This document provides information about asthma, including: - Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways causing recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness and coughing. The inflammation causes airflow obstruction that is usually reversible with treatment. - Asthma prevalence is highest in children and a leading cause of school absenteeism. Death rates from asthma have increased in recent decades, especially in children under 19. Morbidity and mortality are correlated with poverty, poor air quality, indoor allergens and inadequate medical care. - Every day in the US, asthma causes 40,000 missed school/work days, 30,000 attacks, 5,000 ER visits, 1,000 hospitalizations and 14 deaths

1. ASTHMA

2. Definition of Asthma
• Chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways
in which many cells and cellular elements play
a role. In susceptible individuals, this
inflammation causes recurrent episodes of
wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and
wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and
coughing, particularly at night or in the early
morning. These episodes are associated with
widespread but variable airflow obstruction
that is reversible either spontaneously, or with
treatment.
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3. Asthma
• Most common chronic condition in children
• #1 cause of school absenteeism
• Death rate up 50% from 1980 to 2000
• Death rate up 80% in people under 19
• Death rate up 80% in people under 19
• Morbidity and mortality highly correlated with
– Poverty, urban air quality, indoor allergens, lack of
patient education, and inadequate medical care
• About 5000 deaths annually
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4. Asthma
• Every day in the US, because of asthma:
– 40,000 people miss school or work
– 30,000 people have an asthma attack
– 5,000 people visit the emergency room
– 5,000 people visit the emergency room
– 1,000 people are admitted to the hospital
– 14 people die
• (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America)
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5. Poorly controlled asthma leads to:
• Increased visits to
– Doctor, Urgent Care
Clinic or Hospital ER
• Hospitalizations
• Limitations in daily
• Limitations in daily
activities
• Lost work days
• Lower quality of life
• Death
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6. Asthma
• Usually associated with airflow obstruction of
variable severity.
• Airflow obstruction is usually reversible, either
spontaneously, or with treatment
spontaneously, or with treatment
• The inflammation associated with asthma
causes an increase in the baseline bronchial
hyperresponsiveness to a variety of stimuli
• Usually a Clinical Diagnosis
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7. Asthma Triggers
• Allergens
– Dust mites, mold spores, animal dander,
cockroaches, pollen, indoor and outdoor
pollutants, irritants (smoke, perfumes, cleaning
agents)
agents)
• Pharmacologic agents (ASA, beta-blockers)
• Physical triggers (exercise, cold air)
• Physiologic factors
– Stress, GERD, viral and bacterial URI, rhinitis
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8. Pathogenesis
• Early bronchospastic response: type1reaction
within min after inhalation of AG
• Late-bronchospastic reaction: in 30-50%, 6-10 hours
after AG exposure. Minority only a late response
• Chronic asthmatic response: Destruction of AW
• Chronic asthmatic response: Destruction of AW
epithelium by toxic granule contents→epithelial
shedding into bronchial lumen→exposure of sensory
nerve endings and imbalance in cholinergic and
peptidergic neuronal control→AW remodelling with
subendothelial fibrosis, goblet cell hyperplasia, smooth
muscle hypertrophy, vascular changes →fixed AW
obstruction.
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9. Pathophysiology
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10. Manifestations of respiratory
failure
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11. Diagnosis
• Clinical
• PEF
• Spirometry
• Physiologic: provocative
• Physiologic: provocative
• Immunology
• Radiology
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12. Clinical diagnosis
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13. 9/28/2012 13

14. Diagnostic Testing
• Peak expiratory flow (PEF)
– Inexpensive
– Patients can use at home
• May be helpful for patients with severe disease to
• May be helpful for patients with severe disease to
monitor their change from baseline every day
• Not recommended for all patients with mild or
moderate disease to use every day at home
– Effort and technique dependent
– Should not be used to make diagnosis of asthma
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15. Managing Asthma:
Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF) Meters
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• Allows patient to assess status of his/her asthma
• Persons who use peak flow meters should do so frequently
•

16. Diagnostic Testing
• Spirometry
– Recommended to do spirometry pre- and post-
use of an albuterol MDI to establish reversibility of
airflow obstruction
airflow obstruction
– > 12% reversibility or an increase in FEV1 of 200cc
is considered significant
– Obstructive pattern: reduced FEV1/FVC ratio
– Restrictive pattern: reduced FVC with a normal
FEV1/FVC ratio
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17. Diagnostic Testing
• Spirometry
– Can be used to identify reversible airway
obstruction due to triggers
– Can diagnose Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) or
– Can diagnose Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) or
Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) by
measuring FEV1/FVC before exercise and
immediately following exercise, then for 5-10
minute intervals over the next 20-30 minutes
looking for post-exercise bronchoconstriction
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18. Diagnostic Testing
• Spirometry
– National Asthma Education and Prevention
Program (NAEPP) recommends spirometry:
• For initial assessment
• For initial assessment
• Evaluation of response to treatment
• Assessment of airway function at least every 1-2 years
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19. Diagnostic Testing
• Methacholine challenge
– Most common bronchoprovocative test in US
– Patients breathe in increasing amounts of
methacholine and perform spirometry after each
methacholine and perform spirometry after each
dose
– Increased airway hyperresponsiveness is
established with a 20% or more decrease in FEV1
from baseline at a concentration < 8mg/dl
– May miss some cases of exercise-induced asthma
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20. Diagnostic testing
• Diagnostic trial of anti-inflammatory
medication (preferably corticosteroids) or an
inhaled bronchodilator
– Especially helpful in very young children unable to
– Especially helpful in very young children unable to
cooperate with other diagnostic testing
– There is no one single test or measure that can
definitively be used to diagnose asthma in every
patient
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21. Immunologic diagnosis
• Skin prick wheal and flare response.
• IgE
• Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP).
• Peripheral blood and sputum eosinophilia.
• Peripheral blood and sputum eosinophilia.
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22. Radiologic Diagnosis
• Chest XR may be normal between attacks.
• With attacks hyperinflation may be found.
• In complicated asthma segmental lobar
collapse (mucous plus) and pneumothorax can
collapse (mucous plus) and pneumothorax can
occur.
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23. Disease pattern
• Episodic --- acute exacerbations interspersed
with symptom-free periods
• Chronic --- daily AW obstruction which may
be mild, moderate or severe ± superimposed
be mild, moderate or severe ± superimposed
acute exacerbations
• Life-threatening--- slow-onset or fast-onset
(fatal within 2 hours)
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24. DDX
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25. Goals of Asthma Treatment
• Control chronic and nocturnal symptoms
• Maintain normal activity, including exercise
• Prevent acute episodes of asthma
• Minimize ER visits and hospitalizations
• Minimize ER visits and hospitalizations
• Minimize need for reliever medications
• Maintain near-normal pulmonary function
• Avoid adverse effects of asthma medications
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26. Treatment of Asthma
– Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) 6-point plan
• Educate patients to develop a partnership in asthma
management
• Assess and monitor asthma severity with symptom
reports and measures of lung function as much as
reports and measures of lung function as much as
possible
• Avoid exposure to risk factors
• Establish medication plans for chronic management in
children and adults
• Establish individual plans for managing exacerbations
• Provide regular follow-up care
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27. Written Action Plans
• Written action plans for patients to
follow during exacerbations have
been shown to:
– (Cochrane review of 25 studies)
– Decrease emergency department visits
– Decrease hospitalizations
– Improve lung function
– Decrease mortality in patients
presenting with an acute asthma
exacerbation
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28. Managing Asthma:
Sample Asthma Action Plan
Describes medicines
to use and actions to
take
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National Heart, Blood, and Lung Institute Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR 3): Guidelines for the Diagnosis
and Management of Asthma. NIH Publication no. 08-4051, 2007.

29. Pharmacotherapy
• Long-acting beta2-agonists (LABA)
– Beta2-receptors are the predominant receptors in
bronchial smooth muscle
– Stimulate ATP-cAMP which leads to relaxation of
bronchial smooth muscle and inhibition of release
bronchial smooth muscle and inhibition of release
of mediators of immediate hypersensitivity
– Inhibits release of mast cell mediators such as
histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandin-D2
– Beta1-receptors are predominant receptors in
heart, but up to 10-50% can be beta2-receptors
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30. Pharmacotherapy
• Long-acting beta2-agonists (LABA)
– Salmeterol (Serevent)
– Salmeterol with fluticasone (Advair)
– Should only be used as an additional treatment
– Should only be used as an additional treatment
when patients are not adequately controlled with
inhaled corticosteroids
– Should not be used as rescue medication
– Can be used age 4 and above with a DPI
– Deaths associated with inappropriate use as only
medication for asthma
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31. Pharmacotherapy
• Albuterol/Salbutamol
– Short-acting beta2-agonist
• ATP to cAMP leads to relaxation of bronchial smooth
muscle, inhibition of release of mediators of immediate
muscle, inhibition of release of mediators of immediate
hypersensitivity from cells, especially mast cells
– Should be used PRN not on a regular schedule
• Prior to exercise or known exposure to triggers
• Up to every 4 hours during acute exacerbation as part
of a written action plan
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32. Pharmacotherapy
• Inhaled Corticosteroids
– Anti-inflammatory (but precise MOA not known)
– Act locally in lungs
• Some systemic absorption
• Some systemic absorption
• Risks of possible growth retardation thought to be
outweighed by benefits of controlling asthma in kids
– Not intended to be used as rescue medication
– Benefits may not be fully realized for 1-2 weeks
– Preferred treatment in persistent asthma
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33. Pharmacotherapy
• Mast cell stabilizers (cromolyn/nedocromil)
– Inhibits release of mediators from mast cells
(degranulation) after exposure to specific antigens
– Blocks Ca2+ ions from entering the mast cell
– Blocks Ca2+ ions from entering the mast cell
– Safe for pediatrics (including infants)
– Should be started 2-4 weeks before allergy season
when symptoms are expected to be effective
– Can be used before exercise (not as good as ICS)
– Alternate med for persistent asthma
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34. Pharmacotherapy
• Leukotriene receptor antagonists
– Leukotriene-mediated effects include:
• Airway edema
• Smooth muscle contraction
• Altered cellular activity associated with the
• Altered cellular activity associated with the
inflammatory process
– Receptors have been found in airway smooth
muscle cells and macrophages and on other pro-
inflammatory cells (including eosinophils and
certain myeloid stem cells) and nasal mucosa
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35. Pharmacotherapy
• Leukotriene receptor antagonists
– Alternate, but not preferred medication in
persistent asthma and as addition to ICS
– Showed a statistically significant, but modest
– Showed a statistically significant, but modest
improvement when used as primary medication
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36. Pharmacotherapy
• Theophylline
– Narrow therapeutic index/Maintain 5-20 mcg/mL
– Variability in clearance leads to a range of doses
that vary 4-fold in order to reach a therapeutic
dose
dose
– Mechanism of action
• Smooth muscle relaxation (bronchodilation)
• Suppression of the response of the airways to stimuli
• Increase force of contraction of diaphragmatic muscles
– Interacts with many other drugs
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37. Various severities of asthma
• Step-wise pharmacotherapy treatment
program for varying severities of asthma
– Mild Intermittent (Step 1)
– Mild Persistent (Step 2)
– Mild Persistent (Step 2)
– Moderate Persistent (Step 3)
– Severe Persistent (Step 4)
• Patient fits into the highest category that they
meet one of the criteria for
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38. Mild Intermittent Asthma
• Day time symptoms < 2 times q week
• Night time symptoms < 2 times q month
• PEF or FEV1 > 80% of predicted
• PEF variability < 20%
• PEF variability < 20%
– PEF and FEV1 values are only for adults and for
children over the age of 5
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39. Mild Persistent Asthma
• Day time symptoms > 2/week, but < 1/day
• Night time symptoms < 1 night q week
• PEF or FEV1 > 80% of predicted
• PEF variability 20%-30%
• PEF variability 20%-30%
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40. Moderate Persistent Asthma
• Day time symptoms q day
• Night time symptoms > 1 night q week
• PEF or FEV1 60%-80% of predicted
• PEF variability >30%
• PEF variability >30%
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41. Severe Persistent Asthma
• Day time symptoms: continual
• Night time symptoms: frequent
• PEF or FEV1 < 60% of predicted
• PEF variability > 30%
• PEF variability > 30%
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42. Pharmacotherapy for Adults and Children
Over the Age of 5 Years
• Step 1 (Mild intermittent asthma)
– No daily medication needed
– PRN short-acting bronchodilator (albuterol) MDI
– Severe exacerbations may require systemic
– Severe exacerbations may require systemic
corticosteroids
– Although the overall diagnosis is “mild
intermittent” the exacerbations themselves can
still be severe
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43. Pharmacotherapy for Adults and Children
Over the Age of 5 Years
• Step 2 (Mild persistent)
– Preferred Treatment
• Low-dose inhaled corticosteroid daily
– Alternative Treatment (no particular order)
– Alternative Treatment (no particular order)
• Cromolyn
• Leukotriene receptor antagonist
• Nedocromil
• Sustained release theophylline to maintain a blood
level of 5-15 mcg/mL
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44. Pharmacotherapy for Adults and Children
Over the Age of 5 Years
• Step 3 (Moderate persistent)
– Preferred Treatment
• Low-to-medium dose inhaled corticosteroids
• With long-acting inhaled and po beta2-agonist
• With long-acting inhaled and po beta2-agonist
– Alternative Treatment
• Increase inhaled corticosteroids within the medium
dose range
• Add leukotriene receptor antagonist or theophylline to
the inhaled corticosteroid
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45. Pharmacotherapy for Adults and Children
Over the Age of 5 Years
• Step 4 (Severe persistent)
– Preferred Treatment
• High-dose inhaled corticosteroids
• AND long-acting inhaled beta2-agonists
• AND long-acting inhaled beta2-agonists
• AND (if needed) oral corticosteroids
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46. Acute Exacerbations
• Inhaled albuterol is the treatment of choice in
absence of impending respiratory failure
• MDI with spacer as effective as nebulizer with
equivalent doses
equivalent doses
• Adding an antibiotic during an acute
exacerbation is not recommended in the
absence of evidence of an acute bacterial
infection
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47. Acute Exacerbations
• Beneficial
– Inhaled atrovent added to beta2-agonists
– High-dose inhaled corticosteroids
– MDI with spacer as effective as nebulizer
– MDI with spacer as effective as nebulizer
– Oxygen
– Systemic steroids
• Likely to be beneficial
– IV theophylline
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48. Exercise-induced Bronchospasm
• Evaluate for underlying asthma and treat
• SABA are best pre-treatment
• Mast cell stabilizers less effective than SABA
• Anticholinergics less effective than mast cell
• Anticholinergics less effective than mast cell
stabilizers
• SABA + mast cell stabilizer not better than
SABA alone
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49. Summary-acute asthma Mx
1. Immediate Rx:
Oxygen 40-60% via mask or cannula + β2 agonist
(salbutamol 5mg) via nebulizer + Prednisone tab
30-60mg and/or hydrocortisone 200mg IV.
With lifethreatening features add 0.5mg
ipratropium to nebulized β2 agonist +
ipratropium to nebulized β2 agonist +
Aminophyllin 250mg IV over 20 min or
salbutamol 250ug over 10 min.
• 2. Subsequent Rx:
Nebulized β2 agonist 6 hourly + Prednisone 30-60mg daily or
hydrocortisone 200mg 6 hourly IV + 40-60% O2.
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50. No Improvement
• No improvement after 15-30 min: Nebulized β2
agonist every 15-30 min + Ipratropium.
• Still no improvement: Aminophyllin infusion
750mg/24H (small pt), 1 500mg/24H (large pt), or
alternatively salbutamol infusion.
• Monitor Rx: Aminophyllin blood levels + PEF after
• Monitor Rx: Aminophyllin blood levels + PEF after
15-30 min + oxymetry (maintain SaO2 > 90) + repeat
blood gases after 2 hrs if initial PaO2 < 60, PaCO2
normal or raised and patient deteriorates.
• Deterioration: ICU, intubate, ventilate + muscle relaxant.
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