330 B.C., including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. It provides some key details about each empire, such as the Hittites being the first to use iron weapons, the Assyrians having a powerful military and conquering large areas, and the Persians adopting a tolerant ruling strategy allowing conquered peoples to keep their cultures. Frequent changes in ruling powers suggest this region was strategically important but also unstable, with empires rising and falling over millennia as new groups asserted control through military dominance
The document discusses the 10 oldest civilizations in the world. It begins by defining civilization as an advanced stage of social development and organization reached by a society. It then lists the civilizations chronologically from oldest to most recent. The three oldest are the Mesopotamian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, and Ancient Egyptian civilization. It provides brief descriptions of each civilization's origins, locations, and some key aspects of their cultures and achievements.
The document discusses the early River Valley Civilization of ancient Egypt. It describes key aspects of Egyptian civilization such as its geography along the predictable Nile River; its religion centered around polytheistic gods like Ra, Horus, and Isis; and its social structure divided into upper, middle, and lower classes. Egyptian culture is also characterized by its elaborate beliefs about the afterlife and burial practices of mummification and pyramid tombs for pharaohs. Hieroglyphic writing and numerical systems were developed, and science/technology included advanced architecture, engineering, and a calendar system.
Egyptian civilization flourished along the Nile River from around 3000 BC to 30 BC. Key aspects included a centralized government led by a divine pharaoh; a society stratified into classes like nobles, peasants, and slaves; and a polytheistic religion centered around major gods like Ra, Osiris, and Horus. The Egyptians developed a hieroglyphic writing system, made advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering through structures like the pyramids, and had technologies including brick-making and glass-working.
The document summarizes key aspects of early civilizations that emerged in Mesopotamia and Egypt between 4000 BCE - 200 CE. It describes how the Fertile Crescent's fertile soil and flood patterns supported the rise of Sumerian cities like Ur and Uruk, where innovations included writing systems, architecture, laws, and literature. Egyptian civilization centered around the Nile River, where pharaohs built massive pyramids and the practice of mummification helped with beliefs about the afterlife. Both developed systems of writing - cuneiform clay tablets in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics in Egypt - to record their cultural and religious traditions.
The document summarizes the early Mesopotamian civilization that developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It emerged around 3000 BC and was composed of independent city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Kish that each had their own government and patron god. Sargon of Akkad later created the world's first empire in 2350 BC by conquering the region. The Babylonian Empire then took control around 2000 BC, with King Hammurabi establishing one of the first legal codes. Mesopotamian culture developed writing, the Epic of Gilgamesh, and made advances in religion, society, and government.
Egyptian civilization developed along the fertile banks of the Nile River, which provided reliable annual flooding and fertile soil. This allowed Egypt to develop strong agricultural capabilities. Egypt was also protected geographically, making invasion difficult. Around 3000 BC, Upper and Lower Egypt were united under a single ruler, further strengthening Egyptian civilization. Key periods included the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Egyptian civilization made major contributions, including developing hieroglyphic writing, advancing astronomy and medicine, and discovering mathematical concepts like the 360-degree circle.
Mesopotamian civilization began between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq. The first civilizations arose in river valleys because the reliable water sources supported agriculture. In ancient Sumer around 3000 BCE, independent city-states emerged that each had their own government and battled each other for territory. Farming was done through irrigation since flooding was common, and farmers had to adapt to the environment. The Sumerians practiced polytheism and believed the gods owned their cities, building grand ziggurat temples in each city dedicated to the most important deity.
Geography isolated Greek cities, allowing independent development. The Minoans and Mycenaeans were early Mediterranean civilizations, with the Mycenaeans conquering mainland Greece. Athens and Sparta emerged as powerful city-states with different governments: Athens established a direct democracy while Sparta focused on its military with a rigid social structure.
The document provides a summary of the top 10 civilizations of the world. It describes each civilization's name, time period, original and current locations, and major highlights. The civilizations summarized are the Incan, Aztec, Roman, Persian, Ancient Greek, Chinese, Mayan, Ancient Egyptian, Indus Valley, and Mesopotamian civilizations. For each civilization there are 2-4 bullet points describing key aspects of the civilization such as important rulers, locations of power, cultural achievements, and factors in their decline.
The document provides an overview of the Fertile Crescent region located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It describes the early civilizations that emerged there, including the Sumerians around 3200 BC. Key aspects of society, government, religion, and cultural developments in Mesopotamia are summarized, such as the use of cuneiform writing and the later influence of empires like Babylon, Assyria, and Persia in the region.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization from 3300 BC to 30 BC. It discusses the geography of Egypt and the importance of the Nile River in enabling agriculture. It also summarizes Egyptian religion, government as a monarchy led by pharaohs, daily life, and architectural and artistic achievements including pyramids, temples and tombs. Key figures mentioned include Imhotep, Khufu, and various pharaohs and gods.
Ancient Egypt was a civilization located along the lower Nile River valley from around 3100 BC to 300 BC. Egyptian society was organized into stable kingdoms separated by intermittent periods of instability. The success of Egypt came from its ability to adapt agriculture along the predictable flooding of the Nile, producing surplus crops. Egyptian art, including architecture, sculpture, and painting, was highly stylized and followed strict traditional rules. Textiles were primarily linen, with the highest grades produced as a royal monopoly. Egyptian religion centered around various gods led by Ra and beliefs about an afterlife, shown through elaborate burials. Iconic architecture included the Giza pyramids built to house pharaohs' remains. Egyptian influence can still be
The document provides information on several ancient river valley civilizations including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, and China. It discusses the geography, political structures, economic systems, and social aspects of each civilization. Key points mentioned include Mesopotamia emerging between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and having a tradition of writing called cuneiform, Egypt centered around the Nile River and led by pharaohs with hieroglyphic writing, the Indus Valley civilization located in modern-day Pakistan but with an unknown writing system, and China emerging around the Yellow River valley and inventing silk and advances in astronomy.
Ch 4 ancient civilization of the worldKarnatakaOER
The document provides an overview of several ancient civilizations including Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations. It notes that the Egyptian civilization arose along the Nile River and was characterized by pyramids, temples, and hieroglyphic writing. The Mesopotamian civilization developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Sumerians created the first writing system there called cuneiform. The Chinese civilization originated along the Yellow River under early dynasties like the Shang who established an agricultural society with a hierarchical social structure.
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt were two of the earliest civilizations. Mesopotamia developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq, while ancient Egypt arose along the Nile River. Both civilizations had organized governments, religions, writing systems, and cities supported by irrigation and agriculture. Some of Mesopotamia's earliest cities included Sumerian city-states like Uruk, which invented writing and law codes. Egypt was unified by King Narmer around 3100 BC and was ruled by powerful pharaohs who were viewed as gods and controlled religious and economic life.
The document provides an overview of the history and features of ancient Egyptian civilization from 3000 BC to 395 AD. It describes the major historical periods and dynasties, including the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. It also summarizes key aspects of Egyptian society such as religion, architecture, economy, and burial practices. Major sites mentioned include Memphis, Thebes, and the Giza pyramids. The evolution of burial techniques from pit graves to mastabas to step pyramids is outlined.
Ancient civilizations first developed along major rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia over 5,500 years ago. They invented writing to help manage production, land, and taxes. Major early civilizations included Mesopotamia, where the Code of Hammurabi established a set of laws, and cities first appeared with structures like ziggurats. Greek civilization began around 3,000 years ago and was centered around prosperous city-states like Athens and Sparta. The Greeks were interested in philosophy, science and art, and invented democracy as a new form of government. The Roman Empire expanded from the city of Rome and dominated the Mediterranean world for centuries, building cities, monuments
The document provides historical context on the development of linguistic ideas in Arabic and Hebrew traditions as well as during the Middle Ages in Europe. It discusses how Arabic grammarians sought to explain and preserve the perfection of the Qur'an, leading to analysis of morphology. For Hebrew grammarians, the focus was establishing the biblical text, with translation bringing linguistic study. In the Middle Ages, Latin dominated and Bible translation influenced work on universal grammar and linking language to reality through Modistae theological analyses.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization and its history of architecture. It describes how early inhabitants settled along the fertile banks of the Nile River around 5000 BC. The annual flooding of the Nile provided rich soil for agriculture, allowing people to transition from hunter-gatherers to farmers. They began building permanent houses and villages. Kingdoms formed as some towns took control of surrounding areas. Major periods included the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Important structures included pyramids like the Pyramids of Giza and Khufu, as well as temples such as the Temple of Amon at Karnak. The Egyptians also engaged in practices like mummification and used hieroglyphic writing
The document discusses the emergence of agriculture and civilization in ancient Mesopotamia from 4000 BCE to 2350 BCE. It describes the major periods of the Uruk Period, Jemdat Nasr Period, and Early Dynastic Period. During these periods, settlements increased in number, temples and public buildings became more elaborate, and systems of accounting, representations of authority, and mass production of goods emerged. Religion and kings played an important role in early Mesopotamian societies.
The document discusses several aspects of ancient cultures, providing details on artifacts from the Phoenicians like a clay mask and descriptions of Phoenician ships called biremes; religious structures from various cultures are also examined, such as the second Jewish temple and Sumerian ziggurats.
The document discusses the evolution of human culture and technology over time. It describes several key periods in human prehistory and history, including the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age), Neolithic Revolution, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and the rise of democracy in Athens. During these periods, humans developed new tools and technologies like language, agriculture, metallurgy, cities, and forms of government. Overall, the document traces the major developments that have occurred in human material culture, social organization, and ways of life from early hominins to modern civilization.
The document summarizes key aspects of early civilizations that emerged in Mesopotamia and Egypt between 4000 BCE - 200 CE. It describes how the Fertile Crescent's fertile soil and flood patterns supported the rise of Sumerian cities like Ur and Uruk, where innovations included writing systems, architecture, laws, and literature. Egyptian civilization centered around the Nile River, where pharaohs built massive pyramids and the practice of mummification helped with beliefs about the afterlife. Both developed systems of writing - cuneiform clay tablets in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics in Egypt - to record their cultural and religious traditions.
The document summarizes the early Mesopotamian civilization that developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It emerged around 3000 BC and was composed of independent city-states like Ur, Uruk, and Kish that each had their own government and patron god. Sargon of Akkad later created the world's first empire in 2350 BC by conquering the region. The Babylonian Empire then took control around 2000 BC, with King Hammurabi establishing one of the first legal codes. Mesopotamian culture developed writing, the Epic of Gilgamesh, and made advances in religion, society, and government.
Egyptian civilization developed along the fertile banks of the Nile River, which provided reliable annual flooding and fertile soil. This allowed Egypt to develop strong agricultural capabilities. Egypt was also protected geographically, making invasion difficult. Around 3000 BC, Upper and Lower Egypt were united under a single ruler, further strengthening Egyptian civilization. Key periods included the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Egyptian civilization made major contributions, including developing hieroglyphic writing, advancing astronomy and medicine, and discovering mathematical concepts like the 360-degree circle.
Mesopotamian civilization began between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq. The first civilizations arose in river valleys because the reliable water sources supported agriculture. In ancient Sumer around 3000 BCE, independent city-states emerged that each had their own government and battled each other for territory. Farming was done through irrigation since flooding was common, and farmers had to adapt to the environment. The Sumerians practiced polytheism and believed the gods owned their cities, building grand ziggurat temples in each city dedicated to the most important deity.
Geography isolated Greek cities, allowing independent development. The Minoans and Mycenaeans were early Mediterranean civilizations, with the Mycenaeans conquering mainland Greece. Athens and Sparta emerged as powerful city-states with different governments: Athens established a direct democracy while Sparta focused on its military with a rigid social structure.
The document provides a summary of the top 10 civilizations of the world. It describes each civilization's name, time period, original and current locations, and major highlights. The civilizations summarized are the Incan, Aztec, Roman, Persian, Ancient Greek, Chinese, Mayan, Ancient Egyptian, Indus Valley, and Mesopotamian civilizations. For each civilization there are 2-4 bullet points describing key aspects of the civilization such as important rulers, locations of power, cultural achievements, and factors in their decline.
The document provides an overview of the Fertile Crescent region located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It describes the early civilizations that emerged there, including the Sumerians around 3200 BC. Key aspects of society, government, religion, and cultural developments in Mesopotamia are summarized, such as the use of cuneiform writing and the later influence of empires like Babylon, Assyria, and Persia in the region.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization from 3300 BC to 30 BC. It discusses the geography of Egypt and the importance of the Nile River in enabling agriculture. It also summarizes Egyptian religion, government as a monarchy led by pharaohs, daily life, and architectural and artistic achievements including pyramids, temples and tombs. Key figures mentioned include Imhotep, Khufu, and various pharaohs and gods.
Ancient Egypt was a civilization located along the lower Nile River valley from around 3100 BC to 300 BC. Egyptian society was organized into stable kingdoms separated by intermittent periods of instability. The success of Egypt came from its ability to adapt agriculture along the predictable flooding of the Nile, producing surplus crops. Egyptian art, including architecture, sculpture, and painting, was highly stylized and followed strict traditional rules. Textiles were primarily linen, with the highest grades produced as a royal monopoly. Egyptian religion centered around various gods led by Ra and beliefs about an afterlife, shown through elaborate burials. Iconic architecture included the Giza pyramids built to house pharaohs' remains. Egyptian influence can still be
The document provides information on several ancient river valley civilizations including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, and China. It discusses the geography, political structures, economic systems, and social aspects of each civilization. Key points mentioned include Mesopotamia emerging between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and having a tradition of writing called cuneiform, Egypt centered around the Nile River and led by pharaohs with hieroglyphic writing, the Indus Valley civilization located in modern-day Pakistan but with an unknown writing system, and China emerging around the Yellow River valley and inventing silk and advances in astronomy.
Ch 4 ancient civilization of the worldKarnatakaOER
The document provides an overview of several ancient civilizations including Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations. It notes that the Egyptian civilization arose along the Nile River and was characterized by pyramids, temples, and hieroglyphic writing. The Mesopotamian civilization developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Sumerians created the first writing system there called cuneiform. The Chinese civilization originated along the Yellow River under early dynasties like the Shang who established an agricultural society with a hierarchical social structure.
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt were two of the earliest civilizations. Mesopotamia developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq, while ancient Egypt arose along the Nile River. Both civilizations had organized governments, religions, writing systems, and cities supported by irrigation and agriculture. Some of Mesopotamia's earliest cities included Sumerian city-states like Uruk, which invented writing and law codes. Egypt was unified by King Narmer around 3100 BC and was ruled by powerful pharaohs who were viewed as gods and controlled religious and economic life.
The document provides an overview of the history and features of ancient Egyptian civilization from 3000 BC to 395 AD. It describes the major historical periods and dynasties, including the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. It also summarizes key aspects of Egyptian society such as religion, architecture, economy, and burial practices. Major sites mentioned include Memphis, Thebes, and the Giza pyramids. The evolution of burial techniques from pit graves to mastabas to step pyramids is outlined.
Ancient civilizations first developed along major rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia over 5,500 years ago. They invented writing to help manage production, land, and taxes. Major early civilizations included Mesopotamia, where the Code of Hammurabi established a set of laws, and cities first appeared with structures like ziggurats. Greek civilization began around 3,000 years ago and was centered around prosperous city-states like Athens and Sparta. The Greeks were interested in philosophy, science and art, and invented democracy as a new form of government. The Roman Empire expanded from the city of Rome and dominated the Mediterranean world for centuries, building cities, monuments
The document provides historical context on the development of linguistic ideas in Arabic and Hebrew traditions as well as during the Middle Ages in Europe. It discusses how Arabic grammarians sought to explain and preserve the perfection of the Qur'an, leading to analysis of morphology. For Hebrew grammarians, the focus was establishing the biblical text, with translation bringing linguistic study. In the Middle Ages, Latin dominated and Bible translation influenced work on universal grammar and linking language to reality through Modistae theological analyses.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization and its history of architecture. It describes how early inhabitants settled along the fertile banks of the Nile River around 5000 BC. The annual flooding of the Nile provided rich soil for agriculture, allowing people to transition from hunter-gatherers to farmers. They began building permanent houses and villages. Kingdoms formed as some towns took control of surrounding areas. Major periods included the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Important structures included pyramids like the Pyramids of Giza and Khufu, as well as temples such as the Temple of Amon at Karnak. The Egyptians also engaged in practices like mummification and used hieroglyphic writing
The document discusses the emergence of agriculture and civilization in ancient Mesopotamia from 4000 BCE to 2350 BCE. It describes the major periods of the Uruk Period, Jemdat Nasr Period, and Early Dynastic Period. During these periods, settlements increased in number, temples and public buildings became more elaborate, and systems of accounting, representations of authority, and mass production of goods emerged. Religion and kings played an important role in early Mesopotamian societies.
The document discusses several aspects of ancient cultures, providing details on artifacts from the Phoenicians like a clay mask and descriptions of Phoenician ships called biremes; religious structures from various cultures are also examined, such as the second Jewish temple and Sumerian ziggurats.
The document discusses the evolution of human culture and technology over time. It describes several key periods in human prehistory and history, including the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age), Neolithic Revolution, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and the rise of democracy in Athens. During these periods, humans developed new tools and technologies like language, agriculture, metallurgy, cities, and forms of government. Overall, the document traces the major developments that have occurred in human material culture, social organization, and ways of life from early hominins to modern civilization.
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt were two of the earliest civilizations. Mesopotamia developed between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq, while ancient Egypt arose along the Nile River. Both civilizations had organized governments, religions, writing systems, and cities supported by irrigation and agriculture. Some of Mesopotamia's earliest cities included Sumerian city-states like Uruk, which invented writing and law codes. Egypt was unified by King Narmer around 3100 BC and was ruled by powerful pharaohs who were viewed as gods and controlled religious and economic life.
Four to five thousand years after the Neolithic Revolution, the first civilizations arose in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. Mesopotamian civilization began in city-states like Ur and Uruk in southern Mesopotamia. Sumerian culture featured centralized rule by priest-kings and a social hierarchy topped by kings and priests. Egypt developed a highly centralized society ruled by divine pharaohs. The Indus Valley civilization spanned over 900 miles along the Indus River and featured planned cities built on grids with advanced sanitation systems. All three civilizations exhibited early advances in areas like writing, mathematics, metalworking, and social organization.
This document provides an overview of the major civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia between approximately 5000 BC and 300 BC, including Sumer, Akkadia, Babylon, Assyria, and Persia. It summarizes the origins and key developments of each civilization, such as the Sumerians inventing cuneiform writing and wheeled vehicles, Hammurabi establishing the first written law code in Babylon, and the Persians and Greeks eventually conquering the region. The document focuses on the political, social, and cultural achievements and influences of the successive Mesopotamian civilizations over thousands of years.
The document provides an overview of early civilizations that developed in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Sumerian civilization was the first to emerge around 3500 BCE, developing cities like Uruk and establishing innovations like writing, irrigation, and the wheel. Sumerian culture influenced later Mesopotamian empires like the Babylonians and Assyrians. Major figures like Hammurabi established legal codes and expanded control over the region, though empires rose and fell with invading forces until Persia's conquest in the 6th century BCE.
The document provides an overview of early civilizations that developed in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Sumerian civilization was the first to emerge around 3500 BCE, developing cities like Uruk and establishing innovations like writing, irrigation, and the wheel. Sumerian culture influenced later Mesopotamian empires like the Babylonians and Assyrians. Major figures like Hammurabi established legal codes and expanded control over the region, though empires rose and fell with invading forces until Persia's conquest in the 6th century BCE.
This document discusses the key characteristics and developments of early civilizations. It provides definitions of civilization that include living in urban centers, smelting metals, developing writing systems, and a sense of history. Early civilizations emerged in cities with more complex social structures than villages. Mesopotamian civilization developed due to the fertile land around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, allowing agricultural surpluses that supported urbanization. Writing, religious structures like ziggurats, and legal codes developed. Egyptian civilization flourished in the fertile Nile River valley, with its gods often represented as animals and its division into Upper and Lower Egypt. Science and philosophy emerged later in a different culture. The Indus Valley civilization was well
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization, with a focus on architecture and tombs. It describes how the Egyptians built monumental structures like pyramids, temples and palaces out of stone. The earliest royal tombs were mastabas built at Abydos, followed by stepped pyramids and later the famous large smooth-sided pyramids at Giza. To prevent robbery, later kings built hidden tombs cut into the cliffs in the Valley of the Kings. The document discusses theories for how pyramids were constructed using primitive tools and large workforces, and provides pictures of Egyptian architectural sites.
Early civilizations developed monumental architecture like ziggurats and pyramids to demonstrate power and unify cultures. Elites promoted arts that decorated temples and palaces. Writing systems independently arose in places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley and spread between cultures. Legal codes standardized rules but also stratified societies, as seen in Hammurabi's code treating classes differently. Literature like the Epic of Gilgamesh and Rig Veda reflected each culture. Trade of goods between Mesopotamia and Indus Valley linked regions. Overall, culture helped unify states by establishing shared symbols, laws, and economic ties while also reinforcing social hierarchies.
The document discusses several topics related to prehistoric and ancient Egyptian civilization:
1) It summarizes the importance of studying humanities in architecture, explaining how it enriches understanding of history, culture, and societal development.
2) It describes prehistoric art and architecture, including cave paintings, carved figurines, and the earliest huts and shelters. Megalithic sites like Stonehenge are discussed.
3) Prehistoric dwelling structures like pit houses are explained with examples of different designs.
This document provides definitions for key terms related to world history. It includes terms about early human development, hunter-gatherer societies, early civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China, as well as major empires, religions and cultural shifts throughout Afro-Eurasia. Some of the major topics covered include the Neolithic and agricultural revolutions, early civilizations along rivers like the Nile, Indus and Yellow, the spread of major religions like Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, and the rise and fall of empires across Europe, Asia and Africa from antiquity through the medieval period.
The cradle of civilization is a term referring to locations where, according to current archaeological data, civilization is understood to have emerged.
Current thinking is that there was no single "cradle", but several civilizations that developed independently; with the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia and Egypt, understood to be the earliest.
The document discusses the history of philosophy in ancient Rome. It notes that Roman men did not begin studying philosophy until around 200 BC and that women were not allowed to study philosophy. It also discusses some of the major Roman philosophers like Cicero and Seneca and notes that most Roman philosophy was based on Greek philosophy but was translated to Latin. The three main schools of philosophy in ancient Rome were materialism, pluralism, and atomism.
This document provides an overview of art from prehistory through the ancient and medieval periods. It discusses the earliest known representational imagery from 35,000 BCE. During the Neolithic Revolution beginning around 11,500 BCE, art became bigger and pottery was used to store food. Ancient cultures like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece developed distinctive artistic styles in architecture, sculpture, and painting. In the Middle Ages, the capital of the Roman Empire moved to Constantinople and Christianity became the official religion, influencing art with illuminated manuscripts and mosaics. Carolingian art revived classical styles during Charlemagne's rule, while Ottonian art featured dedication portraits in manuscripts.
The document provides information about the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia. It describes Mesopotamia as being located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and being home to the first major civilizations including Sumeria, Babylonia, and Assyria. It discusses aspects of their political, economic, and religious systems. Key inventions that originated in Mesopotamia included systems of writing, the wheel, advanced calendars and timekeeping, and the first codified legal system under Hammurabi. The document also profiles important Mesopotamian leaders like Sargon and Hammurabi and religious structures like Ziggurats.
Mesopotamia was located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the Fertile Crescent. The rivers' seasonal flooding deposited silt that nourished agriculture, allowing civilization to develop. The Sumerians built the first Mesopotamian cities like Ur and Uruk by 3000 BC and invented cuneiform writing and the wheel. Their theocratic city-states were later conquered by the Akkadians and Hammurabi's Babylonian Empire. Key developments included Hammurabi's Code of Laws and the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Trusting God's Providence | Verse: Romans 8: 28-31JL de Belen
Trusting God's Providence.
Providence - God’s active preservation and care over His creation. God is both the Creator and the Sustainer of all things Heb. 1:2-3; Col. 1:17
-God keep His promises.
-God’s general providence is toward all creation
- All things were made through Him
God’s special providence is toward His children.
We may suffer now, but joy can and will come
God can see what we cannot see
Lucid Dreaming: Understanding the Risks and Benefits
The ability to control one's dreams or for the dreamer to be aware that he or she is dreaming. This process, called lucid dreaming, has some potential risks as well as many fascinating benefits. However, many people are hesitant to try it initially for fear of the potential dangers. This article aims to clarify these concerns by exploring both the risks and benefits of lucid dreaming.
The Benefits of Lucid Dreaming
Lucid dreaming allows a person to take control of their dream world, helping them overcome their fears and eliminate nightmares. This technique is particularly useful for mental health. By taking control of their dreams, individuals can face challenging scenarios in a controlled environment, which can help reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence.
Addressing Common Concerns
Physical Harm in Dreams Lucid dreaming is fundamentally safe. In a lucid dream, everything is a creation of your mind. Therefore, nothing in the dream can physically harm you. Despite the vividness and realness of the dream experience, it remains entirely within your mental landscape, posing no physical danger.
Mental Health Risks Concerns about developing PTSD or other mental illnesses from lucid dreaming are unfounded. As soon as you wake up, it's clear that the events experienced in the dream were not real. On the contrary, lucid dreaming is often seen as a therapeutic tool for conditions like PTSD, as it allows individuals to reframe and manage their thoughts.
Potential Risks of Lucid Dreaming
While generally safe, lucid dreaming does come with a few risks as well:
Mixing Dream Memories with Reality Long-term lucid dreamers might occasionally confuse dream memories with real ones, creating false memories. This issue is rare and preventable by maintaining a dream journal and avoiding lucid dreaming about real-life people or places too frequently.
Escapism Using lucid dreaming to escape reality can be problematic if it interferes with your daily life. While it is sometimes beneficial to escape and relieve the stress of reality, relying on lucid dreaming for happiness can hinder personal growth and productivity.
Feeling Tired After Lucid Dreaming Some people report feeling tired after lucid dreaming. This tiredness is not due to the dreams themselves but often results from not getting enough sleep or using techniques that disrupt sleep patterns. Taking breaks and ensuring adequate sleep can prevent this.
Mental Exhaustion Lucid dreaming can be mentally taxing if practiced excessively without breaks. It’s important to balance lucid dreaming with regular sleep to avoid mental fatigue.
Lucid dreaming is safe and beneficial if done with caution. It has many benefits, such as overcoming fear and improving mental health, and minimal risks. There are many resources and tutorials available for those interested in trying it.
The Book of Samuel is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books in the Old Testament. The book is part of the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books that constitute a theological history of the Israelites and that aim to explain God's law for Israel under the guidance of the prophets.
The Vulnerabilities of Individuals Born Under Swati Nakshatra.pdfAstroAnuradha
Individuals born under Swati Nakshatra often exhibit a strong sense of independence and adaptability, yet they may also face vulnerabilities such as indecisiveness and a tendency to be easily swayed by external influences. Their quest for balance and harmony can sometimes lead to inner conflict and a lack of assertiveness. To know more visit: astroanuradha.com
Heartfulness Magazine - June 2024 (Volume 9, Issue 6)heartfulness
Dear readers,
This month we continue with more inspiring talks from the Global Spirituality Mahotsav that was held from March 14 to 17, 2024, at Kanha Shanti Vanam.
We hear from Daaji on lifestyle and yoga in honor of International Day of Yoga, June 21, 2024. We also hear from Professor Bhavani Rao, Dean at Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, on spirituality in action, the Venerable BhikkuSanghasena on how to be an ambassador for compassion, Dr. Tony Nader on the Maharishi Effect, Swami Mukundananda on the crossroads of modernization, Tejinder Kaur Basra on the purpose of work, the Venerable GesheDorjiDamdul on the psychology of peace, the Rt. Hon. Patricia Scotland, KC, Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, on how we are all related, and world-renowned violinist KumareshRajagopalan on the uplifting mysteries of music.
Dr. Prasad Veluthanar shares an Ayurvedic perspective on treating autism, Dr. IchakAdizes helps us navigate disagreements at work, Sravan Banda celebrates World Environment Day by sharing some tips on land restoration, and Sara Bubber tells our children another inspiring story and challenges them with some fun facts and riddles.
Happy reading,
The editors
Chandra Dev: Unveiling the Mystery of the Moon GodExotic India
Shining brightly in the sky, some days more than others, the Moon in popular culture is a symbol of love, romance, and beauty. The ancient Hindu texts, however, mention the Moon as an intriguing and powerful being, worshiped by sages as Chandra.
Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian.pptxCelso Napoleon
Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian
SBS – Sunday Bible School
Adult Bible Lessons 2nd quarter 2024 CPAD
MAGAZINE: THE CAREER THAT IS PROPOSED TO US: The Path of Salvation, Holiness and Perseverance to Reach Heaven
Commentator: Pastor Osiel Gomes
Presentation: Missionary Celso Napoleon
Renewed in Grace
Sanatan Vastu | Experience Great Living | Vastu ExpertSanatan Vastu
Santan Vastu Provides Vedic astrology courses & Vastu remedies, If you are searching Vastu for home, Vastu for kitchen, Vastu for house, Vastu for Office & Factory. Best Vastu in Bahadurgarh. Best Vastu in Delhi NCR
2nd issue of Volume 15. A magazine in urdu language mainly based on spiritual treatment and learning. Many topics on ISLAM, SUFISM, SOCIAL PROBLEMS, SELF HELP, PSYCHOLOGY, HEALTH, SPIRITUAL TREATMENT, Ruqya etc.A very useful magazine for everyone.
Astronism, Cosmism and Cosmodeism: the space religions espousing the doctrine...Cometan
This lecture created by Brandon Taylorian (aka Cometan) specially for the CESNUR Conference held Bordeaux in June 2024 provides a brief introduction to the legacy of religious and philosophical thought that Astronism emerges from, namely the discourse on transcension started assuredly by the Cosmists in Russia in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and then carried on and developed by Mordecai Nessyahu in Cosmodeism in the twentieth century. Cometan also then provides some detail on his story in founding Astronism in the early twenty-first century from 2013 along with details on the central Astronist doctrine of transcension. Finally, the lecture concludes with some contributions made by space religions and space philosophy and their influences on various cultural facets in art, literature and film.
2. Hebrews Judaism Judaism, an ethnic religion rooting from the Hebrews of Ur, is the first known monotheistic religion (or religion that believes in one G-d). It was more than a faith for the Israelites, but a philosophy and way of life. Followers of the religion “Jews”, believe that G-dis one and deals with actions of all people. This idea is embraced by Jews; saying a prayer to G-d before all positive actions (known as halakhot). Religion
3. Hebrews The Second Temple The second temple, constructed between times of 516 BCE and 70 CE, was a built after Cyrus the Great of Persia took the throne in 538 BCE, decreeing the Jews back to Jerusalem. There is duel significance to this standing temple. The first is that it was the rebuilding of the original temple that was destroyed in 586 BCE, when the Jews were exiled to Babylon. The second being that its western wall (known as the Kotel in modern Judaism) is still standing after the Romans, under Titus, destroyed Jerusalem and the temple in 70 CE. This physical holy place, a characteristic common of ethnic religions, is known as the holiest of holy places in Judaism. Fun Fact: People of the Jewish faith write notes to HaShem (G-d) and wedge them in between the bricks of the wall because it the spot deemed as the closest someone can get to G-d. Architecture
4. Phoenicians Biremes The Phoenicians were masters of the sea, and consequently they built some very advanced vessels for the ancient world. Around 700 B.C, a time when the son of Sargon II, Sennacherib, ruled, a vessel called a “bireme” was prominent. The ship featured two separate levels on the ship for rowers to row, maximizing space without doubling the length of the ship. The steering oars also came in two, both of which at the rear of the boat. There were two variations of the “bireme”, one having a mast and the other not. Also, there was a beaked ship, thought to be a war-galley, and one without, most likely for transportation. Technology
5. Phoenicians Clay Mask Found in a tomb in the cemetery of Tharros in the mid 19th century, this mask and other amulets that were found give evidence that it was indeed originated in Carthage (giving Phoenician routes). The body of a Phoenician was buried with written spells and gifts, like this mask and other terracotta objects, to give protection from G-d in the afterlife. Most masks, like most Phoenician art, were grotesque. The masks mainly came with two different features, wrinkled (meaning old) and unlined (youthful). Fun Fact: The Phoenician masks found a lot of their inspiration from Greek art. Art
6. Phoenicians Aristotle’s Politics Phoenicians followed “Kingship” as their form of government. The royalty only came through decent; there were no “general elections for the throne”. This didn’t necessarily mean that Phoenician royalty held all power. The powerful merchant families within Phoenicia dealt with public affairs. Also, the king had is own council of elders to help with decision-making. At one point, during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, a republic form of government, consisting of a council of judges, held authority in short 6-year periods. Carthage had its own two suffetes (judges). Aristotle’s Politics, writing that mention the Carthaginian Constitution, points out that there was a belief in oligarchy within Carthaginian (meaning government should be ruled by a small council, fitting well with the Phoenician council of elders). Government
7. Phoenicians Phoenician Plate Phoenicians were among the greatest traders of the ancient world. Trading originally with just the Greeks, Phoenicians traded with people from Morocco and even places in Europe. They were known for the trading of their Tyrian purple dye, coming from the shell of a sea-snail. They also were among the first civilizations to have production centers separate from their civilization, having glass production centers in Morocco. Another key export of the Phoenicians was wine. Economy
8. Assyrians Battering Ram The Assyrians were known, and feared for their great military technology. The effectiveness of their weapons came from their use of iron. Assyrians loved to tip their weapons with a nice coating of the precious metal. One of their weapons, the battering ram, was revolutionary for its time. The weapon, a long piece of wood, known as the ram, suspended by chains connected to a beam that would be cocked back wards by some motive and propelled forward by the force of gravity, was like most of their weapons, tipped with iron to help give a strong surface for knocking down walls. Technology
9. Assyrians Carving of Ashur Ashur was the Assyrian God of war and their national God. He was one of many Assyrian Gods. The Assyrians were a polytheistic and had thousands of different Gods who were responsible from things from the Underworld (Mutu) to the destroyer of mankind (Atrahasis). Fun Fact: Assyrians built temples for all of their Gods and Goddesses. They believed that they all deserved a home, and a place for people to speak and idolize them. Religion
10. Babylonians Hammurabi’s Law Code The law of Hammurabi, code of the great Babylonian King, brings forth the famous philosophy of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”. This idea was meant both literally, and through financial compensation because social status was very important. For example, if a son was to hit his father, his forearm would be cut off. But if a similar instance was to occur between a common man and a wealth merchant, than the merchant would only pay the common man, a person of lower social status, with money. Law
11. Babylonians Epic of Gilgamesh The Epic of Gilgamesh is the story of two men, Gilgamesh and a man created by the gods, Enkidu. Divided into two parts, the first half involves adventure and the second with Gilgamesh’s reflection on the death of his friend. The story tries to make the point that the life some one seeks will not be attained. There have been many parallels between the story and other famous writings in literature, one of which being the Odyssey. Literature
12. Babylonians Dialogue of Pessimism Like many of Babylonian philosophical writings, the Dialogue of Pessimism has many similarities to biblical literature writings. Written in cuneiform script, there are multiple interpretations of the writings. People believe it to evoke the idea that what is right and wrong has gray areas. Others believe it to be social and religious satire. Finally there is a third interpretation that human action is meaningless, and that the universe is mysterious with an answer that only the gods know. The one agreed upon idea is that it there are parallels between the writings and the Old Testament (which is also a wisdom writing). Literature
13. Sumerians Pottery Pottery and Sumerian daily life went hand and hand. Vases had many different functions, mostly for holding specific foods. Jars were specific to honey, oil, wine, and butter. The staple to a Sumerian jar had legs, and had a single spout extending from the side. Pottery was almost always made from clay. Daily Life
14. Sumerians Sumerian Pictograph This pictograph is significant because the carvings of crops and tools for agriculture agree with the idea that Sumerians were a very agricultural society. They are very important in the history of agriculture for they were the first to use the techniques of monocropping (intensive farming on a large scale), organized farming, and the specialization of labor (in this case for farming). By using these techniques, and the key technique of irrigation along the waterways, which involved the use of canals, dykes, and other water manipulatingmechanisms, the Sumerians were able to settle rather than graze the land for farming. This inversely led to a large surplus in non-perishable food items; an economic booster. The Sumerians domesticated animals (sheep, oxen, and goat) and grew everything from barley to dates to mustard. Like most Mesopotamian people, the Sumerians had to work around and embrace flooding, in their case after the Spring Equinox and Akitu (new years festival). Fun Fact: High salinity (salt content) in the waters that flooded along with high evaporation rates is one of the reasons why barley (a salt-tolerant crop) was cultivated in Sumer Economy
15. Sumerians Sumerian Tax Tablet The Sumerians had a very complex government, with taxes collected and kept from employed scribes. The bureaucracy (large government) dealt with a complex irrigation system at the city-state level. There was a ruler, also the chief priest that took care of religious parts of Sumerian society as well. The overall leader of the Sumerian people was a monarch, with leaders like the famed Hammurabi, who made the code of laws. But, the civilization so was so complex and the power shifted so much that no single entity or emperor ever ruled Sumer. Government
16. Sumerians Ziggurats A Sumerian ziggurat is a direct result of flooding from Tigris-Euphrates. The floodplain was the idle place to live, but with having access to mud for building, which would deteriorate from flooding, building up was the way to keep a sustainable structure. Ziggurats were not structures for the common person, in fact they were believed to be places for the gods to dwell. They were not a place for worship, the only people allowed to enter ziggurats were the priests. The structures themselves were pyramid like structures (having similarities to Egyptian structures like the step pyramid at Saqqara). They were constructed with sun-baked bricks at the core, and fired bricks on the outside (which were colored with different drawings of astrological significance). The two ways to reach the shrines of the god that dwelled in each ziggurat was by multiple ramps, or sometimes spiral ramps. Architecture
17. Ancient Chinese Chinese Robe Clothing in ancient china had much more significance than style, it represented order, gender, class, and most importantly community. Appropriate attire was crucial to a community for it represented one that functioning well. People who didn’t dress traditionally they would be considered barbarians within the society. In terms of gender, how hair was worn distinguished a man from a women (men with their hair back in a not covered with cloth, and women with hair braded and with a comb of ivory). Class was represented by the fitting and color of clothing. The more loosely fitting ones clothes were, the higher status they held. Also, the color of clothing distinguished status; darker colors (like the ones seen in the ancient robe) meant wealth. Common men wore hats while out in public, another distinguisher. Fun Fact: during the Zhou dynasty, the color yellow as exclusive to the clothing of the emperor. Daily Life
18. Ancient Chinese Qin Sculptures Found in a quantity of 7,000 in the Mausoleum of the first Qin Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, these terracotta worriers are iconic to ancient Chinese art. Even more impressive is the uniqueness and variety of different warriors. Each worrier has distinct facial features and hairstyles. Also, their poses vary from standing, to kneeling, to what seems to be a pose of a horse charioteer. Unfortunately, the color these sculptures were supposed to be aren’t visible any more because the exposure to air has faded the paint. But, this gives all of them color of terracotta. Fun Fact: The burial place for Qin Shi Huang was actually picked by the Emperor, and was worked on rigorously by a collection of 700,000 workers so that it would be finished by his death. Also, the principle craftsman of the Emperor’s tomb were walled up by his successor so that they wouldn’t reveal any of their secrets of the structure. Art
19. Ancient Chinese Pages from the Classic of Poetry (particularly The Book of Songs) The book of songs is one of the iconic pieces of Confucian religion. Confucianism is humanism. It teaches the idea that humans are teachable, and ultimately can be modeled to perfection through education of certain virtues. The topics of the writings range from love, marriage, work, and war. The poems are short, and have strict rhythm. These poems had very large impact on Chinese society. Feudal leaders would use the poems to profess ideas. Philosophy
20. Harappans Harappan City Model The most significant part of Harappan society had to be its city planning. The civilization very early on had sophisticated municipal facilities like sanitization systems. Houses had their own wells for water, and a place to dispose used water, a covered drain, within their homes as well. The separation of living quarters and religious centers has relevance to modern city planning. The civilization also had impressive protective walls, used for flood protection and to hold of military attack. Architecture
21. Harappans Loading site at Mohenjo-daro Harappa was a very agricultural society. People made a living by farming. Crops ranged from barley to cotton. The allocation of crops had a very socialistic way about it. A large portion of what a farmer produced had to be given to public granaries. Archeological digging has surfaced a light-loading platform where farmers were to dump their grains. Economy
22. Harappans City Seals Harappans were very advanced with their ability to measure accurately. This ability is seen with the seals made for each city. Some of these seals measured as small as around 29 centimeters. Their weight measurements were very impressive, having a system of weight, with a base unit of 28 grams. Harappans also were advance in other types of sciences, including dentistry. The Indus-River Valley natives were the first known people to drill into human teeth. Technology
23. Egyptians Step Pyramids at Saqqara The step pyramids at Saqqara are significant for they are the earliest large-scale structure made from cut stone. Designed by the Egyptian architect Imhotep for Pharaoh Djoser, it features multiple complex structures from the Pyramid Substructure to the burial chamber. The burial chamber does not hold the pharaoh for the tomb was extensively robbed. Interestingly, there are limestone blocks with five pointed stars on the ceiling, agreeing with Djoser’s association with the eternal North Star. Architecture
24. Egyptians Scribe Sculpture Ultimately the Pharaoh was the leader of the legal system, but there were local councils of elders, and scribes, were responsible for taxation. No actual legal exist, but other sources prove that Egyptian law was based on pragmatic right and wrong. Status did not come into play when it came to the breaking of the law. Minor cases went the previously mentioned council of elders, while more offensive crimes, like murder or tomb robbery, went the to Great Kenbet, where the vizier (the pharaoh’s right hand man) or even the pharaoh decided the offenders fate. Punishment for a minor crime might have resulted in financial repercussions, or possibly beating. Serious crimes on the other hand could mean decapitation. Law
25. Aryan-Indians Varnas writings The Aryan-Indian people followed a social class system (caste-system) called varnas. It ranked peoples social status from the most highly ranked members of society, the Brahmans (a priestly class), all the way down to the lowest of people called the untouchables. What kind of job someone could have. Untouchables had such horrible responsibilities like hauling dead bodies. These people were literally believed to be untouchable. Meaning that any physical contact with them would lower someone’s social rank. Philosophy