This document discusses the meaning and scope of public administration and how it has evolved over time. It begins by noting there is no consensus on a definition and different writers have defined it in different ways, either broadly to include policymaking or narrowly as just the executive branch. It discusses how early thinkers like Woodrow Wilson viewed public administration and principles that were established. Over time, factors like industrialization, technology development, and scientific management movement influenced the growth of public administration as an academic discipline in the late 19th/early 20th century. The core components of administration are also outlined.
New Public Management and Reinventing Government emerged in the 1980s and 1990s as responses to economic problems and a desire for more efficient and cost-effective government. Key aspects included being more customer-oriented, decentralizing authority, and applying private sector business models to government. The new public management movement advocated for competition, quantifying performance, and giving managers more autonomy. Reinventing Government proposed operating governments like businesses to improve outcomes. Reengineering sought radical improvements to processes through exploiting technology. These reforms aimed to improve productivity and services while reducing costs.
Development administration emerged in the 1950s-1960s as a response to the needs of developing countries undergoing rapid social and economic changes. It aimed to implement development programs and increase administrative capabilities to manage change. Key figures like Riggs emphasized adapting administration to facilitate development and improving areas like planning, participation, and technological adoption. The field evolved from a technical assistance approach criticized as ineffective to emphasize empirical studies of administrative strategies and requirements for development. It remains an important framework for public sector management in developing nation contexts like the Philippines.
The classical theory projects public administration as a scienceSuzana Vaidya
The document discusses the classical and bureaucratic approaches to public administration. It describes the key thinkers and principles of each approach. The classical approach was proposed by Gulick and Urwick, who argued for establishing administration as a science based on empirical methods. They emphasized organizational structure principles like specialization, hierarchy, and span of control. Weber is identified as the founder of the bureaucratic theory. His views were influenced by neo-Kantianism and emphasized rationalization. Weber analyzed bureaucracies in ancient states and characterized modern bureaucracies as having division of labor, hierarchies, rules, impersonality, and neutrality.
The document discusses the emergence and key concepts of Development Administration (DA) as a field of study from the 1950s-1960s. DA focused on administering development in third world countries as they worked to industrialize and modernize after World War II. It aimed to help these countries overcome administrative obstacles to economic planning and social change through reforms like improving public services, governance, and people's participation in development. While Western countries provided funds and models, DA was tailored to unique political, social and cultural contexts in different countries like the Philippines, where it remained central to development plans.
The Philippine Administrative System (PAS) refers to the network of government organizations that implement public policies and provide public services. It includes executive departments, constitutional bodies, local government units, and state-owned corporations. The PAS aims to empower citizens by institutionalizing access to services, decentralizing operations, and making procedures simple. It operates within a socio-political and economic environment. The PAS structure is headed by the President and includes over 20 executive departments and over 40,000 local government units across the country. Key processes include budgeting, personnel management, and periodic reorganizations to improve government efficiency and effectiveness.
The document summarizes the six paradigms of public administration:
1) Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1900-1926) which distinguished between politics and administration
2) Principles of Administration (1927-1937) which focused on universal principles
3) Challenge to Paradigm (1938-1950) which questioned the dichotomy and principles
4) Public Administration as Political Science (1950-1970) which saw it as a subfield of political science
5) Public Administration as Management (1956-1970) with a focus on techniques
6) Emergence of Governance (1990-present) which emphasizes joint governance roles. It also discusses new paradigms like reinventing government and e-g
The document discusses the evolution of the concept of governance from the 1990s to 2000s. It summarizes that:
1. Governance expanded beyond just government to include the roles of citizens, organizations, and groups in pursuing collective goals.
2. Key factors that pushed the governance paradigm included development failures, environmentalism, globalization, and peacebuilding.
3. "Good governance" emerged as an international development principle promoting accountability, participation, predictability, transparency, and the rule of law.
4. Kofi Annan affirmed that good governance is essential for sustainable development and eradicating poverty.
1) In the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville observed the phenomenon of individualism in America, which he contrasted with the egoism he saw in Europe.
2) The progressive movement led to reforms like the Pendleton Act in 1883, which professionalized the civil service through a merit-based hiring system.
3) There have been various attempts to define public administration, with scholars focusing on elements like its role in policymaking, fiscal administration, and organization and management of government. Its relationship to political science has also been an ongoing topic of discussion.
New Public Management and Reinventing Government emerged in the 1980s and 1990s as responses to economic problems and a desire for more efficient and cost-effective government. Key aspects included being more customer-oriented, decentralizing authority, and applying private sector business models to government. The new public management movement advocated for competition, quantifying performance, and giving managers more autonomy. Reinventing Government proposed operating governments like businesses to improve outcomes. Reengineering sought radical improvements to processes through exploiting technology. These reforms aimed to improve productivity and services while reducing costs.
Development administration emerged in the 1950s-1960s as a response to the needs of developing countries undergoing rapid social and economic changes. It aimed to implement development programs and increase administrative capabilities to manage change. Key figures like Riggs emphasized adapting administration to facilitate development and improving areas like planning, participation, and technological adoption. The field evolved from a technical assistance approach criticized as ineffective to emphasize empirical studies of administrative strategies and requirements for development. It remains an important framework for public sector management in developing nation contexts like the Philippines.
The classical theory projects public administration as a scienceSuzana Vaidya
The document discusses the classical and bureaucratic approaches to public administration. It describes the key thinkers and principles of each approach. The classical approach was proposed by Gulick and Urwick, who argued for establishing administration as a science based on empirical methods. They emphasized organizational structure principles like specialization, hierarchy, and span of control. Weber is identified as the founder of the bureaucratic theory. His views were influenced by neo-Kantianism and emphasized rationalization. Weber analyzed bureaucracies in ancient states and characterized modern bureaucracies as having division of labor, hierarchies, rules, impersonality, and neutrality.
The document discusses the emergence and key concepts of Development Administration (DA) as a field of study from the 1950s-1960s. DA focused on administering development in third world countries as they worked to industrialize and modernize after World War II. It aimed to help these countries overcome administrative obstacles to economic planning and social change through reforms like improving public services, governance, and people's participation in development. While Western countries provided funds and models, DA was tailored to unique political, social and cultural contexts in different countries like the Philippines, where it remained central to development plans.
The Philippine Administrative System (PAS) refers to the network of government organizations that implement public policies and provide public services. It includes executive departments, constitutional bodies, local government units, and state-owned corporations. The PAS aims to empower citizens by institutionalizing access to services, decentralizing operations, and making procedures simple. It operates within a socio-political and economic environment. The PAS structure is headed by the President and includes over 20 executive departments and over 40,000 local government units across the country. Key processes include budgeting, personnel management, and periodic reorganizations to improve government efficiency and effectiveness.
The document summarizes the six paradigms of public administration:
1) Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1900-1926) which distinguished between politics and administration
2) Principles of Administration (1927-1937) which focused on universal principles
3) Challenge to Paradigm (1938-1950) which questioned the dichotomy and principles
4) Public Administration as Political Science (1950-1970) which saw it as a subfield of political science
5) Public Administration as Management (1956-1970) with a focus on techniques
6) Emergence of Governance (1990-present) which emphasizes joint governance roles. It also discusses new paradigms like reinventing government and e-g
The document discusses the evolution of the concept of governance from the 1990s to 2000s. It summarizes that:
1. Governance expanded beyond just government to include the roles of citizens, organizations, and groups in pursuing collective goals.
2. Key factors that pushed the governance paradigm included development failures, environmentalism, globalization, and peacebuilding.
3. "Good governance" emerged as an international development principle promoting accountability, participation, predictability, transparency, and the rule of law.
4. Kofi Annan affirmed that good governance is essential for sustainable development and eradicating poverty.
1) In the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville observed the phenomenon of individualism in America, which he contrasted with the egoism he saw in Europe.
2) The progressive movement led to reforms like the Pendleton Act in 1883, which professionalized the civil service through a merit-based hiring system.
3) There have been various attempts to define public administration, with scholars focusing on elements like its role in policymaking, fiscal administration, and organization and management of government. Its relationship to political science has also been an ongoing topic of discussion.
The document discusses the evolution of paradigms and models in public administration from its early development to present. It traces the progression from the politics-administration dichotomy model to more modern concepts like New Public Management, Reinventing Government, and governance. Key models discussed include scientific management, systems theory, and the policy issue model, each building upon previous approaches and introducing new lenses for analyzing public administration.
The document discusses the evolution of the concept of governance from the 1990s to present. It began as a development reform advocated by international institutions in response to failed development interventions. "Good governance" emerged as a guiding principle, focusing on proper administrative processes and effective policy instruments. Key principles of good governance were identified as accountability, participation, predictability, and transparency. The document also discusses definitions and characteristics of good governance put forward by various international organizations, as well as indicators and assessment tools used to measure good governance.
Modern public administration has gone through several phases since the 1950s: (1) development administration from the 1950s-1960s which focused on helping developing countries rebuild after WWII, (2) new public administration in the 1970s which addressed the "identity crisis" facing the field, (3) new public management in the 1980s-1990s which emphasized market-based reforms, and (4) governance which views public administration more broadly. Development administration aimed to help countries undergoing social and economic transformation through innovation management and the administration of development projects with Western aid. The Philippines also drew on development administration principles but faced its own "identity crisis" in defining an approach rooted to its own aspirations.
This document provides an overview of public administration as a field of study. It defines public administration as the implementation and management of government policies and affairs. It discusses the integral and managerial views of public administration. It also outlines the traditional and modern scopes of public administration. Finally, it examines the six paradigms of public administration that have emerged over time, including the politics-administration dichotomy, principles of administration, public administration as political science, public administration as management, public administration itself, and the emergence of governance.
The document summarizes the evolution of paradigms in public administration from 1900 to the present. It discusses 6 paradigms: 1) Politics/Administration Dichotomy from 1900-1926 which saw PA emerge as a discipline; 2) Principles of Administration from 1926-1937 focused on scientific management; 3) PA as a Political Science from 1950-1970 as it was situated within political science departments; 4) PA as Management from 1956-1970 emphasized organizational theory and management; 5) PA as Public Administration from 1970 onward reestablished PA as an independent field; and 6) From Government to Governance from 1990 which broadened the concept to additional actors. The future of digital governance is also discussed.
New Public Management Reforms in the Delivery of Pulic Serviceed gbargaye
New Public Management reforms aim to make public services more efficient and customer-focused by adopting private sector management styles. It emphasizes decentralized control, competition, and explicit performance standards. The basic doctrines include hands-on professional management, greater emphasis on measurable outputs, shifting units to be more competitive, and adopting private sector management practices. Reengineering and reinventing government apply these principles to fundamentally redesign processes and achieve dramatic improvements in cost, quality and service.
The document discusses the New Public Service movement, which asserts that the primary role of public servants is to help citizens articulate and meet their shared interests through democratic processes rather than attempting to control society. It outlines the theoretical roots of the NPS in democratic citizenship, community and civil society models, organizational humanism, and postmodernism. The document then describes seven principles of the NPS, including serving citizens rather than customers, seeking the public interest, valuing citizenship over entrepreneurship, thinking strategically while acting democratically, having a nuanced view of accountability, serving rather than steering society, and valuing people over just productivity.
This document summarizes theories in public administration from 1800 to 1980. It covers the classical era from 1800-1950s which was based on scientific management, bureaucracy, and administrative management. Theories included Frederick Taylor's scientific management, Max Weber's bureaucracy, and Henri Fayol's 14 principles of management. The neoclassical era from the 1920s-1930s incorporated the human element and included theories from Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, and Elton Mayo. Abraham Maslow introduced the hierarchy of needs and Frederick Herzberg the motivation-hygiene theory. Douglas McGregor proposed theory X and theory Y. The modern era integrated the classical and human relations approaches and included decision making theory from Herbert Simon and industrial human
This document provides an overview of development and development administration. It discusses key topics like development strategies and theories, including modernization theory and dependency theory. It describes how most developing countries established strong state frameworks and policies for development based on Keynesian economics after independence from colonial rule. The document also outlines different theories of economic growth that have influenced approaches to development, such as linear stages theory, structural change models, international dependence theory, new growth theory, and neoclassical counterrevolution.
The document discusses the need for and use of public administration theory. Some key points:
- The practices of public administration, such as organization and management, have existed as long as civilization to help develop societies in a complex world. However, PA as a formal academic field is relatively new.
- While early thinkers like James Wilson were skeptical of theory, it is the foundation for understanding PA. Descriptive and explanatory theories help observers see and comprehend phenomena in the field.
- Predictive theories in PA cannot forecast exact outcomes but rather provide a framework for anticipating general patterns and probable results over time based on past observations.
- No single theory can fully capture the complexity of PA realities. Taken together,
The document discusses the emergence of new public management and reinventing government ideas in the 1980s and 1990s. These ideas aimed to make government more efficient and cost-effective by applying private sector practices to the public sector. They emphasized making government more customer-oriented, decentralized, and business-like. Critics argued these approaches focused too much on customers rather than citizens. The document also outlines some of the key principles of new public management and reinventing government.
Public administration aims to understand how government can effectively achieve its proper functions. It studies the activities in public agencies and how they work to implement policies affecting society. The discipline has existed for centuries but was formalized in the late 19th century. Early thinkers aimed to make administration more competent by separating it from politics, applying business principles. Later, the field recognized the political nature of administration and sought to balance efficiency with other goals like accountability. It now sees its role as understanding and strengthening government institutions to better govern.
Public administration involves the implementation of government policies and operations, including planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling government work. It has evolved over time from focusing on separating politics and administration, to emphasizing principles of administration and efficiency, to considering human factors and incorporating other social sciences. Public administration is significant as the key instrument of government to maintain order and protect citizens. It also enables development, supports modern welfare states by providing public services, and is an important subject of academic study.
This document summarizes Dwight Waldo's work on the "Administrative State" which challenged prevailing views of public administration in the 20th century. Waldo argued that the political-administration dichotomy proposed by Woodrow Wilson was false and that administration is at the core of modern democratic government. He believed democratic theory must address administration and administrative theory must address democratic politics. Waldo also argued that efficiency cannot remain the sole focus of public administration as it is a political claim that can undermine democratic values and participation.
This document outlines the key topics to be covered in a Foundations of Public Administration course for BPA students. The course will use lectures, student presentations, open discussions, quizzes and a final exam to address four main questions over four meetings: what is public administration, who are public administrators, why public administration matters, and what are the issues and challenges. Key topics to be covered include the nature, scope and theories of public administration, administrative processes and techniques, human resources management, fiscal administration, regulatory functions, and issues related to accountability, ethics and economic development. Assessment will be based on attendance, quizzes, reports, projects and the final exam.
The document summarizes the development of paradigms in public administration as described in a 1975 article by Nicholas Henry. It outlines five paradigms: (1) the politics/administration dichotomy from 1900-1926, (2) principles of administration from 1927-1937, (3) public administration as political science from 1950-1970, (4) public administration as administrative science from 1956-1970, and (5) public administration as public administration from 1970 to the present. The fifth and emerging paradigm focused on policy science, political economy, and the public policy-making process, leading to increased enrollments in public administration programs and the institutionalization of public administration as its own academic field.
The document discusses several new paradigms that have emerged in public administration, including the New Public Administration, Reinventing Government, and the New Public Management. The New Public Administration in the 1960s-70s emphasized values, ethics, and social issues rather than traditional efficiency and effectiveness. Reinventing Government in the 1990s called for more flexible, entrepreneurial government that empowers citizens. The New Public Management applies private sector management techniques to public administration by focusing on results, customers, and competition.
The document defines and discusses the concept of accountability. It provides several definitions of accountability from different sources that commonly describe it as an obligation to be responsible and answerable for responsibilities conferred by another party. It also discusses different types of accountability like internal versus external accountability, objective versus subjective accountability, and political accountability in its constitutional, decentralized, and consultative forms. The document explores factors like autonomy, attitudes, and technical structures that influence how effective accountability can be.
The document discusses the evolution of public administration from ancient to modern times. It covers the following key points:
- Public administration has existed in all societies to advance general welfare through activities like taxation, financial management, and administering justice. The idea of serving the public interest can be seen as far back as the Code of Hammurabi.
- Notable developments included China establishing the first centralized bureaucracy in the 2nd century BC and merit-based civil service exams. In the late 19th century, Woodrow Wilson distinguished between politics and an apolitical administration.
- The field of public administration evolved from an art to being studied scientifically. Scholars like Max Weber analyzed bureaucratic models while challenges in
Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration for formally recognizing it as a discipline in 1887. He argued for separating politics from administration, establishing the dichotomy between the two. During 1927-1937, public administration developed as an independent discipline influenced by POSDCORB and a focus on principles of administration. Starting in 1938, these views faced criticism and challenges as administration was recognized as inherently political. From 1948-1970, public administration experienced a crisis of identity as its foundations were questioned. After 1971, new perspectives emerged focused on public policy and incorporating knowledge from other social sciences.
Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration for his 1887 work "The Study of Administration", which established administration as its own academic discipline separate from politics. Frank Goodnow later argued that politics and administration could be separated, with politics dealing with policy and administration dealing with execution. Early 20th century saw focus on efficiency and development of principles of administration. Later challenges rejected the separation of administration and politics, and viewed administration as operating within political and social contexts. Recent trends include comparative public administration, development administration, and market-oriented approaches. Comparative public administration involves comparing administrative systems and specific elements across countries.
The document discusses the evolution of paradigms and models in public administration from its early development to present. It traces the progression from the politics-administration dichotomy model to more modern concepts like New Public Management, Reinventing Government, and governance. Key models discussed include scientific management, systems theory, and the policy issue model, each building upon previous approaches and introducing new lenses for analyzing public administration.
The document discusses the evolution of the concept of governance from the 1990s to present. It began as a development reform advocated by international institutions in response to failed development interventions. "Good governance" emerged as a guiding principle, focusing on proper administrative processes and effective policy instruments. Key principles of good governance were identified as accountability, participation, predictability, and transparency. The document also discusses definitions and characteristics of good governance put forward by various international organizations, as well as indicators and assessment tools used to measure good governance.
Modern public administration has gone through several phases since the 1950s: (1) development administration from the 1950s-1960s which focused on helping developing countries rebuild after WWII, (2) new public administration in the 1970s which addressed the "identity crisis" facing the field, (3) new public management in the 1980s-1990s which emphasized market-based reforms, and (4) governance which views public administration more broadly. Development administration aimed to help countries undergoing social and economic transformation through innovation management and the administration of development projects with Western aid. The Philippines also drew on development administration principles but faced its own "identity crisis" in defining an approach rooted to its own aspirations.
This document provides an overview of public administration as a field of study. It defines public administration as the implementation and management of government policies and affairs. It discusses the integral and managerial views of public administration. It also outlines the traditional and modern scopes of public administration. Finally, it examines the six paradigms of public administration that have emerged over time, including the politics-administration dichotomy, principles of administration, public administration as political science, public administration as management, public administration itself, and the emergence of governance.
The document summarizes the evolution of paradigms in public administration from 1900 to the present. It discusses 6 paradigms: 1) Politics/Administration Dichotomy from 1900-1926 which saw PA emerge as a discipline; 2) Principles of Administration from 1926-1937 focused on scientific management; 3) PA as a Political Science from 1950-1970 as it was situated within political science departments; 4) PA as Management from 1956-1970 emphasized organizational theory and management; 5) PA as Public Administration from 1970 onward reestablished PA as an independent field; and 6) From Government to Governance from 1990 which broadened the concept to additional actors. The future of digital governance is also discussed.
New Public Management Reforms in the Delivery of Pulic Serviceed gbargaye
New Public Management reforms aim to make public services more efficient and customer-focused by adopting private sector management styles. It emphasizes decentralized control, competition, and explicit performance standards. The basic doctrines include hands-on professional management, greater emphasis on measurable outputs, shifting units to be more competitive, and adopting private sector management practices. Reengineering and reinventing government apply these principles to fundamentally redesign processes and achieve dramatic improvements in cost, quality and service.
The document discusses the New Public Service movement, which asserts that the primary role of public servants is to help citizens articulate and meet their shared interests through democratic processes rather than attempting to control society. It outlines the theoretical roots of the NPS in democratic citizenship, community and civil society models, organizational humanism, and postmodernism. The document then describes seven principles of the NPS, including serving citizens rather than customers, seeking the public interest, valuing citizenship over entrepreneurship, thinking strategically while acting democratically, having a nuanced view of accountability, serving rather than steering society, and valuing people over just productivity.
This document summarizes theories in public administration from 1800 to 1980. It covers the classical era from 1800-1950s which was based on scientific management, bureaucracy, and administrative management. Theories included Frederick Taylor's scientific management, Max Weber's bureaucracy, and Henri Fayol's 14 principles of management. The neoclassical era from the 1920s-1930s incorporated the human element and included theories from Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, and Elton Mayo. Abraham Maslow introduced the hierarchy of needs and Frederick Herzberg the motivation-hygiene theory. Douglas McGregor proposed theory X and theory Y. The modern era integrated the classical and human relations approaches and included decision making theory from Herbert Simon and industrial human
This document provides an overview of development and development administration. It discusses key topics like development strategies and theories, including modernization theory and dependency theory. It describes how most developing countries established strong state frameworks and policies for development based on Keynesian economics after independence from colonial rule. The document also outlines different theories of economic growth that have influenced approaches to development, such as linear stages theory, structural change models, international dependence theory, new growth theory, and neoclassical counterrevolution.
The document discusses the need for and use of public administration theory. Some key points:
- The practices of public administration, such as organization and management, have existed as long as civilization to help develop societies in a complex world. However, PA as a formal academic field is relatively new.
- While early thinkers like James Wilson were skeptical of theory, it is the foundation for understanding PA. Descriptive and explanatory theories help observers see and comprehend phenomena in the field.
- Predictive theories in PA cannot forecast exact outcomes but rather provide a framework for anticipating general patterns and probable results over time based on past observations.
- No single theory can fully capture the complexity of PA realities. Taken together,
The document discusses the emergence of new public management and reinventing government ideas in the 1980s and 1990s. These ideas aimed to make government more efficient and cost-effective by applying private sector practices to the public sector. They emphasized making government more customer-oriented, decentralized, and business-like. Critics argued these approaches focused too much on customers rather than citizens. The document also outlines some of the key principles of new public management and reinventing government.
Public administration aims to understand how government can effectively achieve its proper functions. It studies the activities in public agencies and how they work to implement policies affecting society. The discipline has existed for centuries but was formalized in the late 19th century. Early thinkers aimed to make administration more competent by separating it from politics, applying business principles. Later, the field recognized the political nature of administration and sought to balance efficiency with other goals like accountability. It now sees its role as understanding and strengthening government institutions to better govern.
Public administration involves the implementation of government policies and operations, including planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling government work. It has evolved over time from focusing on separating politics and administration, to emphasizing principles of administration and efficiency, to considering human factors and incorporating other social sciences. Public administration is significant as the key instrument of government to maintain order and protect citizens. It also enables development, supports modern welfare states by providing public services, and is an important subject of academic study.
This document summarizes Dwight Waldo's work on the "Administrative State" which challenged prevailing views of public administration in the 20th century. Waldo argued that the political-administration dichotomy proposed by Woodrow Wilson was false and that administration is at the core of modern democratic government. He believed democratic theory must address administration and administrative theory must address democratic politics. Waldo also argued that efficiency cannot remain the sole focus of public administration as it is a political claim that can undermine democratic values and participation.
This document outlines the key topics to be covered in a Foundations of Public Administration course for BPA students. The course will use lectures, student presentations, open discussions, quizzes and a final exam to address four main questions over four meetings: what is public administration, who are public administrators, why public administration matters, and what are the issues and challenges. Key topics to be covered include the nature, scope and theories of public administration, administrative processes and techniques, human resources management, fiscal administration, regulatory functions, and issues related to accountability, ethics and economic development. Assessment will be based on attendance, quizzes, reports, projects and the final exam.
The document summarizes the development of paradigms in public administration as described in a 1975 article by Nicholas Henry. It outlines five paradigms: (1) the politics/administration dichotomy from 1900-1926, (2) principles of administration from 1927-1937, (3) public administration as political science from 1950-1970, (4) public administration as administrative science from 1956-1970, and (5) public administration as public administration from 1970 to the present. The fifth and emerging paradigm focused on policy science, political economy, and the public policy-making process, leading to increased enrollments in public administration programs and the institutionalization of public administration as its own academic field.
The document discusses several new paradigms that have emerged in public administration, including the New Public Administration, Reinventing Government, and the New Public Management. The New Public Administration in the 1960s-70s emphasized values, ethics, and social issues rather than traditional efficiency and effectiveness. Reinventing Government in the 1990s called for more flexible, entrepreneurial government that empowers citizens. The New Public Management applies private sector management techniques to public administration by focusing on results, customers, and competition.
The document defines and discusses the concept of accountability. It provides several definitions of accountability from different sources that commonly describe it as an obligation to be responsible and answerable for responsibilities conferred by another party. It also discusses different types of accountability like internal versus external accountability, objective versus subjective accountability, and political accountability in its constitutional, decentralized, and consultative forms. The document explores factors like autonomy, attitudes, and technical structures that influence how effective accountability can be.
The document discusses the evolution of public administration from ancient to modern times. It covers the following key points:
- Public administration has existed in all societies to advance general welfare through activities like taxation, financial management, and administering justice. The idea of serving the public interest can be seen as far back as the Code of Hammurabi.
- Notable developments included China establishing the first centralized bureaucracy in the 2nd century BC and merit-based civil service exams. In the late 19th century, Woodrow Wilson distinguished between politics and an apolitical administration.
- The field of public administration evolved from an art to being studied scientifically. Scholars like Max Weber analyzed bureaucratic models while challenges in
Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration for formally recognizing it as a discipline in 1887. He argued for separating politics from administration, establishing the dichotomy between the two. During 1927-1937, public administration developed as an independent discipline influenced by POSDCORB and a focus on principles of administration. Starting in 1938, these views faced criticism and challenges as administration was recognized as inherently political. From 1948-1970, public administration experienced a crisis of identity as its foundations were questioned. After 1971, new perspectives emerged focused on public policy and incorporating knowledge from other social sciences.
Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration for his 1887 work "The Study of Administration", which established administration as its own academic discipline separate from politics. Frank Goodnow later argued that politics and administration could be separated, with politics dealing with policy and administration dealing with execution. Early 20th century saw focus on efficiency and development of principles of administration. Later challenges rejected the separation of administration and politics, and viewed administration as operating within political and social contexts. Recent trends include comparative public administration, development administration, and market-oriented approaches. Comparative public administration involves comparing administrative systems and specific elements across countries.
Lorenz von Stein is considered the founder of public administration science. He argued it relies on other disciplines and practitioners should concern themselves with both theory and practice. In the US, Woodrow Wilson is seen as the father for recognizing it in 1887, advocating for separating politics and administration. Key thinkers in the early 20th century included Gulick, Urwick, Fayol and Taylor. Definitions of public administration evolved over time as the field developed, addressing the executive branch activities, policymaking roles, and relationship to the public. New models like New Public Management and New Public Service also emerged in recent decades.
Introduction(Frontier of public Administration)Suzana Vaidya
1. Public administration involves implementing public policy and enforcing laws on behalf of the government. It has evolved over time from sporadic administrative functions under monarchs to a more organized bureaucracy in the 19th century.
2. The history of public administration dates back to ancient Greece, where Plato recognized the separation of management and democracy. Key figures like Machiavelli, Adam Smith, and Thomas Jefferson contributed ideas about organization, specialization, and political patronage that influenced the development of public administration.
3. Major milestones in the history of public administration include the establishment of the U.S. Civil Service Commission in 1883 to regulate political patronage, the passage of civil rights laws in the 1960s-1970
This document outlines the evolution of the field of public administration from its traditional/classical phase to modern developments. It discusses key thinkers and periods that have shaped the discipline, including Woodrow Wilson who argued for public administration as a professional field separate from politics. Max Weber is also cited for his influential analysis of bureaucratic organizations. The document then examines specific areas of specialization within public administration and ongoing concerns in the Philippines around issues like reorganization and corruption.
This document summarizes the evolution of public administration over five phases from 1887 to the present:
1) 1887-1926 saw early reforms and the first textbook on public administration. Politics and administration were considered separate, with administrators implementing policy and politicians making it.
2) 1927-1937 focused on scientific management principles. Books defined optimal assembly lines for efficiency.
3) 1938-1959 challenged the dichotomy between politics and administration and questioned universal principles. Values could not be separated from administration.
4) 1950-1970 saw efforts to reconnect public administration with its political science roots to avoid being too narrow of a science. Comparative administration also emerged.
5) After 1970, public administration refined management techniques
The document summarizes the evolution of public administration over five phases from 1887 to the present:
1) 1887-1926 saw early reforms and the first textbook on the topic. Politics and administration were seen as distinct.
2) 1927-1937 focused on applying scientific management principles from business. A dichotomy between facts and values emerged.
3) 1938-1959 challenged the universality of administrative principles and the politics-administration dichotomy.
4) 1950-1970 sought to reconnect public administration with its political science roots and broaden its social and political focus.
5) Post-1970 solidified public administration as its own discipline focused on decision-making and defining "public." Recent technological changes
This document summarizes the evolution of public administration over five phases from 1887 to the present:
1) 1887-1926 saw early reforms and the first textbook on public administration. Politics and administration were considered separate, with administrators implementing policy and politicians making it.
2) 1927-1937 focused on scientific management principles. A key book defined principles of optimal assembly lines for efficiency.
3) 1938-1959 challenged the dichotomy between politics and administration and questioned universal principles. Authors argued administration involves values and contexts differ between organizations.
4) 1950-1970 saw efforts to reconnect public administration with its political science roots by considering both internal bureaucratic processes and external political pressures.
5) Post-1970 utilized
A Review Of The Study Of Administration By Woodrow WilsonLuz Martinez
Wilson published an 1887 essay on public administration as a science. He discusses the history of studying administration as distinct from politics, with administration being as old as government. Second, he defines the subject matter of public administration as the execution of public law through administration. Finally, he argues that developing public administration as a science requires technical education for officials and comparing administrative systems to determine best practices for democratic governments.
Public administration knowledge intro.pptxssusera156cd
The document discusses the evolution of public administration in India from ancient times to the modern period. It notes that ancient kingdoms like the Mauryas established well-developed administrative systems. During the Mughal era, centralized systems focused on revenue collection. Under British colonial rule, administrative reforms established a modern centralized structure and introduced new practices. After independence, India developed its own democratic model of public administration based on its political and cultural context.
This document discusses the evolution of public administration theories and practices. It covers the development of public administration and three main theories: Classical Public Administration Theory, New Public Management Theory, and Postmodern Public Administration Theory. It also describes six paradigms of traditional public administration models and how public administration has taken on new roles in modern society, including designing policy, implementing policy, and serving as an agent of change.
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1. CHAPTER ONE
The Meaning, Scope and Evolution of Public Administration
1.Meaning and Scope
Lack of consensus on the scope of public
administration has led to different
approaches in the definition of the
subject.
As Ferrel Heady (1966) put it "Despite
several decades of development,
consensus about the scope of public
administration is still lacking, and the
field has been described as featuring
heterodoxy rather than orthodoxy".
2. cont’d
Therefore, different writers have variously
defined the subject. Some have a broader
view about public administration. For them
public administration includes both
policymaking and policy execution. Public
administration is any kind of administration in
the public interest which in other words simply
means governmental administration.
3. cont’d
Whereas others emphasize the role of public
administration as only the executive branch of
government. Those who advocate the latter
approach include reputable writers such as
Woodrow Wilson (labeled as a father of public
administration), L.D.White, Marshal E.Dimock,
Herbert Simon and John M. Pfiffner.
4. PA as executive branch
For instance, L.D. White views "Public
administration as a field consisting of all
those operations having the purpose of
fulfilling or enforcing public policy."
Similarly, according to Woodrow Wilson,
public administration is detailed and
systematic application of law.
5. cont’d
In the words of Marshal E. Dimock,
"Public Administration is the fulfillment
or enforcement of public policy as
declared by a competent authorities…
Public administration is a law in action.
It is the executive side of government"
6. Cont’d
Herbert Simon on his part says public
administration is the government action,
which coincides with the activities of the
executive or administrative branch only.
Ferrel Heady views public administration as a
"field concerned primarily with the carrying
out of public policy decisions made by
authoritative decision makers in the political
system".
7. cont’d
Public administration is concerned with
the activities of all the three branches of
government, but the widely accepted
view is that public administration is
connected with the activities of the
executive branch only. In the words of
Morstein Marx:
8. Cont’d
At its fullest range, public administration
embraces every area and activity under
the jurisdiction of public policy… By
established usage, however the term
'Public Administration' has come to
signify primarily the organization,
personnel, practices and procedures,
essential to effective performance of the
civilian functions entrusted to the
executive branch of government.
9. Cont’d
Prof. Woodrow Wilson in 1889 drew a sharp
distinction between politics and administration
and opined that the later must steer clear of
the former. It was said that politics was
concerned with policy-making while
administration was concerned with policy
implementation.
10. Cont’d
The politics-administrative dichotomy
had writers such as Woodrow Wilson,
Willoughby, White,
Luther Gullick, Henry Fayol and Urwick
to discover principles of Public
Administration. These principles laid
emphasis on economy and efficiency as
the sole goal of administrative activity
and regarded administration a
mechanical organisation.
11. Cont’d
Taylor’s scientific management movement
in the last quarter of the 19th century
emphasized the fact that administration
was nothing but management and it
should be possible to discover the best
principles of managing public affairs.
12. Cont’d
In the words of Dr. Appleby, “The
heart of administration is the
management of programmes
designed to serve the general
welfare.”
13. 1.2. Is public administration an art or a
science?
Public administration as an aspect of
governmental activity existed as long as
political systems have been functioning.
Public administration lends itself to two
meanings.
14. cont’d
First, it stands for the activity of
administering governmental affairs.
Secondly, it is an academic discipline.
The first is decidedly an art. But is
public administration, as a subject of
study of governmental affairs, a
science?
Art is a know-how. It is the
application of personal judgment, skill
in a unique situation.
15. Cont’d
Scholars are divided into two: some say PA is a
science like any other science discipline where
as others say PA is not a full-fledged science.
It is a combination of both science and art. It is
an evolving science because it is still affected
by environmental variables such as culture,
politics, technology etc.
16. Cont’d
It is well documented that when it comes to
the development of an independent
administrative discourse, the Americans take
the lead around 1900 (Rutgers, 1997). Frank J.
Goodnow and Woodrow Wilson are generally
considered the founding fathers.
17. Cont’d
During this period Public administration
was conceived of as the management of
men and materials in the
accomplishment of the purposes of the
state (White, 1926 p.2).
18. Cont’d
As Wilson explained, Public
administration is detailed and systematic
execution of public law. Especially,
Woodrow Wilson, the pioneer of public
administration as a subject of study,
called it the 'Science of Public
Administration' as early as 1887.
19. Cont’d
By the same token, W.F. Willoughby
(1926) asserted that in
administration there are certain
fundamental principles of general
application analogous to those
characterizing any science.
20. Cont’d
In 1937, a collection of papers on the subject
made appearance under the significant title of
'Papers on the Science of Administration' edited
by Luther Gulick and L. Urwick.
It is the existence of a body of principles in a
discipline which entitles it to claim the status of
science.
21. Cont’d
If public administration can prove that it
has developed a set of principles, it,
obviously qualifies to be rated as science.
Does public administration have a set of
such principles?
22. Cont’d
The essential characteristics of science
are the presence of normative (or
ethical) value, predictability of behavior,
and finally universal application.
All these three features are as yet
imperfectly present in public
administration.
23. Cont’d
According to Rumki Basu, Public
Administration is called a science if the
following three conditions are fulfilled. First,
the place of normative values in public
administration should be clearly identified
and made clear. Second, greater
understanding should be gained of human
nature in the field of public administration.
24. Cont’d
And third, the principles of
administration could be derived
from a body of cross-cultural
studies, thereby making them
relatively free from cultural bias.
25. Cont’d
The last hundred years have however seen a
remarkable development of the science of public
administration.
The transformation of the laissez faire state into
the modern welfare state has enlarged its sphere,
added to the functions of government and aroused
interest in the problem of efficiency in
government.
26. Cont’d
Industrial engineers like F.W. Taylor, pioneered the
scientific method with its emphasis on
experimentation, observation, collection of data,
classification and analysis, and the formulation of laws
and principles. The subsequent progress of the
scientific method added substantially to such facets of
administration as organization, planning, personnel
administration and budgetary control.
27. Cont’d
The last decades have witnessed mushrooming
of writers on administration and management
like Metcalfe, Henry Fayol, Harrington
Emerson, Mary Parker Follett, Mooney, Peter
Drucker and others. Gradually the contributions
of these sources have been unified into the
science and art of public administration.
28. Cont’d
Pfiffner writes that public administration is
concerned with 'the what' and 'the how' of
government. The 'what' is the subject matter,
technical knowledge of a field which enables
an administrator to perform his tasks. The
'how' is the technique of management. The
major divisions of the subject matter fall
naturally into some groupings:
29. Cont’d
What a government does,
determination of objectives,
internal administrative policies and
plans and a range of
governmental business.
How a government organizes its
staff, and finances its work, that is
the structure of government
organization.
30. Cont’d
How administrators secure cooperation and
team-work? study of such problems as
administrative responsibility, leadership,
direction, coordination, delegation,
headquarters field relationships, supervision
and public relations.
31. Cont’d
By common consensus, the essential
components of administration are:
(1) planning, (2) organizing,
(3) staffing, (4) initiating,
(5) delegating, (6) directing
32. Cont’d
(7) overseeing (8) coordinating,
and (9) evaluating.
The various activities forming part
of the scope of public
administration are indicated by
POSDCORB, a word coined by
Luther Gulick.
33. 1.3. The Evolution and Growth of public
Administration
Public administration as an activity is as
old as civilization but public
administration as an academic discipline
is not much more than a hundred years
old.
This, however, does not mean that
thinkers in earlier ages had never said
anything significant about public
administration.
34. Cont’d
Many factors have contributed towards the growth of the
study of public administration.
Firstly, the development of modern sciences and
technology made an impact on the life of the people and
the functioning of the government. industrialization
gave birth to large scale organizations with complex
problems of coordination and cooperation.
35. Cont’d
Rapid technological development
created large scale social
dislocations which made state
intervention imperative and
desirable.
36. Cont’d
Secondly, the scientific Management
movement founded by F.W. Taylor which
began in the USA towards the end of the
19th
century, gave great impetus to the
study of public administration. Taylor's
ideas had a revolutionary impact not
only in the US but also throughout the
world.
37. Cont’d
A third factor which significantly helped
in the growth of the subject of public
administration was the gradual evolution
of the concept of welfare state. The
philosophy of state functions everywhere
has now decisively shifted from the
traditional notion of laissez faire to that
of social welfare.
38. Cont’d
Lastly, the movement for governmental
reform gathered momentum in the USA from
the early years of the present century when
intellectual efforts were systematically made
for the steady development and growth of an
autonomous and specialized field of knowledge.
39. 1.4 Public and Private Administration
Public administration is a combination of two
words: public and administration.
There are two approaches in the definition of
administration. Wider approach and managerial
approach.
1. According to Theo Haimann, “Administration
means overall determination of policies, setting
of major objectives,
40. Cont’d
the identification of general purposes and laying down of
broad programmes and projects”. It refers to the
activities of higher level because it lays down basic
principles of organization.
2. Administration is about rational organisation and the
management of men, women and material to accomplish
some agreed purpose through the allocation of functions
and responsibilities in organisation.
41. Cont’d
According to Newman, “Administration
means guidance, leadership & control of
the efforts of the groups towards some
common goals”.
42. Cont’d
It is the efforts and capacities of
individuals and groups engaged to
secure the desired objective with the
least friction and the most satisfaction to
those for whom the task is done and
those engaged in the enterprise.
43. What makes public administration "public"?
The public-ness of public administration
depends on two conceptual versions. The
first conceptual version derives from
public goods whereas the second involves
public interest.
44. 1. Public goods
There are goods called ‘public’ in which private
enterprise does not involve because of
inexclusivabilty.
For example, if street lighting is provided in a
neighbourhood, it is not possible to exclude
benefits of the service to those individuals who
do not pay. These individuals 'free ride'. They
create the problem of free-rider.
45. Cont’d
Another example of a public good is the armed
forces for the defence of the country. Once
defence cover is provided, it is not possible to
exclude those who do not wish to pay for it.
The response to this problem has generally
been to provide them by governments and pay
for it by taxation.
46. 2. Public interest
Public in Latin ‘publicus’ means:
Having to do with the affairs of all people as opposed
to private group.
Public in general
Public interest means:
1. The well-being of the general public
2. The general well-fare and rights of the public that are
to be recognized, protected and advanced.
It can mean what is considered beneficial to the public.
47. Cont’d
However, scholars such as Henry Fayol and
others, focus on the similarity of administrative
principles than the differences.
for them, it is difficult to clearly demarcate the
spheres of the two types of administrative
activity.
48. Cont’d
Though the activities performed by
government agencies are defined as
public administration, there are many
private agencies which also perform
tasks which are strictly public service or
welfare oriented.
49. Cont’d
Conversely, there are many tasks
performed by the government
bureaucracy which may be of a private
nature.
50. Cont’d
Secondly, methods and work procedures may
be common to both public and private
administration. Accounting, statistics, office
management and procedures and stocktaking
are problems of administrative management
common to both public and private
administration.
51. Differences
However important the similarities may be, it
cannot be denied that there still remain
fundamental differences between the two. The
major points of difference are in the spheres of
"uniformity and impartiality, responsibility,
accountability and serviceability". According to
Josiah Stamp the principles which differentiate
public from private administration are:
52. Cont’d
uniformity;
external financial control;
ministerial responsibility;
marginal return.
urgency of services and tendency to monopoly
size and objective
53. Cont’d
The popular idea of pubic administration
is that it is bureaucratic, characterized
by red tape, inefficiency and inertia,
whereas private administration is
efficient and businesslike. The following
are major differences between the two
types of administration.
54. 1. Political Direction or Ministerial Responsibility
Unlike private administration, public
administration is subjected to political
direction in most policy matters. It is the
minister who lays down broad policy
outlines, under which the bureaucrat has
to implement the policy.
55. 2.Profit Motive or Marginal Return:
Public administration is service oriented and
profit-making is not its major goal. A
businessman will never undertake a venture
which is not likely to yield any profit to him. In
public administration, there is no correlation
between income and expenditure. The primary
motive is always public service.
56. 3. Social Necessity:
Public administration caters to social needs and
public utilities. For example, it maintains:
1. transport to facilitate movement of goods and
passengers;
2. the post and telegraph network facilitates
communication;
3. hospitals and pharmacies are meant to provide medical
aid and public health services to the people. The
scope of private administration is narrower than this.
57. Cont’d
Besides, the nature of some of the
government services is so wide,
comprehensive and expensive that no
private administration can undertake
them, e.g., maintaining a vast network
of police, army, railways or post and
telegraph.
58. 4. Public Responsibility:
Public administrators are trained and duty-bound
to respect the wishes of the public and cater to
their needs. In the words of Appleby,
"Government administration differs from all
other administrative work by virtue of its public
nature, the way in which it is subject to public
scrutiny and outcry.”
59. 5. Uniformity of Treatment:
Public administration should be consistent
in procedure and uniform in its public
dealings. This principle is more applicable
to public administration than the other,
because the former is mostly regulated by
common and uniform laws and
regulations.
60. 6. External financial control
Public administration is subject to the
principle of external financial control.
Government revenues are controlled by
the people's representatives through the
legislature.
61. 7. Conformity to Laws and Regulations
Public administrators cannot do anything
contrary to, or in excess of legal power. It
has to function within the legal
framework, it can never break law. If it
does so, its actions can be declared
invalid or, ultra-vires by the courts.
Private administration has no such
responsibility.
62. 1.5.Ecology of Public Administration
Public Administration cannot operate in
vacuum. It has to interact with the social,
political and economic environment and above
all with the people.
Public Administration can be taken as a sub-
system of the overall social system and has to
interact with other sub-systems.
63. Cont’d
It is affected by and affecting the
economic, political and socio-cultural
sub-systems of an environment in which
it operates. A study of such interaction
would constitute what has come to be
known as ecological approach to the
study of public administration.
64. Cont’d
The interest in the ecology of public
administration emerged as comparative
Public Administration in the newly
independent nations(of Africa, Latin
America and Asia) during post World
War II period.
65. Cont’d
It was realized that the administration of
these countries could not be understood
in terms of the then existing theories
which developed in a totally different
setting, mainly in the USA.
66. Cont’d
This interest in the study of
Comparative Public Administration
(CPA) in the developing countries
was encouraged by the following
factors:
67. Cont’d
1. The emergence of a large number of
developing countries
2. The extension of technical assistance to these
countries
3. Involvement of academicians in the
administration of these assistance
programmes, and
4. Rapid growth of behavioral sciences in general
and comparative politics in particular.
68. 1.5.1 The impact of political System
The influence and impact of political system on
administration is great due to close relation between
policies and administration in most societies.
Politics is where a government makes choices over public
policy where as administration serves people by
implementing and executing decisions and laws without
participating in active politics.
69. Cont’d
However, there is a continuing
academic debate in public
administration regarding the
relationship between the two.
70. Cont’d
the activities of policymaking and policy
execution are not entirely separate.
Much legislation originate in the executive
departments and the administrators play an
important role in policy formulation by their
expert advice, suggestion and supply the
required information to the ministers concerned.
71. Cont’d
Paul Appleby elaborated the relationship
between politics and administration as
follows. ''Society has certain needs and
demands and governments are the most
important institutions to meet these
needs.
72. Cont’d
Societal needs when accepted
eventually become law.
Administration is the application of
these laws in a constantly unfolded
process.
73. 1.5.2 Economic Factors
In a market economy:
1. Rationality of the market mechanism is carried
over into the administrative bureau, where
recruitment obviously takes place on the basis
of merit for the job to be performed.
2. On the same count, the performance Budgeting
has been introduced in the Government.
74. Cont’d
3. On the other hand the market needs
administrative-services
for enforcement of contracts for
regulating trade practices,
for provision of infrastructural
facilities etc.
75. Cont’d
The money to run these
administrative services is, in turn,
provided by the economy. The inter-
dependence between the economy
and public administration thus
becomes obvious.
76. Cont’d
The economy could not survive
without the administrative system
which in turn was shaped by the
needs of the economy.
77. 1.5.3 Cultural factors
Administrative behaviors are the product of a particular
cultural setting. In this regard Geert Hoftede identified
four factors:
Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and
masculinity.
1. Power distance is about human inequality in which a
less powerful group accepts that power is distributed
unequally.
78. A high Power Distance
A high PD score indicates that
society accepts an unequal
distribution of power and people
understand "their place" in the
system.
79. Characteristics of PD
Centralized companies.
Strong hierarchies.
Large gaps in compensation, authority, and respect.
Low PD
Flatter organizations.
Supervisors and employees are considered almost as
equals.
80. 2. Avoidance of uncertainty
Some cultures avoid risk while others
accept it.
Uncertainty is not tolerated in risk
phobic culture where as it is taken as a
source of innovation in other cultures.
81. Cont’d
Avoidance of uncertainty relates to the degree
of anxiety society members feel when in
uncertain or unknown situations. High UA
scoring nations try to avoid ambiguous
situations whenever possible. They are
governed by rules and order and they seek a
collective "truth".
82. Characteristics
1. Very formal business conduct with lots of rules and
policies.
2. Need and expect structure.
3. Sense of nervousness spurns high levels of emotion and
expression.
4. Differences are avoided.
83. 3. Individualism
This describes the relation between an
individualist and collectivist approach.
It refers to the strength of the ties people have
to others within the community. A high IDV
score indicates a loose connection with people.
84. Cont’d
In countries with a high IDV score, there is a
lack of interpersonal connection and little
sharing of responsibility, beyond family and
perhaps a few close friends.
A society with a low IDV score would have
strong group cohesion, and there would be a
large amount of loyalty and respect for
members of the group.
85. Characteristics
1. High valuation on people's time and
their need for freedom.
2. An enjoyment of challenges, and an
expectation of rewards for hard work.
3. Respect for privacy.
4. Emphasis on building skills and
becoming masters of something.
86. 4. Masculinity
It refers to the society where patriarchic
culture dominates.
This refers to how much a society sticks
with, and values, traditional male and
female roles. High MA scores are found
in countries where men are expected to
be tough, to be the provider, to be
assertive and to be strong.
87. Cont’d
If women work outside the home, they
have separate professions from men.
This has impacts on the administrative
practices in terms of division of labour
and role differentiation between men
and women.
88. Characteristics
1. Men are masculine and women are
feminine.
2. There is a well defined distinction
between men's work and women's
work.
89. Chapter 2
Administrative Thought
Administrative theories have evolved
and undergone changes from time to
time. They have continuously adopted
new thoughts and replaced old ones as
time evolves.
It began with the universal theory of
early 20th
century which later on followed
by a range of other theories.
This chapter deals with some of these
theories.
90. 2.1 Types of administrative thoughts
There are many theories of organizations. The major
ones are the following:
1. Classical Theory
2. Human Relations Theory
3. Systems Theory
4. Development Administration
5. Contingency Theory
6. OD
7. New Public Management
91. 2.2 Classical Theory
1. Classical Theory is divided in to:
Scientific Management
Administrative organization theory and
Bureaucratic Theory
Main idea:
There is “one best way” to perform a task.
It focuses on:
1. the management of work and workers and
2. how overall organization should be structured.
92. 2.2.1 Scientific mgt
There are four principles in scientific management:
1. Standardization of work methods,2.Scientific selection
and training of workers, 3.Equal division of work
between management and workers and 4.Mutual
collaboration of the workers and management.
93. 1. Standardization of work
Taylor's first principle related to the
development of a scientific method
for each task which would replace
adhocism and selection of work
procedures.
94. Cont’d
This could be achieved, he said, by
scientifically investigating the working
conditions and the total quantum of
work to be undertaken in any enterprise
in a given period; and then fixing daily
assignments so that the workers may
work in a planned way.
95. Cont’d
The goal of good management should be either
higher productivity or lower unit cost. To
achieve this goal, the management must pay
high wages. If the output of the worker
achieved an optimum level under desirable
conditions, the worker should be rewarded, but
conversely, if he failed in increasing his output,
penalty should be imposed on him.
96. 2.2.2 Scientific selection and training of workers
Taylor's second principle related to the
selection, placement and training of
workers in a scientific manner.
Standardization of working conditions
will be crucially served by selecting and
placing workers on jobs for which they
are best suited by their physical and
intellectual abilities.
97. Cont’d
Moreover, it is the duty of the
management to train workers for
their tasks and provide them all
facilities for development of their
personalities.
98. 3. Equal division of work between management and
workers
Taylor's third principle was an open advocacy
of an equal division of work and responsibility
between management and workers. Taylor had
noted in his observations the unhealthy trend
of the managers to place increasing burden on
the workers, while assuming for themselves
only minimum responsibilities.
99. Cont’d
In this context Taylor advised that half of the
workers' work should be taken over by the
management. The management should
undertake the functions for which it was best
suited, i.e., planning, organizing, controlling
and determining the methods of work.
100. 4. Mutual collaboration of the workers and management
The last Taylorian principle was that there should be
active cooperation and cordial relations between
management and workers. There should be mutual
faith and trust. Efficiency and productivity can be best
promoted by creating a healthy and congenial
environment in the organization which is the joint
responsibility of both workers and the management.
101. Cont’d
By maximizing the productive efficiency of each
worker, scientific management would also
maximize the earnings of workers and
employers. Hence all conflict between capital
and labour would be resolved by the findings of
science.
The combination of these four principles
constituted the base of scientific management.
102. Cont’d
Viewed in the context of its own times,
scientific management was a
revolutionary concept. It brought a
drastic change in the whole approach to
industrial management.
103. 2.3 Classical organization Theory/administrative mgt
theory
The classical theory of organization is also known
as the structural theory and its foremost
proponents have been Henri Fayol, Luther
Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Reiley,
M.P. Follett and R.Shelton.
The most important concern of the classical
theory is the formulation of certain universal
principles of organization.
104. cont’d
It deals primarily with formal organizational
structure. The theory assumes that there are
certain fundamental principles on the basis of
which an organization can be established to
achieve a specific objective.
105. Cont’d
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) observed that
management was an undertaking common to all
human activities. He enunciated certain basic
concepts and principles of management and
viewed management as a teachable theory
dealing with planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating and controlling work processes.
106. cont’d
Fayol's is often considered the first
complete theory of management. Fayol
was primarily concerned with the job of
the chief executive and pinned his faith
in the principle of unity of command.
107. Cont’d
Fayol divided all activities in an
organization under six groups:
technical, commercial, financial,
security, accounting and
administrative. In his book, General
and industrial Administration, he
propounded fourteen principles of
organization listed below:
108. Principles of mgt
1.Division of work 2. Authority and
responsibility 3.Discipline
4. Unity of command 5. Unity of
direction 6. Subordination of individual
interest to general interest
7. Remuneration of personnel 8.
Centralization 9.Scalar chain
10. Order 11. Equity 12. Stability of
tenure of personnel
13. Initiative 14. Esprit de corps
109. 2.2.3 Bureaucratic Theory
Max Weber's bureaucratic model continues to be the
dominant paradigm in administrative studies. The term
'bureaucracy' as Morstein Marx points out, was first
used in the French form 'bureaucratic' by a French
Minister of commerce in the eighteenth century to refer
to the government in operation.
110. cont’d
Classical writings on bureaucracy can be traced
to several sources. The major contributions
have come from Marx, max Weber and Robert
Michels. In his earlier writings Marx made an
attempt to conceptualize the role of the
bureauracy in the corpus(main part) of state
organization.
111. cont’d
While trying to develop a critique of the
political economy of capitalism in 19th
century Europe, Marx has been a
sensitive and keen observer of
contemporary European public
administrative organizations.
112. cont’d
His writings on 'administration' are
scattered over numerous books,
monographs, letters, and editorial
comments. It was never his purpose to
build up a theory of public
administration as such.
113. The bureaucratic form of organization is distinguished by
the following structural and behavioral characteristics:
Division of Labor:
This involves a specified sphere of competence which has
been marked off as part of a systematic division of
labour in the organization. Each office holder is the
incumbent of an office as long as he holds it. His job
placement is based on his qualifications and/or special
training.
114. Hierarchy
Hierarchy is the second fundamental
characteristic which is the feature of any
bureaucratic form of organization. There is a
clear separation between superior and
subordinate offices, i.e., each lower office is
under the control and supervision of a higher
one.
115. Cont’d
Remuneration is fixed in accordance with
the nature of the job and the grade of
responsibility. Promotion and career
advancement is on the basis of seniority
and merit.
116. Rules
Thirdly, bureaucracy operates in
accordance with a consistent system of
abstract rules laid down regarding the
performance of official jobs.
117. Cont’d
The role of rules has been stressed by
Weber so that personal favoritism,
arbitrariness or nepotism may not hinder
the working of an organization. Every
act of personal direction of officials must
be justified by impersonal ends.
118. Cont’d
Rationality and impersonality are mainly
achieved through formulation of rules and
procedures which clearly define official spheres
of authority and conduct, which the employees
are to rigidly maintain in discharging their
duties.
119. Cont’d
Weber's ideas on efficiency and
rationality are closely related to his ideal
typical model of bureaucracy. He
observed that bureaucracy is the most
rational known means of achieving
imperative control over human beings.
120. Cont’d
It is capable of attaining a high degree
of control over human beings. It is
capable of attaining a high degree of
efficiency since the means used to
achieve goals are rationally and
objectively chosen towards the desired
ends.
121. Impersonality
An added factor of efficiency is that personal
whims of the leaders and traditional pressures
are no longer effective in such a system; there
is a clearer demarcation between personal an
official affairs.
122. Cont’d
The bureaucratic form has no place for
personal whims, fancies or irrational
sentiments. Official activity is conducted
in a businesslike manner with a high
degree of operational impersonality.
123. Neutrality
Bureaucracy is supposed to be apolitical and
neutral in its orientation and support to the
political regime it serves. It is also value-
neutral committed only to the work it is meant
to perform.
124. Cont’d
The bureaucratic form, according to Weber, is
the most efficient organizational form for large
scale, complex administration that has been
developed in the modern world so far.
125. Criticism towards bureaucracy
Weber's ideal has evoked much criticism of his
statement that a bureaucratic type of
organization is, at least from a technical angle,
capable of attaining the highest degree of
efficiency.
Weber has also been criticized for not paying
adequate attention in his theory to human
behavior, relations, morale and motivational
factors.
126. Cont’d
His theory has been called a 'machine-theory'
and a closed system model overemphasizing
the formal rational aspects of bureaucracy
while ignoring the whole range of socio-cultural
environment and behavioral characteristics of
large formal organizations.
127. Cont’d
According to Laski, bureaucracy is characterized by a
passion for routine in administration, the sacrifice of
flexibility to rule, delay in the making of decisions and
a refusal to embark upon experiments. In his New
Despotism, Lord Hewart argued that citizen rights and
liberties are now in jeopardy because the typical
bureaucrat has lately come to exercise a lot of
discretionary power which is strictly against the
principles of democratic administration.
128. Cont’d
R.k. Merton has argued that bureaucracy as an
organizational form is characterized by rigidity,
overemphasis on rules and regulations rather
than on goals and objectives, and marked by
lack of public relations and class consciousness
on the part of bureaucrats.
129. Cont’d
The Weberian model, the critics
point out, can best function in a
stable environment with routine
and repetitive tasks.
130. Cont’d
The model is dysfunctional in terms of
development and also in terms of jobs
involving innovation and creativity. In the
developing countries where rapid change is
required to bring about socio-economic
transformation, the traditional structure of
bureaucracy is ill-equipped to meet the tasks it
is called upon to perform.
131. Cont’d
Its limitations in performing
developmental tasks have often
been pointed out. The bureaucratic
model is too rigid and inflexible to
suit dynamic change oriented
situations.
132. Chapter 3
PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION
In the field of administration , PRINCIPLE is
considered as a fundamental truth. PRINCIPLE
– is considered as a law, a doctrine, a policy, or
deep-seated beliefs which governs the conduct
of various types of human activities. For
administrators, it is very important to have
good principles, because these will serve as
their guide in their thinking and action.
133. Cont’d
Principles promote shared understanding of
administration.
Principles eliminate much of the trial and error
practices.
Through them, we can avoid waste of time
because they give us direction or point of
destination.
134. Cont’d
Oliver Sheldon, in his work Philosophy of Management
(1923), mentions that management is a matter of
principles, primarily both scientific and ethical.
"It is important, therefore, that we should devise a
philosophy of management as a code of principles,
scientifically determined and generally accepted to act as
a guide based on reason.
135. Cont’d
It is true that the principles of mgt
cannot claim the exactness of the
principles of physical sciences. They are
at best generalizations based on
observation of administrative situations.
However, there need to be a principle
which guides the mgt of organizations.
The following are some of the
administrative principles:
136. 1. Hierarchy
The distribution of functions and responsibilities can be
both horizontal and vertical in an organization.
When additional levels are added in an organizational
structure, it is called vertical expansion.
Vertical distribution creates levels like Top Management,
Middle Management and first level management.
137. Cont’d
Hierarchy consists in the universal application of the
superior subordinate relationship through a number of
levels of responsibility formed from top to the bottom of
structure. Mooney and Reiley call it the "scalar
process/chain".
There is a hierarchy in every administration. This may
change from place to place and organization to
organization, but the basic principle of hierarchy remains
the same.
138. Cont’d
Usually the hierarchy is in the
shape of a pyramid with the leader
of the organization or the head is
at the top and followers at the
lower part of the pyramid.
139. 2. Span of Control
Span of Control is simply the number of
subordinates or the units of work that an
administrator can personally direct.
In the words of Dimock, "The span of control is
the number and range of direct, habitual
communication contacts between the chief
executive of an enterprise and his principal
fellow -officers.
140. Cont’d
This concept is related to the principle of
"span of attention" described by V.A.
Graicunas.
However, there is no consensus as to
the exact number, but there does exist a
general agreement that the shorter the
span, the greater will be the contact,
and consequently, more effective
control.
141. 3. Unity of Command
It means that an employee should
receive orders from one superior only.
The concept of unity of command
requires that every member of an
organization should report to only one
leader.
142. Cont’d
That means, each employee should be
answerable to only one person. If there
are two different people who a person
needs to answer, then there will be
confusion
143. 4. Specialization
Each employee should be made to do
a particular kind of work. If he is
made to do many different kinds of
work, then the individual will not be
able to concentrate on a particular
kind of job leading to inefficiency.
144. 5.Coordination
Organizations are divided into a number
of departments, services and agencies,
which are further sub-divided into
administrative units to facilitate work.
145. Cont’d
While the diversity of tasks in
organizations necessitates division of
work in accordance with the principles of
division of labour, there is a need to
streamline tasks to create harmony
among them to achieve organizational
goals.
146. Cont’d
In order to see that these various units, agencies and
departments work in harmony with each other
coordination becomes necessary.
In the words of White, "Coordination is the adjustment
of the functions of the parts to each other, and of the
movement and operation of parts in tune so that each
can make its maximum contribution to the product of
the whole.
147. Cont’d
"Coordination" says Mooney, "is the
orderly arrangement of group
effort, to provide unity of action in
the pursuit of a common purpose".
148. Cont’d
Management must link up all its practitioners
into one body, pursuing a common end,
conscious of a common purpose, actuated by a
common motive, adhering to a corporate
creed, governed by common laws of practice,
sharing a common fund of knowledge.
149. 6. Delegation
Delegation means the entrusting of one's
occupational authority to another, usually a
subordinate, to facilitate work in the
organization.
According to Mooney, delegation is the transfer
of authority by a superior person to his agent
or subordinate, subject to his supervision and
control.
150. Cont’d
This implies that legally the delegated powers
still rest with the principal, to be exercised in
practice by the subordinate or agent.
Delegation is exercised by all organization.
Delegation of authority is a common feature in
all types of large organizations.
151. In summary, delegation involves:
1. Assignment of duties
2. Transfer of authority
3. Creation of obligation
4. Control and evaluation
152. 7.Efficiency and effectiveness
Efficiency:
Economic utilization of resources
Measure of output in relation to input
Cost minimization
Process efficiency to reduce time, cost
and energy.
153. cont’d
According to Misterik et.al. (1992), an
increase in productivity can be aused by
five different relationships of input and
output:
154. cont’d
Output and input increases, but the increase in
input is proportionally less than increase in
output;
Output increases while input stays the same;
Output increases while input is reduced;
Output stays the same while input decreases;
Output decreases while input decreases even
more.
155. Effectiveness
1. Mission accomplishment as conceived by
stakeholders
2. Successful achievement of objectives
both quantitatively and qualitatively
3. Meeting public purpose
4. Some organizations use quality instead
of effectiveness when customer needs
are emphasized.
156. 8. Responsiveness and accountability
Acct. refers to the assumption of the
consequences of one’s own act. These
consequences imply the imposition of
sanctions-resignation, dismissal,
disciplinary penalty, and compensation
for the damages caused.
157. Accountability
It is useful to think of an accountability relationship as
having up to four sequential stages:
1. Standard-setting: setting out the behaviour expected of
the ‘accountee’, and thus the criteria by which they
might validly be judged.
2. Investigation: exploring whether or not accountees
have met the standards expected of them.
158. Cont’d
3. Answerability: a process in which accountees
are required to defend their actions, face
skeptical questions, and generally explain
themselves.
4. Sanction: a process in which accountees are in
some way punished for falling below the
standards expected of them (or perhaps
rewarded for achieving or exceeding them).
160. CHAPTER 4
SOME IMPORTANT AREAS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Public administration is composed of some major
areas such as public policy, public personnel
administration, financial administration, comparative
public administration, and organization theory . The
following selected areas will be discussed :
1. Public policy
2. Public personnel
3. Financial administration
161. 4.1 The Meaning of Public Policy
1. Policy
Policy is a decision(s) taken by actors or group
of actors concerning the selection of goals and
the means of achieving them within a specified
situation.
Policy has been defined as "a matter of either
the desire for change or the desire to protect
something from change" (Barber (1983:59).
162. Cont’d
Barber further added, "Policy
making occurs in the determination
of major objectives, in the selection
of methods of achieving these
objectives, and in the continuous
adaptation of existing policies to
the problems that face the
government".
163. Public policy
1. Public policy is … a choice made by government to
undertake some course of action(Howlett and
Ramesh, 1995).
2. Public policy is whatever governments choose to do
or not to do. Dye: 1998
Some definitions also consider the complexity of
developing policies.
164. Cont’d
Public policy is both an art and a craft. It
is an art because it requires insight,
creativity, and imagination in identifying
societal problems and describing them,
in devising public policies that can
alleviate them, and then in finding out
whether these policies end up making
things better or worse. Dye, 1998.
165. Components of policy
Policy involves:
1. identifying a problem
2. design(formulation)
3. implementation and
4. evaluation
166. Problem identification
The first step in the public policy process
is to outline the problem. This involves
not only recognizing that an issue exists,
but also studying the problem and its
causes in detail. This stage involves
determining how aware the public is of
the issue, deciding who will participate
in fixing it and considering.
167. Policy Design/formulation
After identifying the problem, a public
policy is formulated. This step is
typically marked by discussion and
debate between government officials,
interest groups, and individual citizens
to identify potential obstacles, to
suggest alternative solutions, and to set
clear goals and list the steps that need
to be taken to achieve them.
168. Implementing the Policy
A policy must be put into
effect, which typically requires
determining which
organizations or agencies will
be responsible for carrying it
out.
169. Cont’d
Clear communication and
coordination, as well as sufficient
funding, are needed to make this
implementation success.
170. Some issues to be considered in
implementation
Though defining optimal
implementation is difficult due to
socioeconomic circumstances, there
are some steps to be followed:
1. Policies must not face insurmountable external
constraints.
2. There must be an adequate time frame and
resources
3. Cause and effect relationships must be analyzed.
171. Evaluation
This step usually involves a study of how
effective the new policy has been in
addressing the problem. It also includes
reviewing funds and resources available
to ensure that the policy can be
maintained.
172. 4.2 Public personnel administration
1. Public personnel administration
refers to the administration and
controlling of people, line or staff,
engaged in civil services.
In other words, public personnel
administration refers to the
administration of civil service.
173. Cont’d
2. Felix Nigro defines public personnel
administration as “the art of selecting new
employees and making use of old ones in such
a manner that the maximum quality and
quantity of output and service are obtained
from the working force.”
174. Cont’d
3. Dimock and Dimock defined public
personnel administration as “the staff
function which advises and facilitates the
work of the program manager in matters
relating to the recruitment, deployment,
motivation, and training of employees,
so as to improve the morale and the
effectiveness of the service.”
175. Cont’d
4. Goel, S.L. and others defined public personnel
administration as“…branch of public
administration which can help an organization in
the management of personnel resources with the
practices and rationalized techniques in
selecting, retaining, and developing personnel
for the fulfillment of organizational objectives,
systematically and scientifically.”
176. Components of PPA
1. Recruitment and selection
2. Orientation and placement
3. Performance evaluation
4. Training and development
5. Job analysis:
6.1 job description
6.2 job specification
6.3. position classification
6. Compensation, leaves and benefits
7. Exit( retirement)
177. Job analysis
It is a step at which jobs are analyzed
in order to determine what tasks and
responsibilities a job includes, the
relation between a job and other
jobs, the conditions under which the
job is performed, and personal
capabilities required to perform the
job.
178. Job description
Job description is the immediate
product of job analysis process. As its
title indicates, this document is
basically descriptive in nature and
constitutes a record of existing
and pertinent/relevant job facts.
179. Cont’d
Job description is a series of concise
statements about the job. It is a
systematic summary of jobs
performed and the responsibilities
involved.
180. Job specification
Is the profile of a person who performs the job.
It describes the human characteristics of the
job i.e. the factor required of a person who
performs the job. These requirements include:
experience, education, physical demands
(fitness), mental fitness, the skills and efforts
required.
181. The following are used in developing job
specification
Job title______
Department: ___________________
Code: _________________________
Physical factors :
- health
- appearance
- etc
Mental factors: -intelligence
- numerical ability
- verbal ability
182. Education
- Primary education
- Secondary education
- Tertiary education
Experience
Training
- short term training
- medium range training
- long range training
Personality factor
Specific Circumstances
183. Financial Administration
Financial administration is an
important facet of public
administration. It encompasses the
entire 'budgetary cycle', that is,
formulation of the budget, execution
of the budget, accounting and
auditing.
184. Definition of F. administration
It refers to the mgt of finance of state
or a public authority endowed with
taxing and spending powers.
It is the process of identifying,
mobilizing, allocation, executing and
evaluation of financial resources.
185. Objectives of financial admin
1. To collect sufficient resources from
the economy
2. To allocate resources in accordance
with government priorities
3. To utilize resources in an effective
and efficient manner to ensure that
services are delivered, programs are
implemented cost effectively.
186. Actors involved
There are four agents involved:
1. The executives which need and
spends the funds( e.g. council of
ministers)
2. The legislatives which approves funds
3. The finance ministry which controls
funds
4. The audits which oversees the
spending
187. CHAPTER 5
New Public Admin
Movement in USA
Like many other disciplines in social
sciences public administration was also
shaken and influenced by the social
turbulence.
188. Cont’d
The first incident is the crisis-
ridden period of the sixties where
the evolving discipline of public
administration has come to be
enriched by the emergence of what
has come to be known as the 'New
public Administration'.
189. Cont’d
The major landmarks in the growth
and emergence of new public
Administration are:
1. The Honey Report on Higher
Education for Public Service, 1967,
in USA.
2. The Philadelphia Conference on the
Theory and Practice of Public
Administration, 1967, in USA.
190. Cont’d
3. The Minnowbrook Conference, 1968, in
USA.
4. Publication of Toward a New Public
Administration: The Minnowbrook
Perspective, edited by Frank Marini,
1971;
191. Cont’d
5. Publication of public Administration
in a Time of Turbulence edited by
Dwight Waldo, 1971.
192. Cont’d
The literature on new public
administration lays emphasis on four
major themes: relevance, values,
equity and change.
In word of Dwight Waldo neither the
study nor the practice of public
administration was responding
suitably to escalating turmoil and
complications.
193. Relevance
The new public administration
movement pointed out that the
discipline had little to say about
contemporary problems and issues and
was therefore becoming irrelevant.
194. Series of questions asked
1. Who defines our questions and priorities for us?
2. To what extent are we aware of the social and
moral implications of public administrative
action?
3. What are the uses of public administration as a
social and administrative science?
4. Does public administration presently yield
knowledge useful to certain institutions in
society?
195. Value
The NPA movement rejected the value neutral
position. Value-neutrality in public administration
was declared impossibility and the discipline
championed the cause of the disadvantaged
sections in society.
It says value-neutrality in Public Administration is
an impossibility.
196. Cont’d
The new public administrator should be:
1. less generic and more public,
2. less descriptive and more prescriptive,
3. less institution-oriented and more client-impact
oriented,
4. It is less neutral and more normative.
197. Change
To serve the cause of social equity is to actively
work for social change. This is the motto of
new public administration.
The attack is on the status quo and
remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of big
organizations.
198. Social equity
The goal of the public action should be the
reduction of economic and social disparities and
the enhancement of life opportunities for all
social groups. Writers like Fredrickson take a
bold action-oriented stance inviting public
administrators to work for the removal of the
wrongs of society and openly side with the
socially deprived groups.
199. 5.1 Public Administration in Industrial Societies
The term 'industrial' societies here is
used to mean all those developed
countries of Western Europe and the
USA where industrialization has
produced an identifiable change in
economic structure and growth
followed later by political and
administrative modernization.
200. Cont’d
'Development' and modernization'
both imply in a broad sense societal
transformations involving a complex
economic, social and political
changes.
201. Features of administrative systems
1. Government organization is highly differentiated and
functionally specific and the allocation of roles are based
more on achievement criteria than on ascriptive ones.
2. Laws and political decisions are largely rational. Traditional
elites have lost real power, if any, to affect public policy
making.
3. Government and administration have become all pervaisve,
affecting all major spheres of the life of citizens.
4. There is high correlation between political power and
legitimacy since popular interest and involvement in public
affairs is widespread.
202. 5.2 Public Administration in the Third World
Some of the major features of the socio-political
systems of these countries appear to be as
follows:
1. A relatively widespread consensus on
developmental goals. Some of the common goals
are introducing changes in almost all the sectors
of the economy.
203. Cont’d
2. A great degree of reliance on the state and bureaucracy
for achieving developmental goals. Many developing
countries have evolved structures that have a socialist
orientation;
3. Social disorganization, economic backwardness and
political instability; and
4. A wide gap between the modernizing and the traditional
elites, who very often differ in social background,
orientation towards change.
204. Five indicative of general administrative patterns
found in the Third World
1. the basic pattern of public administration is
imitative rather than indigenous. All countries,
including those that are not ex-colonies have
consciously tried to introduce some version of
the bureaucratic model borrowed from the
west.
205. Cont’d
2. The bureaucracies are deficient in the
requisite skills necessary for
developmental programs. The shortage
is in trained administrators, with
management capacity, developmental
skills, and technical proficiency.
206. Cont’d
3. Much bureaucratic activity is channeled towards the
realization of non-developmental goals.
Riggs refers to this as a bureaucrats personal
expediency against principled public interests.
The value attached to status based on ascription
rather than achievement explains much of this
behavior.
207. Cont’d
Non-merit considerations greatly influence promotions,
assignments, dismissals, and other personnel practices.
Corruption is also widespread.
Another popular practice is that of using the public
service as a substitute for a social security or to relieve
the problem of unemployment.
As the result, there is always a surplus of employees in
the public services.
208. Cont’d
4. The widespread discrepancy between form and
reality. Riggs called this "formalism". The gap
between expectation and reality can be
partially filled by enacting laws that cannot be
enforced, adopting personnel regulations that
are quietly by-passed, announcing a
programme for delegation of administrative
authority while keeping tight control.
209. Cont’d
5. Colonialism caused a rule by an unresponsive
authoritarian bureaucracy. Groups capable of
competing for political influence or of imposing
close controls over the bureaucracy are
present.
210. Development Administration
Public administration becomes the main agency
of socio-economic change, requiring the
formulation and implementation of long term
plans of industrial and agricultural
development, the establishment and formation
of modern institutions, organizations and skills
necessary for sustaining devt.
211. Cont’d
This was the result of the identification of
administration as the primary obstacle to
development rather than economic (Stone,
2005) in developing countries.
212. Cont’d
According to Donald C. Development
administration, is concerned primarily with the
tasks and processes of formulating and
implementing the four Ps:
1. Plans,
2. Policies,
3. Prgrams
4. projects.
213. The Roles of DA
The challenging role of
developmental administration
demands three different functions:
214. Cont’d
1. Institution-building for sustaining and promoting an
industrial revolution for carrying on industrial devt
and other public utility services for the people,
2. Manpower planning and development which requires
the cultivation of technical, professional and
managerial skills for running devt programs
3. Human development which would involve changing the
very attitudes and temperaments of people.
215. Development administration has also the following
characteristics:
(i)Change-orientation, that is, bringing about
socio-economic change rather than
maintenance of status-quo.
(ii)Goal-orientation, that is, achieving progress in
social, economic, political and cultural goals,
(result orientation).
(iii)Commitment, that is, high morale and
motivation in work situation to achieve the
development goals,
216. Cont’d
(iv) Client orientation, that is, meeting the
needs of the specific target groups like
small farmers children and so on.
(v)Temporal dimension, that is, completing
development programmes within a time
limit (time orientation).
217. Cont’d
(vi)participation orientation, that is, enlisting
popular support and involvement in the
formulation and implementation of
development programmes.
(vii)Innovativeness, that is, replacing or improving
the administrative structures, methods and
procedures for the effective realization of
developmental goals.
(viii)Ecological perspective, that is, interaction
between developmental bureaucracy and its
economic and political environment.
218. Cont’d
(ix)Effective coordination, that is, achieving
coordination between the multiple specialized
units and programmes involved in the
developmental tasks (high degree of
integration).
219. Early approaches
These early approaches, which are
elitist and ethnocentric, include the
following:
220. (i) Economic Approaches
These approaches suggested that
third world countries should save
more and invest it as capital. They
emphasized economic growth through
industrialization.
221. (ii) Diffusion Approach
As explained by scholars, diffusion is
a process by which a third world
country adopts capital, technology,
and social structure from western
industrialized countries.
222. (iii) Psychological Approaches
These approaches are explained in
terms of the presence of some
individual personality traits like
achievement-motivation, change-
orientation, less authoritarian and so
on.
223. (iv) Dependency Theory
Andre Gunder Frank, the major
exponent of this theory, argued that
the persistent poverty of the third
world countries is a reflection of their
dependency on the western
industrialized countries due to
colonialism and neo-colonialism.
224. Contemporary Approaches
Since the 1980s the development
theorists have been focusing on
context-based (and not universal)
approaches to development.
225. Cont’d
Consequently, there is no single
comprehensive theory of development.
According to Arvind Singhal, the
contemporary theoretical approaches to
development are:
227. Cont’d
He identified the following as key
elements in contemporary development
approaches:
(i) Greater equality in distribution of
development benefits.
(ii) Popular participation, knowledge
sharing and empowerment to
facilitate self-development by
individuals, groups, and communities.
228. Cont’d
(iii)Self-reliance and independence in
development, emphasizing the potential
of local resources.
(iv) Limiting growth of population.
(v) Integration of 'appropriate' technology
with 'big' modern technologies.
229. New Public Management
By the end of 70’s the new changes and
concepts began to acquire a shape in public
administration.
The challenge to Weberian bureaucracy
assumed a number of names. According to
Richard Common, New Public Management is
‘used to describe a vast range of contemporary
administrative changes’.
230. Cont’d
The commonly used terms/phrases are:
1. ‘new public management by (Hood 1991);
2. market-based public administration’ by (Lan,
Zhiyong and Rosenbloom 1992);
3 ‘the post-bureaucratic paradigm’ by (Barzelay
1992);
4 ‘entrepreneurial government’ by (Osborne and
Gaebler 1992); and
5 ‘managerialism’ by (Pollit 1993).
231. NPM
A management philosophy used by
governments since the 1980s to
modernize the public sector.
The main hypothesis in the NPM-reform:
more market orientation in the public
sector will lead to greater cost-efficiency
for governments, without having
negative side effects on other objectives
and considerations.
232. Cont’d
NPM, compared to other public
management theories, is more oriented
towards outcomes and efficiency
through better management of public
budget.
achieved by applying competition, as it
is known in the private sector, to
organizations in the public sector,
emphasizing economic and leadership
principles.
234. NPM: later developments
splitting large bureaucracies into
smaller, more fragmented ones,
competition between different public
agencies, and between public agencies
and private firms
incentivization on more economic lines
digitalization (fully exploiting the
potential of digital storage and Internet
communications to transform
governance).
235. Characteristics of NPM
Orientation towards economy, efficiency and
effectiveness
Market principles
Effort to impose values and techniques of
private sector management into the public
sector
236. Cont’d
The new buzz words are down sizing,
resource-squeeze, effectiveness,
efficiency, economy, privatization,
outsourcing, marketization, quasi-
markets, contractulization, atomization,
agencification, so on.
237. Cont’d
This whole array of methods and
techniques employed to reform
public administration since the
early 1980s is given the broad label
of NPM.
238. NPM cont’d
Thus, NPM has become a very popular concept, its
secret lies ‘in its appeal as an attractive solution to the
problems of big and inefficient government.
The term was coined by Christopher Hood in 1991 and
used in his paper on ‘A Public Management for all
seasons’, published in public administration (Volume 69,
Issue:1). He has listed the main doctrines of the NPM:
239. 1. Hands-on professional mgt
Hands-on professional management of public
organizations, i.e., managers are provided high
autonomy to manage their organizations. This
is expected to contribute to sufficient
accountable administration.
240. 2. Explicit standards
Explicit standards and measures of
performance i.e., goals are well defined
and performance targets set (later
defined as performance indicators). This
is also expected to enhance efficiency
and ensure accountability.
241. 3. Greater emphasis on output
Greater emphasis on output controls
i.e., resources are directed to areas
according to measured performance,
because of the need to stress results
rather than procedures and inputs.
242. 4. Shift to disaggregation
Shift to disaggregation of units in
public sector, i.e., breaking up
large corporatized units around
products, funded separately and
dealing with one another on an
arms length basis.
243. 5. Shift to greater competition
Shift to greater competition in public
sector, i.e., move to term contracts and
public tendering procedures, as rivalry is
always the key to lower costs and better
standards.
244. 6. Stress on pvt sector styles
Stress on private-sector styles on
management practice, i.e., military
style bureaucracy is discarded.
There should be more flexibility in
hiring and rewards limiting
compliance costs to business.
245. 7. Stress on greater discipline
Stress on greater discipline and
parsimony(cost-cutting) in public
sector resource use, which means
cutting direct costs raising labor
discipline, resisting union demands.
246. Reinventing Government
The argument about the paradigm shift
was taken up by the book of David
Osborne and Ted Gaebler Reinventing
Government published in 1992 in USA
and popularized in the phrase of
“reinventing government”.
247. Ten principles of Reinventing
Osborne and Gaebler proposed ten
principles in order to fullfill this
objective which might be
summarized as follows (Painter,
1997: 50):
248. 1- Catalytic Government:
Governments should delegate their
powers to agencies ensuring that
something is done but not doing it
directly(=“ steering, routing, navigating
rather than rowing-propelling”).
249. 2- Community-Owned Government:
Governments should not engage in
provision of services but they should
enable private sector or voluntary
organizations in which community can
act like entrepreneur. That is to say,
“empowering rather than serving” (=
“enabling government”).
250. 3- Competitive Government:
In order to provide an efficient and customer
oriented public service, the provision of
services and the institutions of governments
should be exposed to the competition by the
means of competitive tendering and market
testing.(= “injection of competition into
service delivery”).
251. 4- Mission-Driven Government:
According to this, governments should focus on
their goals rather than rules and regulations.
(=“transforming rule-driven organizations
focusing on organizational purpose and
underpinning values, i.e. a strategic
orientation”).
252. 5- Result-Oriented Government:
Governments should be evaluated in terms of
their performance in out-puts rather than their
inputs through performance measurement
system (= “funding outcomes not inputs and
rewarding success rather than failure and with
appropriate performance indicators in place”).
253. 6- Customer-Driven Government:
Government institutions should consider
citizens as the customer of their
services. (= meeting the needs of
customer not the bureaucracy”).
254. 7- Enterprising Government:
Governments should not only spend
money for services, but they should also
earn revenues from the provision of
services aiming at profit maximization.
(= “earning rather than just spending”).
255. 8- Anticipatory Government:
Governments should foresee probable
situations in order prevent waste and
inefficiency (=“prevention rather than
cure”).
256. 9- Decentralized Government:
Governments should decentralize their
responsibilities whenever possible so as
to provide an environment for the public
participation and democracy.(= “from
hierarchy to participative teamwork”).
257. 10- Market-Oriented Government:
Government institutions should perform
through the market values, which are
conceived more efficient, effective and
economical way of public service
provision. (=“leveraging-introducing
change through the market”).
258. Key elements of NPM
Performance management
From ex ante control to ex post control
Deregulation, liberalization
Single-purpose organizations
Separation of policy and
operations(Separation of the strategic from
the operative level)
Managerial autonomy
Contract, privatization, market-orientation
Customer choice
259. Cont’d
NPM is a theory of governance that is
heavily influenced by market theory and
economic decision-making, public
choice, principal agent theory and
transaction cost economics in particular
(Hood, 1991; Kaboolian, 1998), rather
than civic choices.
260. Approaches in NPM
1. The Public Choice Theory
As Aucoin (1990) argued, the
public choice constitutes basic
components of the new public
management consisting of various
schools.
261. Cont’d
The public choice is a political economy
theory that aims at providing an
alternative for market failure discourse
of the Keynesian welfare state asserting
governmental failure.
262. 1.1 Market oriented
Parallel to neo-liberal policies, public
choice theory emphasizes the priority of
free market economy and rejects the
state intervention.
263. Cont’d
It favors the self-regulating economy
with the claim of state intervention to
the market and collectivism would
distort the activation of economy.
264. 1.2 Individualism
Individualism is considered as the
ontological(theory of existence) premise for
the public choice theory. As Muller
argued, man is egoistic and
rational so as to maximize his
utility (Muller, 1976:395).
265. 1.3 Bureaucracy vs. public choice
Theory
Politicians and bureaucrats act
according to their self-interests
such as income, power, prestige
and maximization of bureau rather
than public interest.
266. Cont’d
The main objective of a politician is to be re-
elected and this opportunist and populist
policies cause expansion of public expenditures
and public services having distorting effects on
private property and individuals’ economic
rights.
267. Cont’d
Similarly, bureaucrats work for maximizing
their bureaus and budgets, which in turn
increases public expenditures.
According to the theory, due to the existence of
self-seeking politicians and bureaucrats, it is
inevitable to fail for the public sector.
268. Cont’d
In this sense, public choice might be
characterized by the loss of trust to
politicians and bureaucrats as well as
favor of free market economy and
minimal state.
269. Cont’d
As a response to these drawbacks of
public sector, the public choice proposes
minimal state, reduction of bureaucracy,
privatization of public services and
withdrawing political and bureaucratic
authorities.
270. 2. Managerialism
Managerialism constitutes other
theoretical dimension of new public
management besides the public
choice theory.
271. Cont’d
In contrast to the public choice’s interest
, managerialism concentrates on public
organizations and particularly executive
branch of these organizations.
272. Cont’d
Due to this, managerialism is considered
as a technical expertise that stresses on
the role of the managers of public
organizations.
273. Cont’d
As argued by Aucoin (1990:118), “the term
“management” refers to private sector
experience, and the main concern of it is the
use of resources to achieve results in contrast
to focus of “administration” on the adherence
to formalized processes and procedures
274. Chapter 6
Public sector Performance
Jackson and Broom et al. (1999) define
performance management as a method of
measuring the progress of a public
programs, projects and activities in
achieving the results or outcomes that
clients, customers, or stakeholders expect.
275. Components of Performance Management
1. The specification of clear and measurable organizational
objectives.
2. The systematic use of performance indicators to assess
organizational output.
3. The application of the performance appraisal of
individual employees.
4. The use of performance incentives.
5. Regular review at the end of each planning cycle of the
extent to which goals have been achieved.
276. Types of measures
Public Sector Productivity is the extent to
which the output of goods and services of a
specific quality is produced by various
public sector agencies using a set of inputs
(human resources, machinery and
equipment, supplies, etc).
277. Cont’d
It is a measured relationship between
the quantity and quality of results
produced and the quantity of resources
required for production.
278. Cont’d
Measuring productivity of an
organization, program, or individual is
particularly problematic in the public
sector because of the problem of
defining outputs and of quantifying
measures of efficiency, effectiveness,
and impact.
279. Cont’d
It is expressed as a ratio given as:
good/services produced of a given quality
----------------------------------------------
resources (inputs) used
280. Cont’d
Productivity Growth is concerned with
reaching the highest level of output
performance with the lowest possible
expenditure of resources over time.
281. Effectiveness
Effectiveness represents the degree to which the
output performance of an agency achieves specific
objectives (i.e., output accomplishment).
Show how well a public agency is achieving its
prescribed goals
May include equity or distributional concerns,
hence these measures are also called outcome
or impact measures
Examples: jobs created per employee hour
Number of error-free tax returns completed
Number of project reports completed per employee
hour
282. Efficiency
Efficiency relates to the degree of economy in the
use of resources to achieve the agency’s objective
(i.e., input usage).
compares the resources (e.g., human resources)
used by an agency with the output it produces
shows how the agency’s output changes with the
resources being used
283. Examples:
1. tons of solid waste collected per employee hour
2. letters delivered relative to the cost of delivery
3. ratio of trained unemployed workers to the
number of staff hours used
4. gallons of water sold per employee hour or labour
costs.
284. Other types of measure
Operational-type measure
concern with the internal workings of the
agency, that is, the work activity itself rather
than its results
Examples:
1.number of passports received and processed per day
2.number of audits planned and completed
3.number of samples received and tested
285. Quality as a measure of success
According to IBM (1991), “quality is
some thing equal to customers’
satisfaction”. For others quality can not
be defined in such a simplistic way. It is
a complex concept to define neatly.
286. Green’s views of quality
Green (1994) views quality in a wider
dimension. He found out five approaches in
considering quality.
1. Quality as exceptional(highest standards)
2. Quality as conforming to standards
3. Quality as fitness for purpose
4. Quality as effectiveness in achieving
organizational goals
5. Quality as meeting customers’ stated or
implied needs
287. Cont’d
According to Lazăr Vlăsceanu et. al (2004),
quality management emphasizes
assessment that is undertaken against:
(i) defined objectives or standards (set
internally or by external bodies);
(ii) measures of customer satisfaction;
(iii) expert and professional judgment; and
(iv) Comparator organizations(benchmarking).
288. Cont’d
One may have difficulty in specifying the
nature of quality.
quality could cover both the content and
process of service.
Quality covers both these components of a
service, and so can be defined in two ways.
289. The content dimension
This is called FFP. For the industrial
producer the measurement of this is
relatively straight for ward.
290. Cont’d
FFT specifies the characteristics of a
quality product in an objective manner.
Thus, if a car engine part is not with in
say, 1/100 cm of the required standard,
it is of poor quality. That is the
component is not FFP (fit-for-purpose).
291. The process definition
The second definition of quality is not to do
with the purpose of a service, but with the
process of its delivery. This is more subjective
than FFP might be, because it needs the
evaluation of the subjective experience of a
service by its users.
292. Cont’d
It is better to think of this characteristic of
quality as having to do with its EIE (excellence
in experience).
To take an example, if you eat in a restaurant,
no matter how good the quality is (how ‘fit for
its purpose’ it is), you might define the meal as
a bad experience, because of the rude and
poor service that you received.
293. Moment of truth
Perceived quality is realized at the moment of
truth, when the service provider and the
service consumer confront one another in the
arena. At that moment they are very much on
their own .What happens then can no longer be
influenced by the organization.
294. Cont’d
In the public services, both these
characteristics of quality are
important. The service must both be
FFP and offer an excellent experience.
295. Another view of quality
Other writers view quality with slight
differences and elaborations.
Here, quality is believed to possess several
distinct dimensions.
296. Example
The Federal Quality Institute (FQI) in USA
identifies primary dimensions of quality and
several secondary dimensions.
Primary dimensions: reliability, durability,
conformance, availability and timeliness (FQI,
1991:2 quoted in Lawrence, 1993:27).
297. Cont’d
The secondary dimensions include accessibility,
timeliness, consistency, humanness and result
(outcome). Some of these dimensions refer to
products and services, others to the employees
who provide the services and still others refer
to the facilities and equipment used in the
provision of the services.
298. Cont’d
Many other scholars agree that service quality
can be decomposed into two major dimensions
(Grönroos, 1983; PZB (1985). The first
dimension is concerned with what the service
delivers and is referred to by PZB (1985) as
“outcome quality” and by Grönroos (1984) as
“technical quality”.
299. Cont’d
The second dimension is concerned with
how the service is delivered: the process
that the customer went through to get to
the outcome of the service. PZB (1985)
refer to this as “process quality” while
Grönroos (1984) calls it “functional
quality”.
300. Quality Measurement
SERVQUAL as an instrument of service quality
measure.
This school of thought believes that quality is
the difference between service perception
(experience) and expectations. Satisfaction is
the difference between the two. Thus, their
proposition is formulated as Q= P-E, where:
A. Q stands for quality,
B. P stands for perception and
C. E stands for expectation.
301. Cont’d
This shows that if one’s perception is
greater than his expectation, the
service rendered is of a high quality.
302. Attributes of service quality
1. Tangibles include the company's or service provider's
physical facilities, equipment, dress of their employees,
decor and communication materials.
2. Reliability refers to the ability of the service providers to
perform the service accurately and dependably, as
promised.
3. Assurance refers to the knowledge and courtesy of the
company's employees and their ability to inspire trust and
confidence in the customer towards the service company.
303. Cont’d
4. Responsiveness refers to the willingness of the
firm's staff to help customers and to provide
the requested service promptly.
5. Empathy refers to the ability of the service
provider to provide a caring and personalized
attention to each customer.
304. SERVPERF
Critics such as Cronin and Taylor (1992) have
responded to the work of PZB, stating that
SERVQUAL and the underlying gaps model are
conceptually wrong. Likewise, Buttle points out
how “SERVQUAL fails to draw on established
economic, statistical and psychological theory”
(1996).
305. Cont’d
These scholars state that the literature’s
hesitance to treat perceived service quality as
an attitude is one of the key reasons why the
theory is difficult to put into operation. Cronin
and Taylor (1992) on the other hand, found in
their research that service quality is indeed an
attitude.”
306. Cont’d
SERVQUAL recognizes the possibility that the customer’s
familiarity with the service can play a role in setting his
or her expectations. While this seems like sound advice,
it still does not make up for the scenario where a user,
after having 8 of 16 experienced a service of low quality,
has lowered his expectations of future service
encounters.
307. Cont’d
The result might be that management will
mistakenly interpret the SERVQUAL scores in
the next testing period as a signal that their
service quality has increased when, in fact, it is
only the customer’s expectation that
decreased. This shortcoming has been
identified by other critics such as Buttle (1996).
308. Cont’d
Based on these findings, Cronin and Taylor
(1992) proposed a tool they call SERVPERF.
They state that “the performance-based scale
developed (SERVPERF) is efficient in
comparison with the SERVQUAL scale b/c it
measures only the perceived service process
performance and disregards expected service
process level.
309. Cont’d
The rationale for doing so is because:
a)measuring the customer’s expected service
level before the service is rendered is not
always possible, leaving the firm to measure it
instead at the end of the service and
b) measuring the expected service level after the
service has been rendered is inaccurate as the
customer’s expectation, by then, has already
been biased by the service rendered.
310. Chapter 7
Public Administration in Ethiopia
7.1 Public sector Reform
As soon as the current government came to
power, it started rigorous reforms (first phase
reforms from 1991 to 1995) in three fronts:
1. Economic reform – from central planning to
market economy
2. Political reform – federalism, regional state
creation and fiscal decentralization
3. constitutional reform – enacting the Ethiopian
constitution
311. 7.2 Civil service Reform
In Ethiopia, deficiencies in human resources
and institutional capacity as well as deficiencies
in working system and process were among the
causes constraining administrative efficiency
and effectiveness in the public sector.
312. Cont’d
There were numerous administrative barriers, including
1. excessive documentation requirements,
2. inadequate information on rules and regulations,
3. lengthy registration or ratification periods,
4. redundant and complex formalities,
5. complicated processes requiring multi-level or multi-
agency approval and
6. unsupportive attitudes from public employees.
313. Cont’d
These have typically been reflected in
1. inefficient service delivery characterized by
poor working environment and processes,
2. inappropriate conception of the roles and
responsibilities of civil service (PMO, 1996).
Addressing these deficiencies has thus been a
concern of the incumbent government since
mid 1990s.
314. Cont’d
Thus,the government adopted Civil Service Reform
Program in 1996 with a focus on five major streams
of work:
1. Top Management Systems;
2. Human resource management;
3. Service Delivery;
4. Expenditure Management and
5. Ethics (CSRP, 1996).
315. Cont’d
The overall objective of service delivery
sub-program is to improve the scale,
efficiency, and responsiveness of public
service delivery at the federal, regional
and local level, empower citizens to
participate more effectively and promote
good governance and accountability.
316. Cont’d
The major objectives of CSRPO include:
1. designing and implementing enabling policies
and legislative frameworks;
2. building customer oriented service delivery
culture;
3. advance modern personnel management
systems;
4. promote sound finance and material resources
management; and training and development of
civil servants.
317. Cont’d
CSRPO was housed in the then
Ministry of Capacity Building which
is mandated to coordinate the over
all reform program in the public
sector.
318. Cont’d
The reform picked up a momentum in
2001 following national public sector
capacity building program (PSCAP,
2008). The national capacity building
program comprises fourteen programs
of which PSCAP is concerned with six.
319. Cont’d
The six priority areas selected under the PSCAP
are:
(i) Civil Service Reform;
(ii) District-Level Decentralization;
(iii) Urban Management Capacity Building;
(iv) Tax Systems Reform;
(v) Justice System Reform;
(vi)Information and Communications
Technology. PSCAP is intended to accelerate
the rate of reform, and increase the scale of
transformation in the civil service.