This document discusses the modification and derivatives of carbohydrates. It describes sugar alcohols, acids, and amino sugars as sugar derivatives. It then covers glycosidic bonds in disaccharides like maltose and cellobiose. Polysaccharides discussed include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans are also summarized. Finally, it briefly mentions O-linked oligosaccharides on glycoproteins.
Polysaccharides - Biochemistry for Msc StudentsKEVENLIAM
This note is based on polysaccharides and glycoprotein which is useful for MSc zoology students. All the points including the structure is being added.
Glycogen is the major storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and skeletal muscles. It is formed from glucose through glycogenesis and broken down into glucose through glycogenolysis. These pathways are regulated by enzymes like glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase in response to hormones like insulin and glucagon to maintain blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes of glycogen metabolism can result in glycogen storage diseases characterized by hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly and other symptoms.
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
2. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin subunits linked by alpha-glucosidic bonds. Dextrin is formed from starch hydrolysis and has a similar structure to amylopectin.
3. Inulin is a polymer of fructose typically with a terminal glucose. Glycogen stores glucose in animals and has highly branched alpha-linked subunits. Cellulose, the main component of plant cell walls, is composed of beta-glucose units.
Triacylglycerol and compound lipid metabolismDipesh Tamrakar
Biosynthesis and metabolic regulation of triglyceride and other compound lipids: glycerophospholipids, sphingophospholipids, ether glycerolipids and glycolipids
1. Vitamins are organic molecules that serve as cofactors for enzyme reactions and must be obtained through diet as they cannot be synthesized by the body.
2. Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble, with water-soluble vitamins including all B vitamins and vitamin C, and fat-soluble vitamins being vitamins A, D, E, and K.
3. Each vitamin has a specific biochemical function, such as vitamin C serving as an antioxidant and cofactor for collagen synthesis, vitamin B12 acting as a cofactor for fatty acid and amino acid metabolism, and vitamin K being required for blood clotting through gamma-carboxylation of glutamate residues.
non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) commonly referred to as dietary fibre.
Food polysaccharides also include exudates gums, seed gums, microbial
polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides.
carbohydrates that are not digested
or absorbed, pass through the colon where bacteria ferment them for energy,
thereby stimulating their growth.The major
polysaccharides in the plant cell wall are cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
Polysaccharides - Biochemistry for Msc StudentsKEVENLIAM
This note is based on polysaccharides and glycoprotein which is useful for MSc zoology students. All the points including the structure is being added.
Glycogen is the major storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and skeletal muscles. It is formed from glucose through glycogenesis and broken down into glucose through glycogenolysis. These pathways are regulated by enzymes like glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase in response to hormones like insulin and glucagon to maintain blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes of glycogen metabolism can result in glycogen storage diseases characterized by hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly and other symptoms.
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
2. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin subunits linked by alpha-glucosidic bonds. Dextrin is formed from starch hydrolysis and has a similar structure to amylopectin.
3. Inulin is a polymer of fructose typically with a terminal glucose. Glycogen stores glucose in animals and has highly branched alpha-linked subunits. Cellulose, the main component of plant cell walls, is composed of beta-glucose units.
Triacylglycerol and compound lipid metabolismDipesh Tamrakar
Biosynthesis and metabolic regulation of triglyceride and other compound lipids: glycerophospholipids, sphingophospholipids, ether glycerolipids and glycolipids
1. Vitamins are organic molecules that serve as cofactors for enzyme reactions and must be obtained through diet as they cannot be synthesized by the body.
2. Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble, with water-soluble vitamins including all B vitamins and vitamin C, and fat-soluble vitamins being vitamins A, D, E, and K.
3. Each vitamin has a specific biochemical function, such as vitamin C serving as an antioxidant and cofactor for collagen synthesis, vitamin B12 acting as a cofactor for fatty acid and amino acid metabolism, and vitamin K being required for blood clotting through gamma-carboxylation of glutamate residues.
non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) commonly referred to as dietary fibre.
Food polysaccharides also include exudates gums, seed gums, microbial
polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides.
carbohydrates that are not digested
or absorbed, pass through the colon where bacteria ferment them for energy,
thereby stimulating their growth.The major
polysaccharides in the plant cell wall are cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
This document provides information on carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose which can form ring structures.
- Carbohydrates can exhibit stereoisomers like enantiomers and diastereomers due to asymmetric carbons.
- Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides linked together, examples include sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
- Polysaccharides include homopolysaccharides like starch and cellulose, and heteropolysaccharides like glycosaminoglycans.
- Glycosaminoglycans are important structural components in tissues and involved in various biological functions.
This document discusses the chemistry and functions of carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The document discusses isomerism, mutarotation, epimers, and the reactions of monosaccharides. It describes the roles of carbohydrates as an energy source, precursor for other biomolecules, and structural component in cells. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose and their importance are highlighted.
Polysaccharides are complex monosaccharide polymers that serve a wide variety of functions. They can be classified as homopolymers containing a single monosaccharide unit or heteropolymers containing different sugar units. Starch is a major plant polysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin. It is used as food, in pharmaceuticals, and to produce dextrins and soluble starch. Dextrins are prepared from starch by partial hydrolysis and are used as substitutes for gums. Cyclodextrins are obtained from starch and have a hydrophobic central cavity, making them useful for enclosing drugs.
This document discusses high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and maltose syrup. It describes the process for making HFCS, which involves processing corn starch with enzymes like amylases and glucose isomerase to convert glucose into fructose. An alternative method uses inulinase enzymes on inulin to produce 95% fructose yield. Maltose syrup is made through a process of mixing starch with water and enzymes like amylases, then filtering, concentrating, and crystallizing to produce a syrup high in maltose. Both HFCS and maltose syrup are used as sweeteners in food production.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Complex Lipids (Phosholipids, Glycolipids and Lipoproteins) (Chemistry of Lip...Ashok Katta
This document discusses different types of phospholipids and their structures and functions. It notes that phospholipids are made up of fatty acids, glycerol, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogenous base. They are major constituents of cell membranes and are amphipathic in nature. The document describes different classes of phospholipids, including phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylserines, cardiolipins, sphingomyelins, and phosphatidylinositols. It also discusses glycolipids and lipoproteins, providing details on their compositions and roles in cells and tissues.
Intermediary metabolism of carbohydrate,protein and fatSumair Arain
Most dietary carbohydrates are polymers of hexoses,primarily glucose, galactose and fructose.
Glucose is stored in its phosphorylated form glucose-6-phosphate; the formation of which in muscles is catalyzed by hexokinase, and in the liver by glucokinase.
Glucokinase is important because its activity is stimulated by insulin and its activity reduced in starvation, and glucokinase has no stronger affinity for glucose than hexokinase.
This document discusses fatty acids. Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chains that occur primarily in esterified form in lipids. They can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids do not contain double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds. Fatty acids are named based on their hydrocarbon structure and number of carbons. They are often represented using shorthand notations indicating the number of carbons, double bonds, and double bond positions. Common fatty acids include palmitic acid, oleic acid, and arachidonic acid.
This document provides information on the functions, properties, and importance of lipids. It begins by discussing the structure of lipids and classification of fatty acids. It then covers various chemical properties of lipids including hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenation, and rancidity. Physical properties such as hydrophobicity and melting points are also described. The functions of saturated, unsaturated, and essential lipids are outlined. Finally, the structural, clinical, and disease importance of lipids is summarized, highlighting their roles in cell membranes, energy storage, insulation, and brain injury/lipidosis.
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
Class 1 digestion and absorption of carbohydrateDhiraj Trivedi
Dr. Dhiraj J. Trivedi presenting Lecture on Carbohydrate metabolism for medical students.
Professor, SDM College of Medical Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides definitions and examples of different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as biological molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides are made of 2 to 10 monosaccharide units, such as disaccharides. Polysaccharides contain more than 10 monosaccharide units and include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. The document also discusses the structures of glucose and differences between cellulose and starch.
This document discusses glycolipids, which are lipids that contain one or more sugar molecules. Glycolipids are classified as glycosphingolipids, globosides, gangliosides, and sulfatides. Glycosphingolipids contain ceramide and one or more sugars. Gangliosides contain sialic acid and contribute to cell membrane structure and function. Genetic defects that prevent the breakdown of glycolipids cause lipid storage diseases like Gaucher's disease and Tay-Sachs disease, leading to lipid accumulation in tissues and associated symptoms. Laboratory tests can diagnose these conditions by measuring enzyme levels or examining tissues. Some lipid storage diseases can be treated through enzyme replacement therapy.
Protein is broken down into amino acids through digestion in the stomach and small intestine. Amino acids enter the bloodstream and are used to rebuild tissues or form new proteins. Excess amino acids are broken down through transamination and oxidative deamination, producing ammonia. The urea cycle converts ammonia into urea to be excreted in urine. Different organisms excrete nitrogenous waste in various forms like urea, uric acid or guanine depending on whether they live on land or water. Amino acids can also be synthesized de novo or through breakdown of other amino acids and protein.
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources in the liver and kidney. It occurs through many of the same steps as glycolysis, but reverses the direction of several irreversible reactions. The liver plays a key role in gluconeogenesis, as it contains all the necessary enzymes and exports glucose to meet the needs of other tissues like the brain and red blood cells. Gluconeogenesis allows lactate and alanine from muscles to be converted back to glucose through the Cori and Alanine cycles, maintaining stable blood glucose levels.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Lipids have a hydrophobic nature due to hydrocarbon chains. They are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Major lipids include fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid hormones. Fatty acids are used for energy storage and membrane components. Triacylglycerols store fatty acids as an energy source. Phospholipids are major membrane components. Cholesterol is important for membrane structure and steroid hormone synthesis. Lipids are digested into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols then absorbed into intestinal cells to form chylomicrons which transport lipids through lymph and blood.
Glycogen is a readily available storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and muscle. It is synthesized through glycogenesis, which involves four steps - activation of glucose to UDP-glucose, initiation using the primer glycogenin, elongation by glycogen synthase adding glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds, and branching every 7-10 units via alpha-1,6 bonds by branching enzyme. Glycogen synthesis requires two enzymes - glycogen synthase which elongates the chain and branching enzyme which introduces branches, and continues till sufficient glycogen is synthesized or glucose is no longer available.
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides as the main classes of carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides including glucose and fructose, their cyclic and linear forms, and D/L designations.
- Examples of disaccharides like maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, and lactose formed by glycosidic bond formation.
- Polysaccharides including starch (amylose, amylopectin), glycogen, and cellulose and their roles in storage and structure.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with multiple OH groups classified based on carbon number as trioses, tetroses, pentoses or hexoses. Disaccharides consist of two covalently linked monosaccharides, while oligosaccharides have a few linked monosaccharides and polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide or disaccharide units. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose which can cyclize to form pyranose or furanose rings.
This document provides information on carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose which can form ring structures.
- Carbohydrates can exhibit stereoisomers like enantiomers and diastereomers due to asymmetric carbons.
- Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides linked together, examples include sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
- Polysaccharides include homopolysaccharides like starch and cellulose, and heteropolysaccharides like glycosaminoglycans.
- Glycosaminoglycans are important structural components in tissues and involved in various biological functions.
This document discusses the chemistry and functions of carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The document discusses isomerism, mutarotation, epimers, and the reactions of monosaccharides. It describes the roles of carbohydrates as an energy source, precursor for other biomolecules, and structural component in cells. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose and their importance are highlighted.
Polysaccharides are complex monosaccharide polymers that serve a wide variety of functions. They can be classified as homopolymers containing a single monosaccharide unit or heteropolymers containing different sugar units. Starch is a major plant polysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin. It is used as food, in pharmaceuticals, and to produce dextrins and soluble starch. Dextrins are prepared from starch by partial hydrolysis and are used as substitutes for gums. Cyclodextrins are obtained from starch and have a hydrophobic central cavity, making them useful for enclosing drugs.
This document discusses high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and maltose syrup. It describes the process for making HFCS, which involves processing corn starch with enzymes like amylases and glucose isomerase to convert glucose into fructose. An alternative method uses inulinase enzymes on inulin to produce 95% fructose yield. Maltose syrup is made through a process of mixing starch with water and enzymes like amylases, then filtering, concentrating, and crystallizing to produce a syrup high in maltose. Both HFCS and maltose syrup are used as sweeteners in food production.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Complex Lipids (Phosholipids, Glycolipids and Lipoproteins) (Chemistry of Lip...Ashok Katta
This document discusses different types of phospholipids and their structures and functions. It notes that phospholipids are made up of fatty acids, glycerol, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogenous base. They are major constituents of cell membranes and are amphipathic in nature. The document describes different classes of phospholipids, including phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylserines, cardiolipins, sphingomyelins, and phosphatidylinositols. It also discusses glycolipids and lipoproteins, providing details on their compositions and roles in cells and tissues.
Intermediary metabolism of carbohydrate,protein and fatSumair Arain
Most dietary carbohydrates are polymers of hexoses,primarily glucose, galactose and fructose.
Glucose is stored in its phosphorylated form glucose-6-phosphate; the formation of which in muscles is catalyzed by hexokinase, and in the liver by glucokinase.
Glucokinase is important because its activity is stimulated by insulin and its activity reduced in starvation, and glucokinase has no stronger affinity for glucose than hexokinase.
This document discusses fatty acids. Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chains that occur primarily in esterified form in lipids. They can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids do not contain double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds. Fatty acids are named based on their hydrocarbon structure and number of carbons. They are often represented using shorthand notations indicating the number of carbons, double bonds, and double bond positions. Common fatty acids include palmitic acid, oleic acid, and arachidonic acid.
This document provides information on the functions, properties, and importance of lipids. It begins by discussing the structure of lipids and classification of fatty acids. It then covers various chemical properties of lipids including hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenation, and rancidity. Physical properties such as hydrophobicity and melting points are also described. The functions of saturated, unsaturated, and essential lipids are outlined. Finally, the structural, clinical, and disease importance of lipids is summarized, highlighting their roles in cell membranes, energy storage, insulation, and brain injury/lipidosis.
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
Class 1 digestion and absorption of carbohydrateDhiraj Trivedi
Dr. Dhiraj J. Trivedi presenting Lecture on Carbohydrate metabolism for medical students.
Professor, SDM College of Medical Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides definitions and examples of different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as biological molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides are made of 2 to 10 monosaccharide units, such as disaccharides. Polysaccharides contain more than 10 monosaccharide units and include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. The document also discusses the structures of glucose and differences between cellulose and starch.
This document discusses glycolipids, which are lipids that contain one or more sugar molecules. Glycolipids are classified as glycosphingolipids, globosides, gangliosides, and sulfatides. Glycosphingolipids contain ceramide and one or more sugars. Gangliosides contain sialic acid and contribute to cell membrane structure and function. Genetic defects that prevent the breakdown of glycolipids cause lipid storage diseases like Gaucher's disease and Tay-Sachs disease, leading to lipid accumulation in tissues and associated symptoms. Laboratory tests can diagnose these conditions by measuring enzyme levels or examining tissues. Some lipid storage diseases can be treated through enzyme replacement therapy.
Protein is broken down into amino acids through digestion in the stomach and small intestine. Amino acids enter the bloodstream and are used to rebuild tissues or form new proteins. Excess amino acids are broken down through transamination and oxidative deamination, producing ammonia. The urea cycle converts ammonia into urea to be excreted in urine. Different organisms excrete nitrogenous waste in various forms like urea, uric acid or guanine depending on whether they live on land or water. Amino acids can also be synthesized de novo or through breakdown of other amino acids and protein.
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources in the liver and kidney. It occurs through many of the same steps as glycolysis, but reverses the direction of several irreversible reactions. The liver plays a key role in gluconeogenesis, as it contains all the necessary enzymes and exports glucose to meet the needs of other tissues like the brain and red blood cells. Gluconeogenesis allows lactate and alanine from muscles to be converted back to glucose through the Cori and Alanine cycles, maintaining stable blood glucose levels.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Lipids have a hydrophobic nature due to hydrocarbon chains. They are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Major lipids include fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid hormones. Fatty acids are used for energy storage and membrane components. Triacylglycerols store fatty acids as an energy source. Phospholipids are major membrane components. Cholesterol is important for membrane structure and steroid hormone synthesis. Lipids are digested into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols then absorbed into intestinal cells to form chylomicrons which transport lipids through lymph and blood.
Glycogen is a readily available storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and muscle. It is synthesized through glycogenesis, which involves four steps - activation of glucose to UDP-glucose, initiation using the primer glycogenin, elongation by glycogen synthase adding glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds, and branching every 7-10 units via alpha-1,6 bonds by branching enzyme. Glycogen synthesis requires two enzymes - glycogen synthase which elongates the chain and branching enzyme which introduces branches, and continues till sufficient glycogen is synthesized or glucose is no longer available.
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides as the main classes of carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides including glucose and fructose, their cyclic and linear forms, and D/L designations.
- Examples of disaccharides like maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, and lactose formed by glycosidic bond formation.
- Polysaccharides including starch (amylose, amylopectin), glycogen, and cellulose and their roles in storage and structure.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with multiple OH groups classified based on carbon number as trioses, tetroses, pentoses or hexoses. Disaccharides consist of two covalently linked monosaccharides, while oligosaccharides have a few linked monosaccharides and polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide or disaccharide units. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose which can cyclize to form pyranose or furanose rings.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with multiple OH groups classified based on carbon number as trioses, tetroses, pentoses or hexoses. Disaccharides consist of two covalently linked monosaccharides, while oligosaccharides have a few linked monosaccharides and polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide or disaccharide units. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose, while examples of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose formed by glycosidic bonds between the monosaccharides. Polysaccharides in plants include starch and cellulose consisting of glucose polymers.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that can be classified based on their number of carbons as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, or hexoses. Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides linked together, while oligosaccharides have a few monosaccharides linked together. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units that serve as energy storage molecules in plants and animals.
This document summarizes key information about carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their classification including monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes important monosaccharides like glucose and fructose and how they can form cyclic structures. It also discusses glycosidic bond formation and several important polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
This document provides an overview of glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins. It discusses the structure, synthesis, and degradation of glycosaminoglycans. Key points include: glycosaminoglycans are negatively charged heteropolysaccharides that bind large amounts of water; they are synthesized by adding sugars to a core protein; degradation occurs via lysosomal enzymes; deficiencies can cause mucopolysaccharidoses. Glycoproteins also attach oligosaccharides to proteins but have shorter sugar chains.
This document summarizes key concepts about carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the basic composition of carbohydrates including aldoses, ketoses, D and L designations. It explains sugar nomenclature and glycosidic bonds. Examples of specific carbohydrates are given including maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, lactose, amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose, hyaluronate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are also summarized.
This document provides information on the structure and classification of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates as compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified based on their monomer composition (monosaccharides) and degree of polymerization into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key polysaccharides discussed include starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextran, and glycosaminoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans are heteropolysaccharides found in the body that are classified based on their monosaccharide composition, degree and location of sulfation, and tissue distribution. Major glycosaminoglycans mentioned are hyaluronic acid, chond
Lecture 14 carbohydrates complete to be taughtVedpal Yadav
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates or saccharides. It begins by defining monosaccharides as the basic carbohydrate units and polysaccharides as polymeric forms. The document then details various monosaccharides including aldoses and ketoses with 3-7 carbons. It discusses cyclic forms, configurations, derivatives and glycosidic bonds. Important polysaccharides are also summarized such as structural cellulose, storage starch and branched amylopectin/glycogen. The document concludes with an overview of glycoproteins.
This document discusses lipids and membranes. It describes the basic structures of lipids like fatty acids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. These lipids can assemble into structures like micelles and bilayers in aqueous environments due to their amphipathic nature. Bilayers allow for the formation of cell membranes. Membranes contain proteins that can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored. Lipid composition and proteins influence membrane properties like fluidity.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structure and classification. It begins by defining monosaccharides as the basic units of carbohydrates and discusses their classification as aldoses and ketoses depending on whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone functional group. It then examines various monosaccharides in detail including hexoses like glucose and fructose. The document outlines how monosaccharides can join to form disaccharides, polysaccharides, and glycoproteins through glycosidic bond formation and post-translational modifications. Examples of specific carbohydrates are provided, such as cellulose, starch, and glycogen, highlighting their biological roles and macromolecular structures.
Carbohydrate, class of naturally occurring compounds and derivatives formed from them. In the early part of the 19th century, substances such as wood, starch, and linen were found to be composed mainly of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
This document discusses carbohydrates, including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose. It describes the D and L designations for carbohydrates based on their stereochemistry. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are formed from monosaccharides via glycosidic bonds. Important polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose, which are composed of glucose monomers. Starch and glycogen serve as energy storage, while cellulose provides structure in plant cell walls.
This document provides an introduction to glycobiology and glycoproteins. It defines key terms like glycoproteins, glycosylation, and lectins. It describes the different types of glycoprotein linkages and classes. The roles and functions of glycoproteins are discussed, as well as the sugars commonly found in glycoproteins. Methods for studying glycoproteins like lectins, glycosidases, and mass spectrometry are also summarized.
Carbohydrates are primarily used for energy but also have other important functions. Glucose is absorbed from the diet and enters systemic circulation. It is then oxidized for energy, stored as glycogen, or converted into other substances. The hexose monophosphate shunt is an alternate pathway for glucose oxidation that produces NADPH and pentose sugars. NADPH is used for biosynthesis while pentose sugars are used for nucleotide and nucleic acid synthesis. Glucuronic acid derived from glucose is important for detoxification by conjugating with hormones and drugs for excretion. Glycoproteins and glycolipids containing carbohydrates are important structural components of cell membranes and play roles in cell recognition.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate or lactate with ATP production. Glycolysis can occur aerobically or anaerobically. It then covers gluconeogenesis, the TCA cycle, and glycogen metabolism. It discusses the regulation and clinical significance of these pathways, along with diseases associated with defects in carbohydrate metabolism such as glycogen storage diseases and G6PD deficiency. The pentose phosphate, glucuronic acid, and alcohol metabolism pathways are also summarized.
Lecture 14 carbohydrates complete to be taughtVedpal Yadav
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules and can exist as monosaccharides or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include aldoses and ketoses containing 3-7 carbons that can form cyclic structures. Common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, galactose. Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrates that can be homopolymers or heteropolymers linked by glycosidic bonds. Examples of important polysaccharides are cellulose, starch, glycogen, and glycosaminoglycans in proteoglycans.
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy life.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
The Menu affects everything in a restaurant; as our friend and FCSI consultant Bill Main says, “The Menu is your blueprint for profitability.”
Let’s start with the segment. What will be your marketing and brand positioning? It depends on what menu items you serve. What type of cooking methods and equipment will you use? GUEST EXPERIENCE = FACILITY (Space) DESIGN + MENU + SERVPOINTS™
W.H. Bender & Associates
408-784-7371
whb@whbender.com
www.whbender.com
San Jose, California
Ang Chong Yi’s Culinary Revolution: Pioneering Plant-Based Meat Alternatives ...Ang Chong Yi Singapore
In the heart of Singapore’s bustling culinary scene, a visionary chef named Ang Chong Yi is quietly revolutionizing the way we think about food. His mission? To create delectable Ang Chong Yi Singapore — Plant-based meat: Next-gen food alternatives that not only tantalize our taste buds but also contribute to a more sustainable future.
Panchkula offers a wide array of dining experiences. From traditional North Indian flavors to global cuisine, the city’s restaurants cater to every taste bud. Let’s dive into some of the best restaurants in Panchkula
A Review on Recent Advances of Packaging in Food IndustryPriyankaKilaniya
Effective food packaging provides number of purposes. It functions as a container to hold and transport the food product, as well as a barrier to protect the food from outside contamination such as water, light, odours, bacteria, dust, and mechanical damage by maintaining the food quality. The package may also include barriers to keep the product's moisture content or gas composition consistent. Furthermore, convenience is vital role in packaging, and the desire for quick opening, dispensing, and resealing packages that maintain product quality until fully consumed is increasing. To facilitate trading, encourage sales, and inform on content and nutritional attributes, the packaging must be communicative. For storage of food there is huge scope for modified atmosphere packaging, intelligent packaging, active packaging, and controlled atmosphere packaging. Active packaging has a variety of uses, including carbon dioxide absorbers and emitters, oxygen scavengers, antimicrobials, and moisture control agents. Smart packaging is another term for intelligent packaging. Edible packaging, self-cooling and self-heating packaging, micro packaging, and water-soluble packaging are some of the advancements in package material.
Cacao, the main component used in the creation of chocolate and other cacao-b...AdelinePdelaCruz
Cacao, the main component used in the creation of chocolate and other cacao-based products is cacao beans, which are produced by the cacao tree in pods. The Maya and Aztecs, two of the earliest Mesoamerican civilizations, valued cacao as a sacred plant and used it in religious rituals, social gatherings, and medical treatments. It has a long and rich cultural history.
Heritage Conservation.Strategies and Options for Preserving India HeritageJIT KUMAR GUPTA
Presentation looks at the role , relevance and importance of built and natural heritage, issues faced by heritage in the Indian context and options which can be leveraged to preserve and conserve the heritage.It also lists the challenges faced by the heritage due to rapid urbanisation, land speculation and commercialisation in the urban areas. In addition, ppt lays down the roadmap for the preservation, conservation and making value addition to the available heritage by making it integral part of the planning , designing and management of the human settlements.
2. Sugar derivatives
sugar alcohol - lacks an aldehyde or ketone; e.g., ribitol.
sugar acid - the aldehyde at C1, or OH at C6, is oxidized
to a carboxylic acid; e.g., gluconic acid, glucuronic acid.
CH2OH
C
C
C
CH2OH
H OH
H OH
H OH
D-ribitol
COOH
C
C
C
C
H OH
HO H
H OH
D-gluconic acid D-glucuronic acid
CH2OH
OH
H
CHO
C
C
C
C
H OH
HO H
H OH
COOH
OH
H
3. Sugar derivatives
amino sugar - an amino group substitutes for a hydroxyl. An
example is glucosamine.
The amino group may be acetylated, as in N-
acetylglucosamine.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
NH2
H
OH
CH2OH
H
-D-glucosamine
H O
OH
H
OH
H
N
H
OH
CH2OH
H
-D-N-acetylglucosamine
C CH3
O
H
4. N-acetylneuraminate (N-acetylneuraminic acid, also called sialic
acid) is often found as a terminal residue of oligosaccharide
chains of glycoproteins.
Sialic acid imparts negative charge to glycoproteins, because its
carboxyl group tends to dissociate a proton at physiological pH,
as shown here.
NH O
H
COO
OH
H
H
OH
H
H
R
C
H3C
O
HC
HC
CH2OH
OH
OH
N-acetylneuraminate (sialic acid)
R =
5. Glycosidic Bonds
The anomeric hydroxyl and a hydroxyl of another sugar or some
other compound can join together, splitting out water to form a
glycosidic bond:
R-OH + HO-R' R-O-R' + H2O
E.g., methanol reacts with the anomeric OH on glucose to form
methyl glucoside (methyl-glucopyranose).
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
OH
H
H
OH
-D-glucopyranose
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OCH3
OH
H
H
OH
methyl--D-glucopyranose
CH3-OH
+
methanol
H2O
6. Cellobiose, a product of cellulose breakdown, is the otherwise
equivalent b anomer (O on C1 points up).
The b(1 4) glycosidic linkage is represented as a zig-zag, but one
glucose is actually flipped over relative to the other.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
H
1
2
3
5
4
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
maltose
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
H
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
cellobiose
Disaccharides:
Maltose, a cleavage
product of starch (e.g.,
amylose), is a
disaccharide with an
(1 4) glycosidic link
between C1 - C4 OH of
2 glucoses.
It is the anomer (C1 O
points down).
7. Other disaccharides include:
Sucrose, common table sugar, has a glycosidic bond linking the
anomeric hydroxyls of glucose & fructose.
Because the configuration at the anomeric C of glucose is (O
points down from ring), the linkage is (12).
The full name of sucrose is -D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-
fructopyranose.)
Lactose, milk sugar, is composed of galactose & glucose, with
b(14) linkage from the anomeric OH of galactose. Its full name
is b-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 4)--D-glucopyranose
8. Polysaccharides:
Plants store glucose as amylose or amylopectin, glucose polymers
collectively called starch.
Glucose storage in polymeric form minimizes osmotic effects.
Amylose is a glucose polymer with (14) linkages.
The end of the polysaccharide with an anomeric C1 not involved in a
glycosidic bond is called the reducing end.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
H H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H
H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
1
6
5
4
3
1
2
amylose
9. Amylopectin is a glucose polymer with mainly (14) linkages, but
it also has branches formed by (16) linkages. Branches are
generally longer than shown above.
The branches produce a compact structure & provide multiple chain
ends at which enzymatic cleavage can occur.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
H H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2
H
H H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H
H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
O
1 4
6
H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
O
1
OH
3
4
5
2
amylopectin
10. Glycogen, the glucose storage polymer in animals, is similar in
structure to amylopectin.
But glycogen has more (16) branches.
The highly branched structure permits rapid glucose release from
glycogen stores, e.g., in muscle during exercise.
The ability to rapidly mobilize glucose is more essential to animals
than to plants.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
H H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2
H
H H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H
H O
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
O
1 4
6
H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
O
1
OH
3
4
5
2
glycogen
11. Cellulose, a major constituent of plant cell walls, consists of long
linear chains of glucose with b(14) linkages.
Every other glucose is flipped over, due to b linkages.
This promotes intra-chain and inter-chain H-bonds and
cellulose
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H H O
O H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
H O
O H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H H H H
1
6
5
4
3
1
2
van der Waals interactions, that
cause cellulose chains to be straight
& rigid, and pack with a crystalline
arrangement in thick bundles -
microfibrils. Schematic of arrangement of
cellulose chains in a microfibril.
12. Multisubunit Cellulose Synthase complexes in the plasma
membrane spin out from the cell surface microfibrils consisting of
36 parallel, interacting cellulose chains.
These microfibrils are very strong.
The role of cellulose is to impart strength and rigidity to plant cell
walls, which can withstand high hydrostatic pressure gradients.
Osmotic swelling is prevented.
Explore and compare structures of amylose & cellulose using
Chime.
cellulose
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H H O
O H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H O
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
H O
O H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H H H H
1
6
5
4
3
1
2
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18. Glycosaminoglycans (mucopolysaccharides) are linear polymers of
repeating disaccharides.
The constituent monosaccharides tend to be modified, with acidic
groups, amino groups, sulfated hydroxyl and amino groups, etc.
Glycosaminoglycans tend to be negatively charged, because of the
prevalence of acidic groups.
H O
H
H
OH
H
OH
COO
H
H O
OH H
H
NHCOCH3
H
CH2OH
H
O
O
D-glucuronate
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
hyaluronate
19. Hyaluronate (hyaluronan) is a glycosaminoglycan with a repeating
disaccharide consisting of 2 glucose derivatives, glucuronate
(glucuronic acid) & N-acetyl-glucosamine.
The glycosidic linkages are b(13) & b(14).
H O
H
H
OH
H
OH
COO
H
H O
OH H
H
NHCOCH3
H
CH2OH
H
O
O
D-glucuronate
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
hyaluronate
20. Proteoglycans are glycosaminoglycans that are covalently
linked to serine residues of specific core proteins.
The glycosaminoglycan chain is synthesized by sequential
addition of sugar residues to the core protein.
heparan sulfate
glycosaminoglycan
cytosol
core
protein
transmembrane
-helix
21. Some proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix bind non-
covalently to hyaluronate via protein domains called link modules.
E.g.:
• Multiple copies of the aggrecan proteoglycan associate with
hyaluronate in cartilage to form large complexes.
• Versican, another proteoglycan, binds hyaluronate in the
extracellular matrix of loose connective tissues.
H O
H
H
OH
H
OH
COO
H
H O
OH H
H
NHCOCH3
H
CH2OH
H
O
O
D-glucuronate
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
hyaluronate
22. Heparan sulfate is initially synthesized on a membrane-
embedded core protein as a polymer of alternating
N-acetylglucosamine and glucuronate residues.
Later, in segments of the polymer, glucuronate residues
may be converted to the sulfated sugar iduronic acid,
while N-acetylglucosamine residues may be deacetylated
and/or sulfated.
H O
H
OSO3
H
OH
H
COO
O H
H
NHSO3
H
OH
CH2OSO3
H
H
H
O
O
heparin or heparan sulfate - examples of residues
iduronate-2-sulfate N-sulfo-glucosamine-6-sulfate
23. Heparin, a soluble glycosaminoglycan
found in granules of mast cells, has a
structure similar to that of heparan
sulfates, but is more highly sulfated.
When released into the blood, it
inhibits clot formation by interacting
with the protein antithrombin.
Heparin has an extended helical
conformation.
heparin: (IDS-SGN)5
PDB 1RID
C O N S
Charge repulsion by the many negatively charged groups
may contribute to this conformation.
Heparin shown has 10 residues, alternating IDS (iduronate-
2-sulfate) & SGN (N-sulfo-glucosamine-6-sulfate).
24. The core protein of a syndecan heparan sulfate
proteoglycan includes a single transmembrane -helix,
as in the simplified diagram above.
The core protein of a glypican heparan sulfate
proteoglycan is attached to the outer surface of the
plasma membrane via covalent linkage to a modified
phosphatidylinositol lipid.
heparan sulfate
glycosaminoglycan
cytosol
core
protein
transmembrane
-helix
Some cell surface heparan
sulfate glycosaminoglycans
remain covalently linked to
core proteins embedded in
the plasma membrane.
25. Proteins involved in signaling & adhesion at the cell
surface recognize & bind heparan sulfate chains.
E.g., binding of some growth factors (small proteins) to
cell surface receptors is enhanced by their binding also to
heparan sulfates.
Regulated cell surface Sulf enzymes may remove sulfate
groups at particular locations on heparan sulfate chains to
alter affinity
for signal
proteins, e.g.,
growth factors. H O
H
OSO3
H
OH
H
COO
O H
H
NHSO3
H
OH
CH2OSO3
H
H
H
O
O
heparin or heparan sulfate - examples of residues
iduronate-2-sulfate N-sulfo-glucosamine-6-sulfate
Diagram
by Kirkpatrick
& Selleck.
26. O-linked oligosaccharide chains of glycoproteins vary
in complexity.
They link to a protein via a glycosidic bond between a
sugar residue & a serine or threonine OH.
O-linked oligosaccharides have roles in recognition,
interaction, and enzyme regulation.
H O
OH
O
H
HN
H
OH
CH2OH
H
C CH3
O
b-D-N-acetylglucosamine
CH2 CH
C
NH
O
H
serine
residue
Oligosaccharides
that are covalently
attached to proteins
or to membrane
lipids may be linear
or branched chains.
27. H O
OH
O
H
HN
H
OH
CH2OH
H
C CH3
O
b-D-N-acetylglucosamine
CH2 CH
C
NH
O
H
serine
residue
N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) is a common O-linked
glycosylation of protein serine or threonine residues.
Many cellular proteins, including enzymes & transcription
factors, are regulated by reversible GlcNAc attachment.
Often attachment of GlcNAc to a protein OH alternates with
phosphorylation, with these 2 modifications having opposite
regulatory effects (stimulation or inhibition).
28. N-linked oligosaccharides of glycoproteins tend to be
complex and branched.
First N-acetylglucosamine is linked to a protein via the
side-chain N of an asparagine residue in a particular
3-amino acid sequence.
H O
OH
HN
H
H
HN
H
OH
CH2OH
H
C CH3
O
C CH2 CH
O HN
C
HN
O
HC
C
HN
HC
R
O
C
R
O
Asn
X
Ser or Thr
N-acetylglucosamine
Initial sugar in N-linked
glycoprotein oligosaccharide
29. Additional monosaccharides are added, and the N-linked
oligosaccharide chain is modified by removal and addition
of residues, to yield a characteristic branched structure.
NAN
Gal
NAG
Man
NAG
Gal
NAN
Man
Man
NAG
Gal
NAN
NAG
NAG
Asn
Fuc
N-linked oligosaccharide
Key:
NAN = N-acetylneuraminate
Gal = galactose
NAG = N-acetylglucosamine
Man = mannose
Fuc = fucose
30. Many proteins secreted by cells have attached N-linked
oligosaccharide chains.
Genetic diseases have been attributed to deficiency of
particular enzymes involved in synthesizing or modifying
oligosaccharide chains of these glycoproteins.
Such diseases, and gene knockout studies in mice, have
been used to define pathways of modification of
oligosaccharide chains of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Carbohydrate chains of plasma membrane glycoproteins
and glycolipids usually face the outside of the cell.
They have roles in cell-cell interaction and signaling, and
in forming a protective layer on the surface of some cells.
31. Lectins are glycoproteins that recognize and bind to
specific oligosaccharides.
Concanavalin A & wheat germ agglutinin are plant
lectins that have been useful research tools.
The C-type lectin-like domain is a Ca++-binding
carbohydrate recognition domain in many animal lectins.
Recognition/binding of CHO moieties of glycoproteins,
glycolipids & proteoglycans by animal lectins is a factor in:
• cell-cell recognition
• adhesion of cells to the extracellular matrix
• interaction of cells with chemokines and growth factors
• recognition of disease-causing microorganisms
• initiation and control of inflammation.
32. Examples of animal lectins:
Mannan-binding lectin (MBL) is a glycoprotein found
in blood plasma.
It binds cell surface carbohydrates of disease-causing
microorganisms & promotes phagocytosis of these
organisms as part of the immune response.
33. A cleavage site just outside the transmembrane -helix
provides a mechanism for regulated release of some lectins
from the cell surface.
A cytosolic domain participates in regulated interaction
with the actin cytoskeleton.
transmembrane
-helix
lectin domain
selectin
cytoskeleton
binding domain
cytosol
outside
Selectins are integral proteins
of mammalian cell plasma
membranes with roles in
cell-cell recognition & binding.
The C-type lectin-like domain
is at the end of a multi-domain
extracellular segment extending
out from the cell surface.