Neurodevelopemental Therapy (Bobath approach)- Principles and EvidenceSusan Jose
Here we present a widely used neurophysiotherapeutic approch - NDT, exploring its current principles and throwing a glance at the historical development and why it is being so widely practice.
does it really have that evidance base?
Find more as you click on. Give a like if I helped you learn or clear concepts. Thankyou. Love you all. Lets learn more.
This document provides guidance on examining the abdomen through inspection, percussion, palpation, and assessment of bowel sounds. Key steps include ensuring patient comfort, inspecting the skin, umbilicus, and contour of the abdomen. Percussion is used to assess gas, masses, and organ size. Palpation feels for organs, masses, and tenderness. Specific techniques are described for palpating the liver, spleen, aorta, bladder, and kidneys. Bowel sounds are listened to in each quadrant.
Chest injuries are the second leading cause of trauma deaths each year. The majority of chest trauma can be managed without surgery. Common causes include blunt trauma from force to the chest, penetrating trauma from projectiles entering the chest, and compression injuries. Injuries include rib fractures, flail chest, pneumothoraces, pulmonary contusions, and others. Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition where air builds up in the pleural space with no way to escape, resulting in collapsed lungs and compressed heart and blood vessels. Needle decompression is immediately needed to relieve pressure in the chest and prevent further deterioration.
The document discusses the H-reflex, which is a monosynaptic reflex elicited by electrically stimulating sensory neurons that monitor muscle stretch. Specifically:
- The H-reflex was discovered in 1918 and involves stimulating Ia fibers that monitor muscle stretch rate, which triggers a reflex response through the spinal cord and back to the same muscle.
- It is consistently obtained by stimulating the tibial nerve below the knee and recording from the gastrocnemius-soleus muscle, but can also be recorded in the median nerve and femoral nerve.
- To record the H-reflex, active and reference electrodes are placed on the calf muscles and ground electrode is placed between the stimulating and active electrodes.
Hernia is an abnormal swelling and expulsion of tissue. abdominally hernia usually involves groin. groin henias can be either inguinal or femoral. here is a brief review about hernias, types, classification, assessment and management.
Dr. M.MADHU CHAITANYA presented on pulmonary function tests. PFTs are a battery of standardized tests used to evaluate aspects of the respiratory system, including lung mechanics, gas exchange, and cardiopulmonary interaction. Common PFTs include spirometry to measure volumes like FVC and rates like FEV1, lung volume measurements via body plethysmography or other methods, and gas exchange tests. PFTs are used to diagnose and monitor respiratory conditions, and to evaluate patients preoperatively by assessing cardiopulmonary reserve and risk of complications. The presentation covered techniques, normal values, and clinical applications of various PFTs.
Chest auscultation & lung sounds assessment for nursesMURUGESHHJ
its an brief explanation regarding respiratory system & most common sites to assess lung sounds &lobe associated lung infections...visuals explains briefly & clearly about abnormal lung conditions
Neurodevelopemental Therapy (Bobath approach)- Principles and EvidenceSusan Jose
Here we present a widely used neurophysiotherapeutic approch - NDT, exploring its current principles and throwing a glance at the historical development and why it is being so widely practice.
does it really have that evidance base?
Find more as you click on. Give a like if I helped you learn or clear concepts. Thankyou. Love you all. Lets learn more.
This document provides guidance on examining the abdomen through inspection, percussion, palpation, and assessment of bowel sounds. Key steps include ensuring patient comfort, inspecting the skin, umbilicus, and contour of the abdomen. Percussion is used to assess gas, masses, and organ size. Palpation feels for organs, masses, and tenderness. Specific techniques are described for palpating the liver, spleen, aorta, bladder, and kidneys. Bowel sounds are listened to in each quadrant.
Chest injuries are the second leading cause of trauma deaths each year. The majority of chest trauma can be managed without surgery. Common causes include blunt trauma from force to the chest, penetrating trauma from projectiles entering the chest, and compression injuries. Injuries include rib fractures, flail chest, pneumothoraces, pulmonary contusions, and others. Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition where air builds up in the pleural space with no way to escape, resulting in collapsed lungs and compressed heart and blood vessels. Needle decompression is immediately needed to relieve pressure in the chest and prevent further deterioration.
The document discusses the H-reflex, which is a monosynaptic reflex elicited by electrically stimulating sensory neurons that monitor muscle stretch. Specifically:
- The H-reflex was discovered in 1918 and involves stimulating Ia fibers that monitor muscle stretch rate, which triggers a reflex response through the spinal cord and back to the same muscle.
- It is consistently obtained by stimulating the tibial nerve below the knee and recording from the gastrocnemius-soleus muscle, but can also be recorded in the median nerve and femoral nerve.
- To record the H-reflex, active and reference electrodes are placed on the calf muscles and ground electrode is placed between the stimulating and active electrodes.
Hernia is an abnormal swelling and expulsion of tissue. abdominally hernia usually involves groin. groin henias can be either inguinal or femoral. here is a brief review about hernias, types, classification, assessment and management.
Dr. M.MADHU CHAITANYA presented on pulmonary function tests. PFTs are a battery of standardized tests used to evaluate aspects of the respiratory system, including lung mechanics, gas exchange, and cardiopulmonary interaction. Common PFTs include spirometry to measure volumes like FVC and rates like FEV1, lung volume measurements via body plethysmography or other methods, and gas exchange tests. PFTs are used to diagnose and monitor respiratory conditions, and to evaluate patients preoperatively by assessing cardiopulmonary reserve and risk of complications. The presentation covered techniques, normal values, and clinical applications of various PFTs.
Chest auscultation & lung sounds assessment for nursesMURUGESHHJ
its an brief explanation regarding respiratory system & most common sites to assess lung sounds &lobe associated lung infections...visuals explains briefly & clearly about abnormal lung conditions
The document discusses advances in minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring technologies. It describes several technologies including oesophageal Doppler, arterial pressure waveform analysis, pulse contour analysis, pulse oximetry plethysmography, and their respective advantages. Key parameters provided include stroke volume, cardiac output, and respiratory variation indices. While accuracy varies between methods, respiratory coupled parameters have been shown to predict fluid responsiveness. Overall, minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring provides useful haemodynamic data but outcomes depend on how clinicians utilize the information to guide care.
The document discusses preparation for trauma patients and performing the primary survey. It outlines assembling a trauma team, preparing equipment, and the key components of the primary survey including vital signs, adjuncts like ABGs and imaging, and potential pitfalls. The role of preparation, a systematic team approach, and effective communication are emphasized to reduce errors in the initial reception and resuscitation of trauma patients.
1. The document discusses electrocardiogram (ECG) patterns seen in bundle branch blocks (BBB) and how they can mask signs of myocardial infarction (MI).
2. It outlines modified Sgarbossa's criteria for diagnosing MI in the presence of left bundle branch block (LBBB), focusing on concordance and discordance between ECG deflections.
3. Several case examples are provided to demonstrate applying the concepts of BBB patterns and Sgarbossa's criteria to determine if MI is present.
This document provides information about flutter, an oscillatory positive pressure device used to decrease mucus viscosity and mobilize secretions. It has a mouthpiece at one end and a ball within a cone structure at the other end. During expiration, the ball moves within the cone, creating positive pressure and vibrations. The technique involves slow deep breathing through the flutter, holding the breath, then forcing expiration through the flutter faster than normal to loosen and mobilize mucus over multiple repetitions. Further stages include deep breathing, coughing, and gentle expiration to eliminate mucus. Studies found flutter more effective than other techniques at producing sputum.
An orthosis is a device that is externally applied to support or improve the function of a body part. This document discusses the principles and types of various orthoses including ankle-foot, knee-ankle-foot, cervical, and halo orthoses. It describes the components, functions, indications, and contraindications of different orthosis designs to stabilize and immobilize areas of the body like the ankle, knee, cervical spine, and head. The document provides details on orthosis fabrication and biomechanical principles to optimize function, comfort, and control of joint movement.
CP-Care curriculum, training course and assessment mechanism (ECVET based)
Website: http://cpcare.eu/en/
This project (CP-CARE - 2016-1-TR01-KA202-035094) has been funded with support from the European Commission. This communication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
The document outlines the components of a thorough subjective examination, including gathering a patient's medical history, symptoms, and how they are impacted by daily activities. A quality subjective examination involves clear communication and focused questions to understand the source of symptoms, contributing factors, and prognosis. Details should be collected on location and characteristics of pain, aggravating/easing factors, and how symptoms vary over 24 hours and with different motions. Special questions target specific areas like the lumbar spine, cervical spine, general health history, medications, and lifestyle.
The document provides an overview of how to perform a neurological examination, including:
1) Assessing the level of consciousness using scales like the Glasgow Coma Scale.
2) Examining the cranial nerves and assessing functions like vision, hearing, smell, facial movement and strength.
3) Evaluating motor strength, tone, reflexes, and involuntary movements.
4) Testing sensory functions including pain, temperature, vibration and position sensation.
The examination aims to screen for neurological disorders by assessing different parts of the nervous system from the cortex to peripheral nerves.
PHYSICAL THERAPY MANAGEMENT OF CARDIORESPIRATORY DYSFUNCTIONAbdul Rehman S Mulla
This document discusses physical therapy management of cardiorespiratory dysfunctions. It begins by outlining various cardiorespiratory conditions that physical therapists can help treat through exercise and activity prescription. These include acute conditions like pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and heart conditions like heart failure. The document then goes on to describe specific physical therapy treatments for these conditions, including cardiovascular and respiratory exercises, chest physiotherapy techniques, and breathing exercises. It provides illustrations to enhance understanding of respiratory system anatomy and various lung pathologies.
Smoke inhalation affects the lungs and body in 5 main ways: heat causes airway injury, particulates cause wheezing and ARDS, hypoxia causes brain damage, carbon monoxide causes functional anemia, and cyanide causes histotoxic hypoxia. Smoke inhalation is often seen with other major injuries. Diagnosis involves using co-oximetry rather than a pulse oximeter to detect carbon monoxide levels, and treating with high levels of oxygen. Cyanide poisoning should be suspected in patients with shock, seizures, or profound lactic acidosis, and can be treated safely with hydroxycobalamin and sodium thiosulfate.
This document provides guidance on rehabilitation for non-operative and operative back pain. It discusses assessing abnormalities and treating to correct them. For severe back pain, it recommends reducing pain and inflammation through comfort positions, movement, medications, modalities, and exercise away from aggravation. For sub-acute back pain, it recommends manual therapy, restoring range of motion and flexibility/strength training. Post-episode, it recommends modifying activities, correcting biomechanical abnormalities, and implementing a home exercise regime. Core stability and stabilization exercises are emphasized for retraining deep muscles to maintain functional stability. Post-operative rehabilitation focuses on early mobility, exercises in neutral spine, and functional control prior to discharge with a home program.
THIS PPT IS MADE ONLY FOR LEARNING PURPOSE AND IT CAN BE WRITTEN AS PT MANAGEMENT FOR ANY PULMONARY DISEASE WHETHER OBSTRUCTIVE OR DESTRUCTIVE IN EXAMINATION. PROTOCOL VARIES FROM PATIENT TO PATIENT IN CLINICAL PRACTICE.
Cervical spine fracture radiology, classification and management AshrafJamal12
This document discusses the radiology, classification, and management of cervical spine fractures. It begins by covering the common radiographic views used to evaluate the cervical spine - lateral, AP, and open mouth views. CT is discussed as the primary imaging modality for high-risk patients. Injuries are classified based on location, including occipital condyle fractures and odontoid fractures. Non-operative management includes provisional stabilization with a cervical collar or skull traction. Surgical treatment is considered for more severe injuries.
The document discusses various airway clearance techniques (ACTs) used to loosen and remove thick mucus from the lungs. It describes techniques like active cycle of breathing, thoracic expansion exercises, forced expiratory techniques, percussion, and positions. ACTs work by mobilizing secretions using breaths, coughing, and vibrations applied to the chest. Proper technique and regular implementation of ACTs can help clear airways and reduce disease symptoms and risks from conditions like cystic fibrosis or chronic lung disease. Contraindications include things like bronchospasm or inability to follow instructions.
The document discusses upper limb prosthetics, including different levels of amputation, types of prostheses, components, socket designs, suspension systems, and terminal devices. It defines various amputation levels from transphalangeal to forequarter and describes prosthetic options for each level. The major components of upper limb prostheses are the socket, suspension, control system, and terminal device. Socket designs vary depending on the amputation level and suspension type. Suspension systems include harness, self-suspending socket, suction, and semi-suction options. Terminal devices can be either passive cosmetic hands or active hooks and hands controlled by cable or battery.
Key points of control illustrations by examplesSara Sheikh
you can get a fair idea WHAT key points of control are and how can be they used to control a patient.... though it is demonstrated on children, it can be used with adults also, if beneficial.
Oxygenation, Ventilation And Ventilator Management In The First 24 HoursDang Thanh Tuan
This document discusses oxygenation, ventilation, and ventilator management in the first 24 hours for patients requiring mechanical ventilation. It covers etiologies of respiratory failure, measures of oxygenation and ventilation, indications for mechanical ventilation and non-invasive ventilation, ventilator set up including modes, and causes and management of respiratory distress on the ventilator.
Spirometry is a test used to measure lung function by having a patient forcefully exhale into a spirometer. It measures volumes like forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) to diagnose and monitor conditions like COPD. The document discusses the different types of spirometers, normal values, how to interpret tests for obstructive, restrictive, and mixed lung disease patterns, and practical considerations for administering spirometry tests.
Superficial reflexes are reflexes stimulated by receptors in the skin or mucous membranes. There are several types including the abdominal, cremasteric, plantar, and withdrawal reflexes. The abdominal reflex involves contraction of abdominal muscles when the skin is stroked laterally. The cremasteric reflex causes testicle elevation when the thigh is stroked. The plantar reflex assesses the central nervous system by observing toe movement when the sole is scratched. The withdrawal reflex protects the body by flexing the limb away from painful stimuli.
The document discusses advances in minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring technologies. It describes several technologies including oesophageal Doppler, arterial pressure waveform analysis, pulse contour analysis, pulse oximetry plethysmography, and their respective advantages. Key parameters provided include stroke volume, cardiac output, and respiratory variation indices. While accuracy varies between methods, respiratory coupled parameters have been shown to predict fluid responsiveness. Overall, minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring provides useful haemodynamic data but outcomes depend on how clinicians utilize the information to guide care.
The document discusses preparation for trauma patients and performing the primary survey. It outlines assembling a trauma team, preparing equipment, and the key components of the primary survey including vital signs, adjuncts like ABGs and imaging, and potential pitfalls. The role of preparation, a systematic team approach, and effective communication are emphasized to reduce errors in the initial reception and resuscitation of trauma patients.
1. The document discusses electrocardiogram (ECG) patterns seen in bundle branch blocks (BBB) and how they can mask signs of myocardial infarction (MI).
2. It outlines modified Sgarbossa's criteria for diagnosing MI in the presence of left bundle branch block (LBBB), focusing on concordance and discordance between ECG deflections.
3. Several case examples are provided to demonstrate applying the concepts of BBB patterns and Sgarbossa's criteria to determine if MI is present.
This document provides information about flutter, an oscillatory positive pressure device used to decrease mucus viscosity and mobilize secretions. It has a mouthpiece at one end and a ball within a cone structure at the other end. During expiration, the ball moves within the cone, creating positive pressure and vibrations. The technique involves slow deep breathing through the flutter, holding the breath, then forcing expiration through the flutter faster than normal to loosen and mobilize mucus over multiple repetitions. Further stages include deep breathing, coughing, and gentle expiration to eliminate mucus. Studies found flutter more effective than other techniques at producing sputum.
An orthosis is a device that is externally applied to support or improve the function of a body part. This document discusses the principles and types of various orthoses including ankle-foot, knee-ankle-foot, cervical, and halo orthoses. It describes the components, functions, indications, and contraindications of different orthosis designs to stabilize and immobilize areas of the body like the ankle, knee, cervical spine, and head. The document provides details on orthosis fabrication and biomechanical principles to optimize function, comfort, and control of joint movement.
CP-Care curriculum, training course and assessment mechanism (ECVET based)
Website: http://cpcare.eu/en/
This project (CP-CARE - 2016-1-TR01-KA202-035094) has been funded with support from the European Commission. This communication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
The document outlines the components of a thorough subjective examination, including gathering a patient's medical history, symptoms, and how they are impacted by daily activities. A quality subjective examination involves clear communication and focused questions to understand the source of symptoms, contributing factors, and prognosis. Details should be collected on location and characteristics of pain, aggravating/easing factors, and how symptoms vary over 24 hours and with different motions. Special questions target specific areas like the lumbar spine, cervical spine, general health history, medications, and lifestyle.
The document provides an overview of how to perform a neurological examination, including:
1) Assessing the level of consciousness using scales like the Glasgow Coma Scale.
2) Examining the cranial nerves and assessing functions like vision, hearing, smell, facial movement and strength.
3) Evaluating motor strength, tone, reflexes, and involuntary movements.
4) Testing sensory functions including pain, temperature, vibration and position sensation.
The examination aims to screen for neurological disorders by assessing different parts of the nervous system from the cortex to peripheral nerves.
PHYSICAL THERAPY MANAGEMENT OF CARDIORESPIRATORY DYSFUNCTIONAbdul Rehman S Mulla
This document discusses physical therapy management of cardiorespiratory dysfunctions. It begins by outlining various cardiorespiratory conditions that physical therapists can help treat through exercise and activity prescription. These include acute conditions like pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and heart conditions like heart failure. The document then goes on to describe specific physical therapy treatments for these conditions, including cardiovascular and respiratory exercises, chest physiotherapy techniques, and breathing exercises. It provides illustrations to enhance understanding of respiratory system anatomy and various lung pathologies.
Smoke inhalation affects the lungs and body in 5 main ways: heat causes airway injury, particulates cause wheezing and ARDS, hypoxia causes brain damage, carbon monoxide causes functional anemia, and cyanide causes histotoxic hypoxia. Smoke inhalation is often seen with other major injuries. Diagnosis involves using co-oximetry rather than a pulse oximeter to detect carbon monoxide levels, and treating with high levels of oxygen. Cyanide poisoning should be suspected in patients with shock, seizures, or profound lactic acidosis, and can be treated safely with hydroxycobalamin and sodium thiosulfate.
This document provides guidance on rehabilitation for non-operative and operative back pain. It discusses assessing abnormalities and treating to correct them. For severe back pain, it recommends reducing pain and inflammation through comfort positions, movement, medications, modalities, and exercise away from aggravation. For sub-acute back pain, it recommends manual therapy, restoring range of motion and flexibility/strength training. Post-episode, it recommends modifying activities, correcting biomechanical abnormalities, and implementing a home exercise regime. Core stability and stabilization exercises are emphasized for retraining deep muscles to maintain functional stability. Post-operative rehabilitation focuses on early mobility, exercises in neutral spine, and functional control prior to discharge with a home program.
THIS PPT IS MADE ONLY FOR LEARNING PURPOSE AND IT CAN BE WRITTEN AS PT MANAGEMENT FOR ANY PULMONARY DISEASE WHETHER OBSTRUCTIVE OR DESTRUCTIVE IN EXAMINATION. PROTOCOL VARIES FROM PATIENT TO PATIENT IN CLINICAL PRACTICE.
Cervical spine fracture radiology, classification and management AshrafJamal12
This document discusses the radiology, classification, and management of cervical spine fractures. It begins by covering the common radiographic views used to evaluate the cervical spine - lateral, AP, and open mouth views. CT is discussed as the primary imaging modality for high-risk patients. Injuries are classified based on location, including occipital condyle fractures and odontoid fractures. Non-operative management includes provisional stabilization with a cervical collar or skull traction. Surgical treatment is considered for more severe injuries.
The document discusses various airway clearance techniques (ACTs) used to loosen and remove thick mucus from the lungs. It describes techniques like active cycle of breathing, thoracic expansion exercises, forced expiratory techniques, percussion, and positions. ACTs work by mobilizing secretions using breaths, coughing, and vibrations applied to the chest. Proper technique and regular implementation of ACTs can help clear airways and reduce disease symptoms and risks from conditions like cystic fibrosis or chronic lung disease. Contraindications include things like bronchospasm or inability to follow instructions.
The document discusses upper limb prosthetics, including different levels of amputation, types of prostheses, components, socket designs, suspension systems, and terminal devices. It defines various amputation levels from transphalangeal to forequarter and describes prosthetic options for each level. The major components of upper limb prostheses are the socket, suspension, control system, and terminal device. Socket designs vary depending on the amputation level and suspension type. Suspension systems include harness, self-suspending socket, suction, and semi-suction options. Terminal devices can be either passive cosmetic hands or active hooks and hands controlled by cable or battery.
Key points of control illustrations by examplesSara Sheikh
you can get a fair idea WHAT key points of control are and how can be they used to control a patient.... though it is demonstrated on children, it can be used with adults also, if beneficial.
Oxygenation, Ventilation And Ventilator Management In The First 24 HoursDang Thanh Tuan
This document discusses oxygenation, ventilation, and ventilator management in the first 24 hours for patients requiring mechanical ventilation. It covers etiologies of respiratory failure, measures of oxygenation and ventilation, indications for mechanical ventilation and non-invasive ventilation, ventilator set up including modes, and causes and management of respiratory distress on the ventilator.
Spirometry is a test used to measure lung function by having a patient forcefully exhale into a spirometer. It measures volumes like forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) to diagnose and monitor conditions like COPD. The document discusses the different types of spirometers, normal values, how to interpret tests for obstructive, restrictive, and mixed lung disease patterns, and practical considerations for administering spirometry tests.
Superficial reflexes are reflexes stimulated by receptors in the skin or mucous membranes. There are several types including the abdominal, cremasteric, plantar, and withdrawal reflexes. The abdominal reflex involves contraction of abdominal muscles when the skin is stroked laterally. The cremasteric reflex causes testicle elevation when the thigh is stroked. The plantar reflex assesses the central nervous system by observing toe movement when the sole is scratched. The withdrawal reflex protects the body by flexing the limb away from painful stimuli.
Corso di Statistica del Prof. Garau.
Slide a cura di Giorgio Garau e Lucia Schirru.
Una caratteristica importante di una distribuzione statistica è la sua variabilità. La variabilità è, infatti, la quantità di dispersione presente nei dati.
Come gli indici di posizione, anche gli indici di dispersione o variabilità servono per descrivere sinteticamente (o caratterizzare) le distribuzioni statistiche quantitative (per le variabili qualitative si usano gli indici di diversità).
I fenomeni bivariati sono quei fenomeni che possono essere caratterizzati studiando congiuntamente due variabili.
Se le variabili sono entrambe quantitative si può procedere a un’analisi di interdipendenza, altrimenti si ricorre all’utilizzo di misure di associazione (per caratteri qualitativi).
L'analisi dei dati è molto importante nella Lean Six Sigma, nel framework DMAIC la fase M è cruciale. Così la verifica di relazioni tra variabili è decisiva nella valutazione dei fenomeni e nel miglioramento dei processi. Senza essere esperti in statistica, con Excel è possibile ottenere informazioni utili e in modo semplificato per l'analisi e il problem solving..
Un'elenco di consigli pratici su come impostare un'analisi descrittiva, dalla creazione del dataset alla scelta del tipo di variabili, alla valutazione degli indici univariati e dei grafici più opportuni.
1. TEORIA DELLA MISURAZIONE
Esercizi riepilogativi (lezioni: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
Lo studente è invitato a rispondere alle seguenti domande in massimo cinque righe
Lezione 5 - Variabili e scale di misura
1. Cosa si intende in psicologia per variabile?
In psicologia una variabile è un’astrazione teorica (es Rabbia, bellezza). Corrisponde ad una
grandezza intensiva non essendo direttamente osservata né confrontata con altre unità
campione. Solo delle regole definite da una teoria possono attribuire dei valori numerici.
Lezione 6 – Scale Nominali e scale ordinali
Lezione 7 - Le scale ad intervalli equivalenti e le scale a rapporti equivalenti
2. Definire le seguenti scale di misura:
A. scala nominale
Una scala nominale, dato un insieme di elementi, permette di effettuare delle
classificazioni. Tali classificazioni si limitano a verificare la presenza o assenza
di una qualità considerata senza arrivare a stabilire se la qualità stessa sia
maggiore o minore.
B. scala ordinale
In più della scala nominale permette di stabilire delle graduatorie definendo
situazioni di maggioranza o minoranza riferite ad una qualità osservata.
Ovviamene non è possibile effettuare nessuna operazione aritmetica essendo i
valori numerici arbitrari.
C. scala ad intervalli equivalenti
E’ simile alla scala ordinale e permette di effettuare delle graduatorie ma
l’intervallo tra due posizioni successive resta costante per tutta la scala. La
posizione dello zero rimane arbitraria quindi non è ancora possibile stabilire se
un valore sia in relazione di rapporto o di multiplo rispetto ad un altro valore.
D. scala a rapporti equivalenti
Ha tutto ciò che è previsto per la scala ad intervalli equivalenti con la differenza
che la posizione dello zero non è arbitraria. Sono permesse tutte le operazioni
matematiche. L’unica arbitrarietà è rappresentata dall’unità di misura che si
utilizza (es. metri o piedi).
Lezione 8 - Rilevazione, spoglio dei dati e distribuzioni di frequenza
Lo studente è invitato a rispondere alle seguenti domande in massimo cinque righe
2. 1. Definire il concetto di frequenza.
A volte ci troviamo nelle condizioni che una variabile deve contenere molti valori quindi si
rende la necessità di raggrupparli in classi (intervalli). Ad ogni classe corrisponde un
numero di casi osservati.
2. Calcolare le frequenze cumulate della seguente tabella:
Frequenze Frequenze cumulate
2 2
6 8
4 12
3 15
15
Lezione 9 - Distribuzioni di frequenza e rappresentazioni grafiche
Lo studente è invitato a rispondere alle seguenti domande in massimo cinque righe
1. Come si calcolano i limiti reali?
I limiti reali si calcolano posizionandosi mezzo punto sotto al limite inferiore e mezzo punto
sopra il limite superiore. Es. se i limiti tabulati sono 74-76 i relativi limiti reali sono 73,50-
76,50.
2. Elencare le principali modalità di rappresentazioni grafiche.
Esistono molti tipi di grafici anche se nella ricerca scientifica vengono spesso usati
l’ISTOGRAMMA e il POLIGONO DI FREQUENZA. Il primo viene rappresentato su due
assi cartesiani: sulle colonne le frequenze, sulle ascisse i limiti reali. L’area dell’istogramma
rappresenta la frequenza della classe medesima. Se l’ampiezza dell’intervallo varia da classe
a classe anziché rappresentare in ordinata direttamente le frequenze viene rappresentato il
valore che si ottiene dividendo ogni frequenza per l’ampiezza dell’intervallo.
Il poligono di frequenza in ascissa riporta il valore medio di ciascuna classe e in ordinata la
frequenza relativa alla classe. Si ottiene una spezzata congiungendo con segmenti di retta i
punti individuati dall’incrocio tra il valore della classe e il valore della frequenza.
3. Quali sono le caratteristiche delle seguenti tabelle di frequenza:
1. Tabelle semplici
Una tabella semplice viene utilizzata quando si vuole rappresentare una sola
variabile. Sono tante righe quante sono le categorie o le classi di una variabile.
2. Tabelle a doppia entrata (di contingenza)
La tabella a doppia entrata è composta da tante righe quante sono le categorie o
classi della prima variabile e tante colonne quante sono le categorie o classi della
seconda variabile. Gli incroci, all’interno della tabella, contengono le frequenze
(frequenze interne) di ciascuna categoria per riga con ciascuna categoria per
colonna. Ci sono i totali per riga e per colonna chiamati frequenze marginali per
riga o per colonna.
3. 3. Tabelle a entrata multipla
Questa tabella viene utilizzata quando ci troviamo a dover rappresentare tre o più
variabili. Vengono aggiunte delle dimensioni esterne alla tabella che al variare di
ognuna di esse varia il contenuto della tabella.
