MGMT 560 – Organizational Leadership Ethics and Profes

MGMT 560 – Organizational Leadership
Ethics and Professional Codes of Conduct
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Dilbert
Ethicsa system of moral principles: the
ethics of a culture
the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class
of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc.: medical
ethics; Christian ethics
that branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human
conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain
actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends
of such actions

Formal vs InformalFormal EthicsCode of
ConductOathBoard of EthicsInformal EthicsNo formal
governing bodyNo accountability, other than from clientNo
formal repercussions
Making an Ethical Decision
Recognize the ethical dilemma
Ask yourself, is this the start of a slippery slope
One slip allows the next slip to happen more easily
Would you want your decision to the problem broadcast to the
world?
Ethical SituationsMaintaining the integrity of
company databases in the face of requests to use the data
inappropriately
Providing truthful information on the status of projects, budgets
and profits even when there are problems – being accountable
for success and failure
Standing firm on a decision despite its unpopularity
Reporting suspected unethical behavior of others despite
personal discomfort
Not developing personal relationships with vendors/
customers/outside agencies – potential conflict of interest issues

Principles for Creating Ethical Cultures
Principle 1: The only way to sustain Compliance is through
Culture
– Employees want to be part of organizations whose values
mirror their own
– Organizations need to reduce fear, encourage accountability
and live by a common set of values that build trust
Principle 2: Corporate culture reflects the values of the leaders
If Leaders do not embody the ethical standards, then no one
else will
Principle 3: Measurement matters – if you can’t measure it, you
can’t manage it
Leadership needs to measure integrity risk and monitor
progress in managing it
Culture must become a metric
Web of NeedsNeeds encountered in IT practice:User
needsPersonal needsOrganizational needsNeeds of
societyOthers?Framework for Ethical Analysis
Identify web of needs for project
Identify strands of web where conflict is likely to occur

Resolve conflict issues with concerned parties
Agreed needs set recorded and input into requirements analysis
ref. Taylor, M.J. & Moynihan E., Analysing IT Ethics
Ref. D. Gebler, Creating an Ethical Culture
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Level 1 – Financial Stability: Organizations that are consumed
with surviving Leaders may exercise excessive control – an
environment of fear Unethical or illegal conduct can be
rationalized Leaders must know and stand within clear ethical
boundaries
Level 2 – Communication: Critical issue is to create a sense of
loyalty and belonging among employees and caring and
connection between the organization and customers Most
critical link is between employees and direct supervisors Fears
about belonging and lack of respect lead to fragmentation,
dissension, and disloyalty When leaders fail to communicate
employees suspect the worst – cliques form and gossip becomes
rife
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Level 3 – Systems & Processes: Organization is focused
adoption of best practices, quality, productivity, and efficiency
Succeed in implementing strong internal controls and clear
standards of conduct Being efficient may lead to bureaucracy
and inconsistent application of rules – loss of respect for the
system May lead to shortcuts – “doing what it takes to succeed”
Level 4 – Accountability: Leaders and employees begin to take
responsibility for their actions They want to be held
accountable, not micromanaged For an ethics program to be
successful, all employees must feel that they have a personal
responsibility for the integrity of the organization – leaders
must invite employee participation
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Level 5 – Alignment: Critical issue is developing a shared
vision and a set of values – vision provides unified purpose and
direction; values provide guidance for making decisions Values
and behaviors are reflected in processes and systems with
appropriate consequences for those who aren’t willing to walk
the talk A precondition for success is building a climate of trust
Level 6 – Social Responsibility: The organization is able to use
relationships with stakeholders to sustain through crisis and
challenge Employees and customers see the organization making
a difference in the world Organization goes the extra mile to
make sure they are being responsible citizens
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Level 7 – Sustainability: Organization embraces the highest
ethical standards in all interactions with employees, suppliers,
customers, shareholders, and the community Always consider
long-term impact of decisions and actions
Other Considerations: Employee values are distributed acr oss
all seven levels Organizations don’t operate from any one level
– they tend to cluster around three or four levels (most are
clustered on the first three) Successful organizations operate
across the full spectrum with focus on the upper levels Lower
level organizations – have controls and procedures but may lack
accountability and commitment Higher level organizations –
visionary leaders and social responsibility but may lack core
systems and processes
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Reply 1
During the simulation, I first played as Jan Klein RN. I chose to
play the nurse because that is my field. During the simulation, I
was nervous. I was unsure of what question or ethical issue
would occur. There were multiple characters including Dr.
Richard Sowers the principal investigator who was trying to
strike a compromise between what he believes is best for his
patients and what he believes is best for research. During the
simulation, Jane was under pressure by Dr. Sowers to fabricate
data and break the study protocol. During the simulation intro,
there were ethical concerns. A melanoma trial led to the
hospital's acquired IRB chair becoming involved. There were

concerns that all the creatinine numbers were the same. There
were also questionable premature deaths during this trial. This
resulted in Dr. Sowers and Klein being terminated.
During the scenario that I took place in Jane often made time
for her family. She also was good at keeping her values strong.
She was not good at work and life balance. This lead to fatigue,
being overworked and would make it easier to be
Jane points out that you need IRB approval before starting the
study. She was not good at being better at the start of the
investigation. I chose to talk to my supervisor, who then talked
to Dr. Sowers. He pushed back the enrollment of patients
potentially avoiding ethical issues. My character should have
initially done more pushback with the doctor before going to the
supervisor. One thing my character could have done better is
staying up to date on the latest regulatio ns and IRB policies. If
this situation occurred again, I would speak to Dr. Sowers with
guidelines in hand. I would talk to him directly about how this
could jeopardize the validity of his study. During, the scenario I
set up weekly meetings with Sowers and techs. This was useful
in keeping everyone on track. I used IRB guidelines for
guidance and support(FDA, 2019)t. I would also speak to other
clinical researchers, Dr. Soers, and my supervisor. I learned that
maintaining ethics is a cornerstone of research. They encourage
the research goals of knowledge, truth, and avoidance of
mistakes in the first place. Anti-falsification and anti-
misrepresentation laws, for example, encourage the truth and
reduce mistakes. Ethical standards encourage the principles that
are necessary to collaborative work in research, which
frequently requires a significant degree of cooperation and
coordination among many different persons in various
disciplines and institutions(Resnik, 2020). Numerous ethical
principles guarantee that researchers are responsible to the
public. In research, ethical principles assist to generate public
support. Trust in the quality and integrity of a research
endeavor increases the likelihood of funding(Resnik, 2020).
References

FDA. (2019). IRB-FAQs. Fda.gov.
https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-
guidance-documents/institutional-review-boards-frequently-
asked-questions
Resnik, D. (2020, December 23). What is Ethics in Research &
Why is it Important? National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences.
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/i
ndex.cfm
Reply 2
In the simulation session, I took the role of Jan Klein. Klein
moonlights as a registered nurse and clinical trial manager. She
was being pressured by her employers, a principal investigator,
to fabricate data and breach study guidelines. I felt guilty for
betraying my profession by knowingly breaching the research
ethics. I also felt overworked and stressed out. Despite the
nurse shortage in her institution, she can offer quality services
to her patients. She is also able to respect and treat her patient
as independent parties. Researching with ethics is an integral
element of becoming a successful nurse researcher (Heale &
Shorten, 2016). The character could also have blown the whistle
on her employer’s misconduct. If this situation occurs again, the
nurse should do her best to identify violations and react to them
with authenticity. The nurse can use resources such as office of
the nursing manager, research regulation boards, nursing
organizations, and occupational therapist. From this simulation,
I learned that in many different ways, ethical values for nursing
research are an expansion of moral values for nursing
practice (Heale & Shorten, 2016). Whether organizing or
analyzing research, comprehending and using ethical values is a
critical part of guaranteeing the highest class evidence for

nursing practice. When conducting research, nurses should seek
to reduce harm, obtain informed consent, protect anonymit y,
and maintain the confidentiality of research subjects (Resnik,
2020). Adhering to ethics helps nurses promote the intentions of
the study. Ethical guideline fosters the values that are important
to collaborative work (Resnik, 2020). Ethical norms also
guarantee that investigators can be held responsible (Resnik,
2020).
References
Heale, R., & Shorten, A. (2016). Ethical context of nursing
research. Evidence Based Nursing, 20(1), 7-
7. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2016-102514 (Links to an external
site.)
Resnik, D. B. (2020, December 23). What is ethics in research
& why is it important? National Institute of Environmental
Health
Sciences. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethic
s/whatis/index.cfm
Conflict Management Styles

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Managing Conflict
(Lussier & Achua)
Conflict
Exists whenever people are in disagreement and opposition
Is inevitable
Why is managing conflict important?
An organization’s success is based on how well it deals with
conflicts.
So how can conflict impact an organization?
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The Psychological Contract
(Lussier & Achua)
Is the unwritten implicit expectations of each party in a
relationship
Is broken for two primary reasons:
We fail to make explicit our own expectations and fail to
inquire into the expectations of the other parties
We further assume that the other party(ies) has the same
expectations that we hold
Is the source of conflict when it is broken
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Dysfunctional Conflict versus
Functional Conflict
(Lussier & Achua)

Dysfunctional Conflict
Is when conflict prevents the achievement of organizational
objectives
Functional Conflict
Is when disagreement and opposition supports the achievement
of organizational objectives
What are some examples of conflict in your organization?
Are these conflicts Dysfunctional or Functional?
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What Conflict Management Style Do You Prefer?
Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)
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Thomas-Kilmann
Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)

ASSERTIVE
UNASSERTIVE
ASSERTIVE
UNCOOPERATIVE
COOPERATIVE
COOPERATIVE
COMPETING
COLLABORATING
COMPROMISING
AVOIDING
ACCOMMODATING
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Competing/Forcing
Competing/Forcing is assertive and uncooperative, a power -
oriented mode.
Competing might mean standing up for your rights, defending a
position you believe is correct, or simply trying to win.
Attempting to resolve the conflict by using aggressive
behavior to get your own way.
Is uncooperative and aggressive.
Creates a win-lose situation.
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Competing/Forcing
(Lussier & Achua)
Advantages
Decisions may be better, if the forcer is right
Disadvantages
Overuse leads to hostility and resentment
toward its user

Forcers tend to have poor human relations
Appropriately used when:
Unpopular action must be taken on important issues
Commitment by others is not critical
Maintaining relationships is not critical
The conflict resolution is urgent
8
Accommodating/Smoothing/ Withdrawing
Accommodating/Smoothing/Withdrawing is unassertive and
cooperative—the opposite of competing.
Accommodating might take the form of selfless generosity or
charity, obeying another person’s order when you would
prefer not to, or yielding to another’s point of view.
Attempts to resolve the conflict by passively giving in to the
other party.
Creates a win-lose situation.
9
Accommodating/Smoothing/ Withdrawing
(Lussier & Achua)
Advantages
May maintain relationships that a conflict might
damage by going along with the other party
Disadvantages
May be counterproductive
Accommodators are taken advantage of

The person enjoys being a follower
Maintaining the relationship outweighs all other considerations
The changes agreed to are not important to the accommodator,
but are to the other party
The time to resolve the conflict is limited
10
Collaborating/Problem Solving
Collaborating/Problem Solving is both assertive and
cooperative.
Collaborating between two persons might take the form of
exploring a disagreement to learn from each other’s
insights, resolving some condition that would otherwise have
them competing for resources, or confronting and trying to
find a creative solution to an interpersonal problem.
Attempts to jointly resolve the conflict with the best solution
agreeable to all parties.
Creates a win-win situation.
11
Collaborating /Problem Solving
(Lussier & Achua)
Advantages
Tends to lead to the best solution
Disadvantages
The skill, effort, and time needed are usually greater and longer

than the other styles
Dealing with issues requiring optimum solutions
Compromise will result in sub-optimization
Achieving group goals must come before self-interest
Maintaining relationships is important
Time is available
It is a peer conflict
12
Compromising/Sharing/Negotiating
Compromising/Sharing/Negotiating is intermediate in both
assertiveness and cooperativeness. It falls on a middle ground
between competing and accommodating, giving up more than
competing but less than accommodating.
Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding but
doesn’t explore it in as much depth as collaborating.
Compromising might mean splitting the difference,
exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground
position.
Attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive, give-and-
take concessions.
Creates an “I win some, you win some” situation through
compromise.
13
Compromising/Sharing/Negotiating
(Lussier & Achua)

Advantages
Resolved relatively quickly
Working relationships are maintained
Disadvantages
Can lead to counterproductive results
Can lead to suboptimum decisions
Overuse leads to high demands from the parties
to use to bargain for more reasonable demands
The issues are complex and critical
There is no simple and clear solution
Parties have about equal power and want different solutions
A solution will be only temporary
Time is short
14
Avoiding
Avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative.
Avoiding might take the form of diplomatically sidestepping an
issue, postponing an issue until a better time, or simply
withdrawing from a threatening situation.
Attempts to passively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it.
Creates a lose-lose situation.
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Advantages
May maintain relationships that conflict resolution could

damage
Disadvantages
Conflicts do not get resolved
Internal conflict in individuals
Avoiders are walked all over
The conflict is trivial
Your stake in the issue is not high
Relationships could be damaged
You don’t have time to resolve the conflict
Emotions are high
Avoiding
(Lussier & Achua)
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Strategic Planning – An Overview
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(Ref: Waters, D.E., Understanding Strategic Thinking and
Developing Strategic Thinkers)
Strategic Thinking
Framework
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WHAT IS
STRATEGIC PLANNING?
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Strategic planning is clarifying the overall purpose and desired
results of an organization, and how to achieve those results.
Considerations:The life cycle or stage of development of the
organizationThe culture of people in the organizationTypes of
issues the organization is currently facingThe rate of change in
the external environment of the organization.
Typically, strategic planning is vision-based or goals-based, in
which an organization identifies the results they want to achieve

in the future. They develop a vision of what the organization
and its customers or clients will look like at some point in the
future, and then articulate what they have to do to achieve that
vision. They work from the future to the present.
Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD – Authenticity Consulting, LLC;
From the Free Management Library
Strategic Planning
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“A disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and
actions that shape and guide what an organization is, what it
does, and why it does it.”
“Strategic planning comprises a set of concepts, procedures, and
tools.”
“Strategic planning is no substitute for leadership.”
Ref: Dr. John M. Bryson, “Strategic Planning for Public and
Nonprofit Organizations” (2004)
Strategic Planning
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WHY
STRATEGIC PLANNING?

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Why Strategic Planning?
Competition
Increase value/capabilities
A requirement/mandate
Changing internal and or external environments
Ensure/facilitate continuity
Identify/mitigate risk
Prioritize resources
Build consensus
Improve internal, external relationships
Develop ownership
Build community support
Control your future
Survival
Other?
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Benefits of Strategic Planning
Provides orderly growth and competitive survival
Stimulates the organization to be more responsive to the needs
of customers
Simulates the future
Forces the setting of goals and objectives
Increases efficiency

Applies a systems approach to reviewing projections and
consequences
Creates a basis for performance measures and accountability
Facilitates personnel management because the process
establishes relevant and practical performance benchmarks
Provides a decision making framework
Mitigates crisis management and crisis-driven decision making
Anticipates effects of change and influences of external forces
Improves employee morale because of clarity of focus,
direction, communication, and inclusion
Fosters Strategic Communications
Others?
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ORGANIZATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
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Organizational Philosophy
Organizational Philosophy is a term that has its roots in the
teachings and theories of an educational discipline known as
Organizational Effectiveness.
It is comprised of 4 elements: Mission, Vision, Values, and
Core Competencies.

Understanding one’s Organizational Philosophy guides the way
the organization and its members go about conducting business
and making decisions as well as helping to define its
relationship with employees, customers, stakeholders, suppliers,
intra and inter governmental partners, and the community as a
whole.
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Mission Why does your organization exist?
What is your organization attempting to accomplish?
Example: Google’s mission is to “organize the world’s
information and make it universally accessible and useful.”
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Values
Organizational Values are the guiding principles and/or
behaviors that embody your organization and how its people are
expected to behave. They are a code of morals or ethics that
define what a organization stands for, believes in, and considers
acceptable in its quest to achieve its vision.
Specify a code of acceptable beliefs and behaviors Are
consistent with the organization's real operating practices Are

linked to hiring, promotions, and performance appraisals Are
clearly understood by all employees Are not subject to change
as years pass or as strategy changes
Source: NGBPEC Strategic Management Course
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Vision
The desired future state of your organization. The vision
describes where the organization is headed, what it intends to
be, or how it wishes to be perceived in the future.
Clear (simple words and wording) Concise (the fewer words the
better)Catchy (snappy without using slang)Memorable (easy to
recall; easy to explain)Built on the foundation of your mission
and assessment of environmentFocused on the future
Source: NGBPEC Strategic Management Course
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Core Competencies
Core Competencies refer to an organization’s areas of greatest
expertise. They are those strategically important capabilities
that are central to fulfilling your mission. They are challenging
for competitors to imitate and provide a sustainable competitive
advantage.
Source: Army Performance Improvement Criteria
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CUSTOMER FOCUS
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Customer Focus
Customer Focus is a broad term used to describe how an

organization comprehends and seeks to engage with internal and
external entities. Building strong relationships is of primary
concern.
Key questions to ask, answer, and understand:
Who are our Stakeholders? Who are our Customers? What are
our Products? What are our Services? What are our
Stakeholders’ expectations? What are our Customers’
expectations?
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Stakeholders
The term stakeholder refers to all groups that are or might be
affected by an organization’s actions, successes, and failures.
Examples:
Employees
Partners
Suppliers
Citizens
Others?
Note: Some organizations substitute the term “Partner” for
Stakeholder.
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DEFINING THE STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT
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Environmental ScanMission, vision, valuesUnderstanding of
leadership priorities Leadership guidance Organizational
structureCustomers needs Technology Health and well being of
employees Demographic trends Relationships with stakeholders
Business and volunteer communityOther regions/partnersNew
mandatesPast strategic plansNewly passed legislation Current
literature Interviews with stakeholders Questionnaires/surveys
Focus groups Public consultation/meetings Economic
tendenciesOthers?
Consider economic, political, social, and technological trends
that could impact the ability to accomplish your mission. Below
are some components of an environmental scan that may be
considered by strategic planners. The environmental scan is
critical to your strategic planning success!
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Environmental Scan - SWOT INTERNAL ANALYSIS
Strengths: What are we doing well? Why? Weaknesses: Where
must we improve? Why are we not doing well?
-- How do we determine our strengths and weaknesses? Are
there “blind spots” in our assessment? If so, how will we
uncover hidden strengths and weaknesses?
EXTERNAL ANALYSIS Opportunities: What opportunities
exist outside of your organization? Should we exploit these
opportunities? Why/Why not? Threats: What are the potential

threats to achieving our vision, mission, goals, and objectives?
Are we effectively addressing these threats? If so, how? If not,
why not?
-- What criteria do we use to determine opportunities and
threats? Are we biased in determining our criteria. What are
our “blind spots”?
** A SWOT ANALYSIS WILL ENABLE AN ORGANIZATION
TO FOCUS PLANNING EFFORTS ON THOSE STRATEGIC
‘CENTERS OF GRAVITY’ THAT WILL RESULT IN
ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE VISION, MISSION, GOALS,
AND OBJECTIVES.
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SWOT BenefitsCan be used very effectively with senior
leadership planning teams that are taking a step back to examine
their external and internal environments.
Can lead the team to some necessary and substantive
discussions that would not come up in the normal course of an
organization struggling with short term issues.
Helps the organization identify its priority issues which may
evolve into strategic goals.
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SWOT LimitationsDifficult to conduct a long term assessment
in an unstable environment.
Looks at a point in time and circumstances can change rapidly.
Output is often either trivial or so broad to be relative

meaningless
when making decisions.
Sometimes too broad based, not granular enough – Doesn’t
provide a specific answer for strategy – May yield few clear cut
recommendations.
Gives an impression of detached assessment of strengths and
weaknesses; may be unreliable, being bound up with
aspirations, biases and hopes.
Not quantitative – Subjective – Difficult to measure – Assumes
all factors have equal weight.
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GOALS
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GoalsThe term “Goals” refers to a future condition that an
organization intends to attain.
Goals can be both short-term (6 – 18 months) or long-term (18
to 36 months).
Goals are the “ends’ that guide the “ways” and “means”.
Goals are directly related to the organization’s Strategic

Situation and support the mission and vision.
“People often complain about the lack of time when the lack of
direction is the real problem!”
Zig Ziglar
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Goal Guidelines
Goals are developed by the “leaders” of the organization.
Keep Goals big.
Don’t mix Goals and Objectives.
Goals are general, Objectives are more specific.
Goals support Mission, Vision, and should be derived from the
analysis of your Strategic Environment.
Once developed, leaders assign the goal to an Office of Primary
Responsibility.
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EXECUTING
THE STRATEGIC PLAN
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Execution Strategy
The Strategic Plan must be deployed to all levels in your
organization.
The Strategic Plan effects everyone.
Everyone must be aware of and work toward the goals.
Lower levels of the organization now build their plans.
The Plan must be cascaded to the lowest levels.
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Executing the Plan
Methods to Execute your Strategic Plan:
Leaders Briefing
Posters
Laminated Organizational Philosophy cards
Postings on Websites
Use of Social Media
Leadership Buy-in and Emphasis is Critical:
Leader Strategic Plan talking points for visits

Have strategic level leaders provide presentations at Strategic
Planning events.
Each strategic level leader develops his/her own Strategic Plan.
Walk the Talk
Follow-up / through:
Town halls
Performance Appraisals
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Executing the Plan – A Mid-Level Leadership Responsibility
Environmental Scanning – Assessing Opportunities and Threats
A strategic plan is a living document – update based on
environmental changes
Who is responsible for environmental scanning (SWOT) in
your organization?
Supporting Goals & Objectives – Fixing Responsibility
Who has primary responsibility?
Who is supporting?
Detailed Action Planning – Where the “Rubber Meets the Road”
Each objective should have an Action Plan
Specify tasks necessary to achieve the supported Objective
Measurements – Understanding Progress
Measure specific tasks to understand progress
Measures are a standard to evaluate and communicate
performance
Leadership Emphasis – A Strategic Planning Imperative!
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OBJECTIVES
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Objectives
They are statements of what must be done to achieve a goal.
Typically, two or more objectives are required to reach the goal
Developed by the group/organization the goal has been
assigned to.
Typically, they have a one-year time frame.
Objectives are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and
Timely (SMART).
Part of the performance appraisal
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Objectives Example
GOAL 3: “By the end of 2016, the National Guard will add an
emergency, fixed-wing aircraft capability to its force structure.”
Objective 3.1: By end of March 2016, identify aircraft,
facilities, and support structure for future emergency response

requirements.
Objective 3.2: By June 2016, identify States with similar
force structure.
Objective 3.3: By September 2016, provide a briefing to
the Congressional delegation on future structure needs.
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ACTION PLANS
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Action Plans
The term “Action Plans” refers to specific actions/steps that are
necessary to achieve the objective. Action Plan development
represents the critical link in strategic planning. Action
Planning is where the rubber meets the road and ultimately
determines success or failure.
Action Plans establish authority, responsibility, and
accountability.
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Action Plan Guidelines Usually are developed and written by
the individual responsible for
the specific action (not senior leadership)
Include the supported Goal and Objective
List: Who, What, When, Where, How, and Why
Reviewed and approved by first line supervisor
Include resources needed to accomplish the action
Are not expected to be included in the published Strategic Plan
Formats vary
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Action Plan Examples
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Other Examples
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Other Examples
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MEASURES AND TRACKING
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Measures And Tracking
The term “Measures and Tracking” refers to one of the most
critical elements of the strategic planning process. We measure
things in order to communicate (Track) and understand our
progress against an expected results. Knowing where your
organization is at all times is paramount to its success (or
failure). Knowing where you are allows the leadership to make
the necessary adjustment to the “ends, ways, and means”
required to attain the mission.

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These are the conclusive pieces of the Strategic Plan.
Methods and formats vary from very simple to very
complex.
Designed to give leaders a current view of the progress
of the plan
Promotes Fact-based decision making.
The hardest aspect of Strategic Planning – requires real
work!
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Item InProg Complete(%) Not started Comment
Goal #3 Y 30%
OBJ 3.1 N 100% Complete
AP 3.1.1 N 100% Complete
AP 3.1.2 N 100% Complete
OBJ 3.2 Y 70%
AP 3.2.1 Y 50%

AP 3.2.2 N 0% X TDY
AP 3.2.3 Y 90%
OBJ 3.3 N 0% X Priority
AP 3.3.1 N 0% X
AP 3.3.2 N 0% X
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Strategic Planning – An Overview
“IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO CHANGE …
SURVIVAL IS NOT MANDATORY!”
W. Edwards Deming
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Power and Politics
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The Meaning of Power Power is the capacity of a person, team,
or organization to influence othersThe potential to influence
othersPeople have power they don’t use and may not know they
possessPower requires one person’s perception of dependence
on another person
Why does having power matter?With power you can:Intercede
favorably on behalf of someone in troubleGet a desirable
placement for a talented subordinateGet approval for
expenditures beyond the budgetGet items on and off agendasGet
fast access to decision makersMaintain regular, frequent contact
with decision makersAcquire early information about decisions
and policy shifts
Types of PowerFive types of
power:LegitimateRewardCoercive ReferentExpert
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Legitimate PowerBasis: Power granted to a person

based on his or her position in the organization
In organizations that have weak project management structures,
the project leader has very little legitimate power
Those with legitimate power can help with providing resources,
project team legitimacy, and empowering project team leaders –
take advantage of interactions with those in power
Reward PowerBasis: Derives from being in a
position to administer rewards that a follower desires
Not just money – appreciation, knowledge of how efforts
improve the organization, others?
Leaders should understand basis of follower’s motivation
(intrinsic/extrinsic) and reward accordingly, when possible
Coercive PowerBasis: The ability of a leader to
punish followers for not complying with a directive
Most project managers do not have this power, however, this is
the least desirable form of power in terms of motivating action
Referent PowerBasis: The power leaders gain when
people identify with them
Lead by example – be role models for others to follow
Referent power may be destroyed by immoral, unethical or rude
actions
Expert Power Basis: The leader has important
knowledge or expertise about an activity being performed
Does not have to be technical expertise – political maneuvering,

managing projects, etc.
Only accorded to a person if the team values it
Information and PowerControl over information flowBased
on legitimate powerRelates to formal communication
networkCommon in centralized structures (wheel
pattern)Coping with uncertainty Those who know how to cope
with organizational uncertainties gain
powerPreventionForecastingAbsorption
Consequences of Power
Reward
Power
Legitimate Power
Coercive
Power
Expert
Power
Referent
Power
Sources of Power
Consequences of Power
Commitment
Resistance
Compliance

Power and Influence TacticsPower can change over
timePersonal power can be easily gained or lostAbuse of power
will result in loss of power
Influence tactics can change based on circumstances
Influence includes:LegitimizationConsultationRational
PersuasionIngratiationExchangePressureCoalitionsPersonal
AppealInspirational Appeal
(Lussier & Achua, 2012)
Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics. First is
legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying a
request accords with organizational policies or rules. Second is
rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual
evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable. Third is
inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by
appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
Fourth is consultation. Increasing the target’s support by
involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your
plan. Fifth is exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or
favors in exchange for following a request. Sixth is personal
appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.
Seventh is ingratiation. Using flattery, praise, or friendly
behavior prior to making a request. Eighth is pressure. Using
warnings, repeated demands, and threats. And none is
coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the
target to agree.
*
Organizational Politics“Is the process of gaining and using
power.”Politics:Is a reality of organizationsIs a medium of
exchangeDirectly affects individual and organization success

(Lussier & Achua, 2012, P. 161)
*
Common Political Behaviors
Networking:Is the process of developing relationships for the
purpose of socializing and politickingContributes most to
successful management advancement
Reciprocity:
Coalitions:Involves creating obligations and developing
alliances, and using them to accomplish objectivesUses the
exchange influence tacticDoing something for someone creates
a debt to be collected at a future timeUse reciprocity and
networkingIs a political influence tactic
Types of
Organizational
Politics
Managing
impressions
Attacking and
blaming
Creating
obligations
Cultivating
networks
Types of Organizational Politics
Controlling
information

Forming
coalitions
Conditions
Supporting
Organizational
Politics
Scarce
Resources
Complex and
Ambiguous
Decisions
Personal
Characteristics
Tolerance of
Politics
Conditions for Organizational Politics
Power, Politics, and Leadership
Politics are inherently neither “good” or “bad”Remember
definitions:Politics: “Is the process of gaining and using
power.”Power: “The leader’s potential influence over
followers.” Influencing: ”Is the process of affecting others’
attitudes and behavior in order to achieve an
objective.”Leadership: "The influencing process of leaders and
followers to achieve organizational objectives through change.”
*

Developing Political SkillsLearn the organizational culture and
power playersDevelop good working relationships, especially
with your managerBe a loyal, honest team playerGain
recognition
Controlling Political Behavior
Peer Pressure
Against Politics
Remove
Political Norms
Free Flowing
Information
Manage Change
Effectively
Provide
Sufficient
Resources
Introduce
Clear Rules
Hire
Low-Politics
Employees
Increase
Opportunities
for Dialogue
Politics, Power, and Ethical BehaviorIt is difficult to
differentiate ethical from unethical politicsWhat is the utility of

engaging in political behavior?Is it worth the risk?Does the
political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?
Will others be harmed in the process?Use of powerHelps to
meet organizational objectives when used ethicallyIs only
unethical when used to promote your self-interest at the expense
of othersWith strong power base—recognize the ability of
power to corruptEasier for the powerless to act ethically
Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical
from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should
consider. For example, what is the utility of engaging in
politicking? Sometimes we engage in political behavior for
little good reason. Major league baseball player Al Martin
claimed he played football at USC when in fact he never did. As
a baseball player, he had little to gain by pretending to have
played football. Outright lies like this may be a rather extreme
example of impression management, but many of us have
distorted information to make a favorable impression.
One thing to keep in mind is whether it’s really worth the risk.
Another question to ask is this, “How does the utility of
engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or
potential harm) it will do to others?” Complimenting a
supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is
probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project
that others deserve.
Finally, does the political activity conform to standards of
equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs
and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. The
department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a
favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored
employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the
former a big raise and nothing to the latter—has treated the

disfavored employee unfairly. Unfortunately, powerful people
can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in
terms of the organization’s best interests. They can persuasively
argue that unfair actions are really fair and just.
Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any
behavior. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive
are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are likely to
be able to get away with unethical practices successfully.
*
Consensus Building and Negotiation
*
Negotiation
Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is
a process by which compromise or agreement is reached while
avoiding argument.
In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve
the best possible outcome for their position (or perhaps an
organization they represent). However, the principles of
fairness, seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship
are the keys to a successful outcome.
The point of negotiation is to try to reach agreements without

causing future barriers to communications.
*
Stages of Negotiation
The process of negotiation includes the following stages:
Preparation
Discussion
Clarification of goals
Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome
Agreement
Implementation of a course of action
*
Preparation
When and where will the meeting will take place?
Who will attend?
This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the
situation are known in order to clarify your own position.
Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will
help to avoid further conflict and unnecessaril y wasting time
during the meeting.
*

Discussion
During this stage, individuals or members of each side put
forward the case as they see it, i.e. their understanding of the
situation. Key skills during this stage are questioning, listening
and clarifying. Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the
discussion stage to record all points put forward in case there is
need for further clarification. It is extremely important to
listen, as when disagreement takes place it is easy to make the
mistake of saying too much and listening too little. Each side
should have an equal opportunity to present their case.
*
Clarifying Goals
From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of
both sides of the disagreement need to be clarified. It is helpful
to list these in order of priority. Through this clarification it is
often possible to identify or establish common ground.
*
Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome
This stage focuses on what is termed a Win-Win outcome where
both sides feel they have gained something positive through the
process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view
has been taken into consideration.
A Win-Win outcome, although not always possible, should be
the ultimate goal.
Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to
be considered at this point. Compromises are often positive

alternatives which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.
*
Agreement
Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’
viewpoints and interests have been considered. It is essential to
keep an open mind in order to achieve a solution. Any
agreement needs to be made perfectly clear so that both sides
know what has been decided.
If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot
be reached, then re-scheduling a further meeting is called for.
This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated discussion
or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage
future relationships.
*
Implementing a Course of Action
From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented
to carry through the decision.
Informal NegotiationThere are times when there is a need to
negotiate more informally. At such times, when a difference of
opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go
through the stages in a formal manner. However, remembering
the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very
helpful in a variety of informal situations.
*

Focusing on Interests Rather Than Positions (Cohen)
We are normally prepared for the substance of negotiations,
however, the process is unsettling – why?Position-based versus
Interest-based negotiation – what’s the difference?Interest-
based negotiation techniques can help us focus our energy on
the process – how?
*
Focusing on Interests Rather Than Positions
Rules of Negotiation:Separate the people from the
problemDistinguish between interests and positionsConsider
your BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated
Agreement)Silence is goldenPursue fairnessOnly one person can
get angry at a time
*
Separate the people from the problemView the problem as that
which needs resolving rather than the defeat of another
personTechnique: Alternative Table arrangement
Distinguish between interests & positions“Fighting over the
orange”Not only consider “what they want” but also “why do

they want it”? This also applies to your interests.
*
Focusing on Interests Rather Than Positions Silence is
goldenParticularly effective if the other party is highly
emotional and demandingMost people are troubled by
silenceSilence is often viewed as disapproval and may
sometimes lead to modifications or concessionsAn important
element in Active ListeningRequires you to focus on what is
being said, not shaping your responseWill show that your are
paying attention and are interested in the other party’s interests
and opinions
*
Focusing on Interests Rather Than Positions Pursue fairnessIf
participants view the process of fair, they are more likely to
“buy into” the resultIf parties can agree to standards it can
result in “face-saving”How can one make the negotiation
process “fair”?Only one person can get angry at a timeIf it’s not
“your turn” you can use your energy to clearly observe the
processYelling at each other in not negotiation, it is
confrontation

*
Consider your BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated
Agreement)Must be based on interests rather than
positionWhat’s the best alternative if an agreement is not
reached?Knowing your BATNA allows you to “walk away” if
needed and accept your BATNAWhat is the other party’s
BATNA?
*
BATNABest Alternative To a
Negotiated Agreement What you would most prefer to do if you
and the other party are not able to reach a deal.
Importance of BATNA: Help you make smarter choices because
they remove the pressure to reach an agreement. Gives you
more bargaining power because they help you quickly identify
how a proposed deal stacks up against your alternatives
*
*

BATNADeveloping a
BATNABrainstorm possible alternatives to a negotiation. Weigh
your underlying interests for each of the alternatives that you
propose— cost, time constraints, relationships, etc. Determine
which alternative is your best alternative.
Speculating About the Other Party's BATNA Consider what the
other party's BATNA might be and what value the other party
places on it. Don't fall into the trap of deciding how the other
party should see it versus how he or she really views it.
*
*
Identify your own BATNA
Describe a negotiation you’re facing in the future
Ask yourself “What will I do if this agreement cannot be
reached?”
List Alternatives
Outline the interests that the alternatives meet or don’t meet.
Consider – ease, process, time pressure, relationships, risks
What else could you do to improve your analysis?
Are the alternatives practical and actionable? Could they be
improved?
Which one is best? The highest value alternative is your
BATNA
*
*

Speculate on the other Party’s BATNA
Speculate what the other party will do if this agreement cannot
be reached”
List Alternatives
Speculate about the interests that the alternatives meet or don’t
meet. Consider – ease, process, time pressure, relationships,
risks
What else could you do to improve your analysis? What can you
do to better understand the other’s environment?
Bias check – have you fairly imagined the other party’s
options?
Which one seems best? The highest value alternative is the
other party’s BATNA.
What questions can you ask during negotiation to uncover the
other party’s interests? List them
You’re ready to begin your negotiation. Remember – a BATNA
is the standard against which any proposed agreement must be
measured.
*
*
Examples of BATNAWhat do you get if you walk away from the
deal?Another day at another car dealerKeep the existi ng job
*
*

Common Negotiation TrapsFailing to identify your interests
Avoid this trap by clarifying your full range of interests. In
addition to price, consider other interests, such as: maintaining
a positive working relationship; focusing on the "spirit of the
deal" (how the agreement will work in practice); and ensuring
that the negotiation process is perceived as fair and respectful
by both sides. Neglecting your BATNA Avoid this trap by
developing a BATNA—your best alternative to a negotiated
agreement. Determine what you would do if an agreement
cannot be reached. Ignoring the other side's problem Avoid this
trap by viewing the negotiation from the other party's
perspective. Speculate about their underlying interests and
BATNA. Compare your interests with those of the other party
and look for opportunities for mutual gain. Overlooking
differences Avoid this trap by searching for differences in
interests that can suggest new options for mutually beneficial
deals.
*
*
Common Negotiation TrapsIntroducing biases Avoid this trap
by not letting cognitive biases such as role bias (over
committing to your own point of view) and partisan perceptions
(painting your side with positive qualities while vilifying your
"opponent") enter into a negotiation. Confusing the deal and the
relationship Avoid this trap by keeping issues surrounding the
deal (such as price and service levels) and the relationship (such

as mutual understanding and respect) separate. When you and
the other side don't feel that you need to trade the quality of the
relationship for the terms of the deal, you exchange information
more freely and become more creative and collaborative in your
discussions. Failing to make appreciative moves Avoid this trap
by keeping a constructive dialogue going. When negotiations
stall, solicit the other party's ideas and perspectives on an issue
and express your appreciation of what the other party brings to
the table. Ignoring the spirit of the deal Avoid this trap by
clarifying expectations about how your negotiation will be
implemented. Determine how you and the other party will work
together, resolve disputes, communicate, and handle surprises,
before the ink has dried on the contract.
*
*
Consensus BuildingA process:Presentation/ProposalClarifying
Questions DiscussionTake general feelings on the proposal Call
for Major Objection or Strong ConcernA major objection blocks
the proposal from passing. If you have a major objection it
means that you cannot live with the proposal if it passes. A
strong concern does not block the passing of a proposal, but it
is a public statement of why you dislike it
*
*

Consensus BuildingConsensus – Overwhelming agreement. Not
unanimity A product of a good-faith effort to meet the interests
of all stakeholdersFacilitationnonpartisan or neutralhelping
groups work together in meetingsMediationhelping parties deal
with strong disagreement
*
*
Problem Management and Decision Making
0
What is Problem Management & Decision Making?
Problem Management - ?
Decision Making - ?
2

What is Problem Management & Decision Making?
Problem Management – Activities required to diagnose the root
cause of incidents and to determine resolution to those
problems.
Decision Making – The thought process of selecting a logical
choice from the available options. When trying to make a good
decision, a leader must weigh the positives and negatives of
each option, and consider all the alternatives.
3
Some Bad Decisions...
"There is no reason anyone would want a computer in their
home." --Ken Olson, president, chairman and founder of Digital
Equipment Corp., 1977
"Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible." -- Lord
Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.
"We don't like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out."
--Decca Recording Co. rejecting the Beatles, 1962.
"This 'telephone' has too many shortcomings to be seriously
considered as a means of communication. The device is
inherently of no value to us." -- Western-Union internal memo,
1876. Alexander Bell offered the patent for the Telephone to
Western-Union in 1876 for $100,000. They declined. The
telephone patent has been estimated as the most valuable patent
of all time.
"Drill for oil? You mean drill into the ground to try to find oil?
You're crazy." -- Drillers who Edwin L. Drake tried to enlist to
his project to drill for oil in 1859
5

Some Good Decisions...
- Apple’s decision to chase the prize of the first saleable PC
created an industry.
- Henry Ford’s decision to start his own company in 1903 led to
the first mass production line, created a mass market in
automobiles, launched a corporate giant, changed perceptions of
travel, led to the establishing of a variety of other industries,
and provided a blueprint for industrial production.
- In 1981, a group of 13 senior Harley-Davidson executives led
by Vaughn Beals bought the company. They celebrated with a
victory ride from the company’s factory in York to its
headquarters in Milwaukee. Then they made a great decision:
The new owners started the Harley Owners Group (H.O.G.) to
get customers more involved with the brand. It worked.
- The New Coke fiasco of 1985 was one of the worst decisions
on record. So, wherein lies the greatness? The decision to go
back to the original recipe was brave and (relatively) speedy.
We all screw up. The brave thing to do is to hold your hands up
and admit it.
6
Decision Making Models
5
Incremental Model
Polis Model
Garbage Can Model
Bargaining Model

Participative Model
Rational Model
Gerras, S.J. (Ed.) (2010). Strategic leadership primer (3rd Ed.).
Carlisle, PA: Department of
Command, Leadership, and Management; U.S. Army War
College.
6
Incremental Model (Charles Lindblom): Decisions are made in
small analytical increments in response to events and
circumstances where the decision-maker’s analysis is focused
on familiar, better-known experiences.
1. Only a few options are considered
2. Decisions are the product of negotiated settlements
3. Changes are made gradually over time
4. Decisions tend to be made reactively
5. Political considerations are important in determining
outcomes
7
.
College.

Incremental Model (Charles Lindblom): Decisions are made in
small analytical increments in response to events and
circumstances where the decision-maker’s analysis is focused
on familiar, better-known experiences.
the attainment of short-term solutions may be at the
expense of more important and far-reaching goals
small changes are more subject to correction if they
produce unfavorable outcomes
decision making is slowed down in order to avoid big
mistakes sometimes resulting in “kicking the can down the
road”
8
College.
Polis Model (Deborah Stone): Assumes inconsistencies in life
where the political community is able to deal with less than
comprehensive and reliable information. Decisions are made
and solutions formed with inducements, rules, rights, and
powers as the driving forces. Characteristics:
State goals ambiguously and keep some secret.
Be prepared to shift and redefine goals as the political situation
dictates.

Keep undesirable alternatives off the agenda by not mentioning
them.
Make your preferred alternative appear to be the only feasible
one.
Focus on one part of the causal chain and ignore politically
difficult ones.
Use rhetorical devices to blend alternatives to prevent strong
opposition.
Selectively project consequences that make your decision look
the best.
Choose the action that hurts powerful constituents the least,
but portray your
decision as creating the maximum social good.
9
College.
Garbage Can Model (March, Cohen, & Olsen): Decisions are
made based on chance and unsystematic interactions of actors
and opportunities, and the current availability of resources.
Organizations have inconsistent and ill-defined preferences,
and operate on the basis of trial and error

Stakeholders only partially understand the processes
Decision-makers often act whimsically and impulsively
Organizations produce many solutions for which there are no
immediate problems, and these are dumped in a holding can—
the garbage can
Problems needing solutions will arise in the future and a search
through the garbage can might yield a solution. In this sense,
the garbage can is really an “opportunity” can.
10
College.
Bargaining Model: Bargaining reflects a decision making
process both between individuals within an organization and
between organizations through their representatives. This
perspective requires an understanding of the principles of
negotiation.
The essence of decision making of groups involves tradeoffs
between constituents that may have competing interests and
agendas.

In seeking to identify common interests and mutual benefit for
the involved parties, some concessions may be made, but the
resulting decision should produce a condition that is acceptable
to either side.
11
College.
Bargaining Model: The essence of decision making of groups
involves tradeoffs between constituents that may have
competing interests and agendas.
Advantage: effective for addressing and presenting issues that
get multiple perspectives
Disadvantage: may not result in the best alternative since
consensus sometimes results in achieving a decision that all will
accept
12
College.

Participative Model: The participative decision making
perspective is an expansion of the bargaining approach and
attempts to include all those directly affected by the decision.
It is the most democratic form of decision making.
Providing the opportunity to voice an opinion is not the same
as giving power to make the decision.
Groups can wield significant power and present obstacles if not
appropriately included in the decision process.
Participative decision making is slow and expensive.
An effective means to collect information, the amount and
unorganized nature of the information must be addressed.
The quality of decision making depends on the expertise and
commitment of participants – subordinate self-interest in pursuit
of common goals.
13
College.
Rational Model: This approach, also known as “the rational-
comprehensive” model, borrows from economic theory and has
the goal of maximizing efficiency by picking the best
alternative based on specific criteria. It is often described as a
six-step process:

1. Define goals
2. Identify alternatives
3. Calculate the consequences
4. Decide the most favorable using a calculated ratio of benefits
to costs
5. Monitor implementation
6. Begin again
14
College.
Don’t Forget the Intuitive Model!
15
Risk: Probability & Consequence
Probability
Very Likely – occurs often, continuously experienced
Likely – occurs several times
Questionable – unlikely, but could occur at some time
Unlikely – can assume it will never occur

Consequence
High – critical objectives cannot be achieved
Significant – only the most critical objectives can be achieved
Moderate – can partially achieve all objectives
Low – can fully achieve all objectives
Leading Change
Harrisburg University of Science & Technology
*
*
"The greatest danger in times of turbulence is not the
turbulence; it is to act with yesterday’s logic.“
- Peter Drucker
"Change is the law of life and those who look only to the past or
present are certain to miss the future."
- John F. Kennedy

“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed,
citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that
ever has.”
- Margaret Mead
“If you always do what you’ve always done, you’ll always get
what you’ve always got.”
- Anonymous
“I alone cannot change the world, but I can cast a stone across
the waters to create many ripples.”
- Mother Teresa
"The rate of change is not going to slow down anytime soon. If
anything, competition in most industries will probably speed up
even more in the next few decades."
- John P. Kotter

*
Thoughts on Change
Organizational Change: An alteration in an organization’s
alignment with its external environment
Change can be transformational or incremental
Organizational change is any transition that requires a change in
human performance
Lussier, R.N. & Achua, C.F., Leadership: Theory, Application,
& Skill Development.
Leading Change & Transition
*
*
Understanding Change
*

Understanding Change
Leading Change
(Kotter, 2012)
Patterns of success:Associated with a multi-step process that
creates power and motivationProcess is driven by high-quality
leadership, not just excellent managementAspects of
Management: planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing,
controlling, problem solvingAspects of Leadership: establishing
direction, aligning people, motivating and inspiring“Corporate
cultures discourage employees from learning how to lead.” DO
YOU AGREE??
Kotter, John P. (2012). Leading change. Boston: Harvard
Business School Press.
*
*

The Leader’s Role in Leading Change
Options that leaders can use to effectively manage change rather
than simply reacting to it include:Articulating a compelling
reason for changeHaving open and regular
communicationsHaving a road map for implementationHaving
training programs for required skills/competenciesForming a
coalition of supporters and expertsStaying the course in spite of
perceived difficultiesRecognizing and rewarding the
contributions of othersCarefully managing resources and
prioritiesKeeping the process transparentHaving a plan for
dealing with resistance
The Eight-Stage Process
Establishing a Sense of Urgency
Creating the Guiding Coalition
Developing a Vision and Strategy
Communicating the Change Vision
Empowering Broad-Based Action
Generating Short-Term Wins
Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change
Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture

*
The Eight-Stage Process
The first four steps help “defrost the hardened status quo.” -
YOU MUST ADDRESS THESE STEPS
Phases five through seven introduce new practices
Step eight grounds the changes in the culture
*
1. Establishing a Sense of Urgency
“People will find a thousand ingenious ways to withhold
cooperation…”Ineptitude & complacency are not necessarily
linkedNine sources of complacency.Big egos and arrogant
cultures reinforce complacency “Never underestimate the
magnitude of the forces that reinforce complacency and that
help maintain the status quo.”Ways to raise the urgency
level.No crises? Create one!! How??Key players are often
middle- and lower-level managersMuster up the courage to
listen carefully to outsiders (customers, suppliers, stockholders)

– What is the urgency rate? What is the level of complacency?
*
Ways to Raise the Urgency Level
Create a crisis – allow a financial loss, expose managers to
major weaknesses, allow errors to blow up.Eliminate obvious
examples of excess.Set revenue, income, productivity, customer
satisfaction, and cycle-time targets so high that they can’t be
achieved by conducting business as usual.Insist that more
people be held accountable for broader measures of
performance.Send more data about customer satisfaction and
financial performance to more employees (especially
weaknesses).Insist that people talk to unsatisfied customers,
unhappy suppliers, and disgruntled shareholders.Use consultants
to force more relevant data and honest discussion.Stop senior
management “happy talk.”Bombard people with information on
future opportunities, on the rewards for capitalizing on these
opportunities, and on the organization’s current inability to
pursue those opportunities.
*

Sources of Complacency
The absence of a major and visible crisisToo many visible
resourcesLow overall performance standardsOr ganizational
structures that focus employees on narrow functional
goalsInternal measurement systems that focus on the wrong
performance measuresA lack of sufficient performance feedback
from external sourcesA kill-the-messenger-of-bad-news, low-
candor, low-confrontation cultureHuman nature, with its
capacity for denial, especially if people are already busy or
stressedToo much happy talk from senior management
*
Why People Resist Change
*
Threat to one’s self-interest
Uncertainty
Lack of confidence that change will succeed
Lack of conviction that change is necessary

Distrust of leadership
Threat to personal values
Fear of being manipulated
Minimizing Resistance to Change
*
& Skill Development.Effective leaders ensure that they keep
employees informed, supported, and motivated about any
change initiativesChange agents should pay attention to the “5-
Ps”—purpose, priorities, people, process, and proofTraining,
education and mentoring are needed to help employees acquire
skills and capabilities for their role in the implementation
process or for their new responsibilities
People-Centered Recommendations for Minimizing
Resistance to Change
*
Show relentless support and unquestionable commitment to the
change process

Communicate the need and the urgency for change to everyone
Maintain ongoing communication about the progress of the
change
Avoid micromanaging and empower people to implement the
change
Ensure that change efforts are adequately staffed and funded
Anticipate and prepare people for the necessary adjustment that
change will trigger such as career counseling and retraining
Task-Centered Recommendations for
Minimizing Resistance to Change
*
Assemble a coalition of supporters inside and outside the
organization
Align organizational structure with new strategy, for
consistency
Transfer the implementation process to a working team
Recruit and fill key positions with competent and committed
supporters
Know when and how to use ad hoc committees or task forces to
shape implementation activities
Recognize and reward the contributions of others to the change
process

2. Creating the Guiding Coalition
The belief that one highly visible leader can transform an
organization is dangerousA strong guiding coalition is needed
with the right composition, level of trust, and shared
objectiveThe low credibility committeeDecision making in
today’s business environmentKey characteristics needed for an
effective guiding coalition:Position
powerExpertiseCredibilityLeadership Individuals that sabotage
success: egomaniacs, snakes, and the reluctant player“Personnel
problems that can be ignored during easy times can cause
serious trouble in a tougher, faster-moving, globalizing
economy.”The Right People + Trust + A Common Goal =
Effective Teamwork
*
Decision Making in Today’s Environment
Today’s Environment:
Demands more large-scale change via new strategies,
reengineering, restructuring, mergers, acquisitions, downsizing,
new product or market development, etc.
Decisions Made Inside the Organization Are: Based on bigger,
more complex, more emotionally charged issues Made more
quickly Made in a less certain environment Require more

sacrifice from those implementing the decisions
A New Decision-Making Process:
Is required because no one individual has the information
needed to make all major decisions or the time and credibility
needed to convince lots of people to implement the decisions
Must be guided be a powerful coalition that can act as a team
*
3. Developing a Vision and Strategy
Authoritarian decree &/or micromanagement – common and
ineffectiveVision – a picture of the future with commentary on
why people should strive to create that futureBy providing a
direction it simplifies detailed decisionsIt motivates people to
take action in the right directionIt helps coordinate actions in a
fast and efficient wayCan “clear the decks” of expensive and
time-consuming clutterThe relationship of vision, strategies,
plans, and budgetsCharacteristics of an effective vision
Strategic feasibility – stretching resources and capabilities with
great leadership that makes ambitious goals look doableCreating
an effective vision is not easy:Vision is not a component of
effective management, but of effective leadershipA vision
statement may appear to be rather simple and straightforward,
but data and synthesis are also requiredHead & heart are
requiredLack of teamwork = endless negotiationIf urgency is
not high, the process will not be completed“An ineffective
vision may be worse than no vision at all”What’s the Vision of
your organization??

*
Vision, Strategies, Plans & Budgets
Leadership Creates:
Management Creates:
*
Vision A sensible and appealing picture of the future
Strategies A logic for how the vision can be achieved
Plans Specific steps and timetables to implement the
strategies
Budgets Plans converted into financial projections and
goals

Characteristics of an Effective Vision
Imaginable: Conveys a picture of that the future will look like
Desirable: Appeals to the long-term interests of employees,
customers, stockholders, and others who have a stake in the
enterprise
Feasible: Comprises realistic, attainable goals
Focused: Is clear enough to provide guidance in decision
making
Flexible: Is general enough to allow individual initiative and
alternative responses in light of changing conditions
Communicable: Is easy to communicate; can be successfully
explained within five minutes
*
4. Communicating the Change Vision
Quality versus quantityIf urgency rate isn’t high, people won’t
listenIf guiding coalition does not have the right people it will
have difficulty creating and sending an appropriate
messageSelling a poor vision is a tough job“A gallon of

information dumped into a river of routine
communication”Accepting a vision is an intellectual and
emotional taskKey elements in the effective communication of a
vision:SimplicityMetaphor, analogy, and exampleMultiple
forumsRepetitionLeadership by exampleExplanation of seeming
inconsistenciesGive-and-takeIf people don’t accept the vision
the next two steps (empowering individuals for broad-based
action and creating short-term wins) will fail
*
5. Empowering Broad-Based Action
Barriers to Empowerment Formal Structures Lack of Needed
SkillsPersonnel & Information SystemsDiscouraging Bosses
Empowering People to Effect Change Communicate a sensible
vision to employeesMake structures compatible with the
visionProvide the training employees needAlign information
and personnel systems to the visionConfron t supervisors who
undercut needed change
*

6. Generating Short-Term Wins
The Role of Short-Term Wins Provide evidence that sacrifices
are worth itReward change agents with a pat on the backHelp
fine-tune vision and strategiesUndermine cynics and self-
serving resistersKeep bosses on boardBuild
momentumCharacteristics of Short-Term Wins:It’s visibleIt’s
unambiguousIt’s clearly related to the change effortPlanning
versus PrayingKeep the Pressure (Maintain Sense of
Urgency)The Role of Leadership and Management
*
7. Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change
“Short-terms wins are essential to keep momentum going, but
the celebration of those wins can be lethal if urgency is lost.
With complacency up, the forces of tradition can sweep back
with remarkable speed and force.” Progress can slip for two
reasons:Corporate culture (next stage)Increased interdependence
– difficult to change without changing everythingWhat success
looks like in Stage 7:More change, not less – additional and
bigger change projectsMore help – additional people are
brought in, promoted, and developedLeadership from senior
management – clarity of shared purposeProject management and
leadership from below – lower ranks provide leadership for

specific projectsReduction of unnecessary interdependencies –
make change easier
*
What Success Looks Like
More change, not less – the guiding coalition uses the
credibility afforded by short-term wins to tackle additional and
bigger change projects.
More help – additional people are brought in, promoted, and
developed to help with all the changes.
Leadership from senior management – senior people focus on
maintaining clarity of shared purpose for the overall effort and
keeping urgency levels up.
Project management and leadership from below – lower ranks in
the hierarchy both provide leadership for specific projects and
manage these projects.
Reduction of unnecessary interdependencies – to make change
easier in both the short and long term, managers identify
unnecessary interdependencies and eliminate them.

*
8. Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture
Culture is powerful for three reasons:Individuals are selected
based on compatibility with culture and then
indoctrinatedCulture exerts itself though the actions of the
people in the organizationIt is unconscious Confront
inconsistencies between culture and change efforts“…the
challenge is to graft the new practices onto the old roots while
killing off the inconsistent pieces.”Anchoring Change in a
Culture (Table 10-1, p. 166)Comes last, not firstDepends of
resultsRequires a lot of talkMay involve turnoverMakes
decisions on succession crucial
*
Forming the Team & Types of Teams

0
Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common
vision. The ability to direct individual accomplishments toward
organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common
people to attain uncommon results.
~Andrew Carnegie
1
1
Leadership Definition – A Review
“The knowledge, skills and behaviors needed to guide,
motivate, and direct a team, to help an organization achieve its
business goals.”
2

“Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common
vision. The ability to direct individual accomplishments toward
organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common
people to attain uncommon results.”
Leadership & Teamwork
The Project Team Leader is responsible for “directing
individual accomplishments toward organizational objectives.”
High Performing Teams require High Performing Leadership.
3
3
Forming the Team
4
Forming the Team
Charter the team - Articulate the project end state (goals,
objectives) – what does success look like?

Develop a plan to achieve your goals and objectives and build
ownership – involve the team in the planning process
Know yourself (strengths, weaknesses, motivations)
Know your team (strengths, weaknesses, motivations)
Define the “5 Rs”
Build trust
Celebrate success – learn from setbacks
5
Chartering the Team
Define the following:
Team Mission
Background and Context
Scope of Work
Objectives
End State
Team Composition
Define Process and Timeline
Have members sign the charter (if necessary)

Periodically review the charter
6
Forming the Team
Know Yourself & Your Team
(Strengths, Weaknesses, Motivations)
7
Personality & Leadership
(Lewis, 2003)
MBTI Considerations:
“It is not how well we think, but how well we act in a given

role. If our behavior is adaptive to circumstances, so that we
act effectively in such circumstances, then we can be said to be
intelligent in those circumstances.”
Idealists: The Intuitive-Feeling (NF) project manager will be
best at diplomacy. They are drawn to the humanities. They
communicate ideas using words and are concerned about the
feelings of others.
Rationals: Intuitive-Thinking (NT) will excel at strategy. They
are drawn to the sciences.
Guardians: Sensing-Judging (SJ) will be strong at logistics and
are natural organizers (make up 80% of corporate populations).
Artisans: Sensing-Perceiving (SP) are driven to master
techniques. They enjoy the arts, speech-making, and making
deals.
However, you seldom find pure types
8
Leadership Styles
(Hersey & Blanchard, Situational Leadership)
9
Application to leading Teams?

Team Development
Tuckman – Stages of Team Development:
Performing
Norming What leadership style would you use
Storming during these stages??
Forming
Thaw/Freeze Model:
Unconsciously Competent
Consciously Competent
Consciously Incompetent
Unconsciously Incompetent
10
The 5 R’s
The 5 R’s should be clearly outlined to help guide Project Team
members by defining expectations and accountability
Rules: What rules (written and unwritten) should the team abide
by?
Roles: What are the roles of the team and individual members of

the team?
Relationships: What relationships (internal and external) are
necessary to achieve team success?
Responsibilities: What are the specific responsibilities of the
team and individual members of the team?
Results: What are the expected results (goals/objectives) of the
team and each member of the team?
11
Types of Teams
12
Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)

13
Virtual Team
Self-Managed Team
Functional Team
Cross-Functional Team
Types of Teams
Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)
Functional Team:
Is a group of employees belonging to the same functional
department, such as marketing, R&D, production, human
resources, or information systems who have a common objective
The structure is generally more hierarchical with the functional
leader making all the decisions and expecting his or her
followers to implement them
Team members tend to focus on their local area of
specialization ignoring the overall organizational mission
There is no one best leadership style to use
The use of functional structure has been in decline
In what circumstances would it be beneficial to use a Functional
Team?
14

Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)
Cross-Functional Team:
Is made up of members of different functional departments of an
organization who are brought together to perform unique tasks
to create new and non-routine products or services
Some members may be from outside the organization
Interaction, cooperation, coordination, information shari ng, and
cross-fertilization of ideas among people from different
functional areas produces better quality products/services with
shorter development cycles
In what circumstances would it be beneficial to use a
Cross-Functional Team?
15
Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)
Guidelines for Effective Cross-Functional Teams:
Develop consensus around a common mission and goals that
focus on organizational outcomes.
Implement team-based performance measures, feedback, and
reward systems.
Ensure effective leadership and top management support.
Promote the use of team building, skill development, and team

training as common practices.
Assemble the right skills.
Organize at the right size.
16
Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)
Virtual Team:
Is one whose members are geographically distributed, requiring
them to work together through electronic means with minimal
face-to-face interaction
Can have significant collaboration, communication, and
leadership challenges to team interaction, information sharing,
and knowledge integration – What are these challenges?
17
Virtual Team?
Types of Teams
(Lussier & Achua)
Self-Managed Team:
Are relatively autonomous and are usually cross-functional in
membership makeup
Share or rotate leadership responsibilities
Hold themselves mutually responsible for a set of performance
goals assigned by higher management
Have wide latitude in decision making in managing themselves,

planning and scheduling work, and taking action on problems
18
Self-Managed Team?
Other Types of Teams
Problem Solving Teams/Task Force/Tiger Team
Product Design Team
Quality Circle
Project Team
Others??
How do you determine which type of team is best?
19
Project Management Institute (2017). A guide to the project
management body of knowledge (PMBOK
Guide), 6
th
Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, Inc.
Organizational Culture and Leadership Climate

*
Organizational Culture
The personality of an organization comprised of
beliefs/assumptions, values/norms, and artifacts (Schien,
1985).Beliefs & Assumptions (invisible)The core of culture;
taken for grantedRepresent what members believe to be
realityThe unquestioned “truth”
*
How to define an organization’s core assumptions:What is the
“correct” way for members to behave (dominant, harmonizing,
passive)?What is the organization’s relationship to its
environment (dominant, submissive, harmonizing, searching
out a niche)?How is truth determined (pragmatic test, reliance
on wisdom, social consensus)?Is time oriented on the past,
present, or future? Are people (& other organizations) basically
good, neutral, or evil?What is the “correct” way for people to
relate to each other, to distribute power (competitive or
cooperative)?Is the organization highly diverse or
homogeneous; are members encouraged to innovate or conform?
*

Values & Norms (greater level of awareness):Values – social
principles, goals, and standards held within a culture to have
worthDefine what members care about, such as freedom,
democracy, tradition, wealth or loyaltyBasis for defining what
is right and wrongNorms – unwritten rules that allow members
of a culture to know what is expected of them in a wide variety
of situationsValues define what is valued, while norms define
what is considered normal or abnormal
*
Artifacts (visible, but often undecipherable)Visible, tangible,
and audible remains of behavior grounded in cultural norms,
values, and assumptionsCategories:Physical manifestations
(logo, décor, dress, physical layout)Verbal manifestations
(anecdotes, names, history, metaphors)Behavioral
manifestations (ceremonies, traditions/customs, rewards and
punishments)
*
According to Shein:“The essence of culture is its core
assumptions and established beliefs. This core reaches outward
through values and behavioral norms that are recognized,
responded to, and maintained by members of the culture. The
values and norms, in turn, influence the choices and other
actions taken by cultural members. Finally, culturally guided
action produces artifacts.”

*
Leadership Climate
*
Leadership Climate
Beliefs and perceptions held by members of an organization as a
result of leadership actionsCulture-embedding mechanisms that
define Climate (Schneider, 1990):What do leaders pay attention
to?How do leaders react to incidents and crises?What criteria is
used to distribute resources?How do leaders role model, teach,
and coach?What criteria is used to allocate awards?What
criteria is used for recruitment, promotions, retirement, and
excommunication?
*
What are some Positive Leadership Climate Indicators?

*
Positive Climate IndicatorsTrust exists in the
organizationTeamwork, fair play, and information sharingOpen,
candid communicationsProject team member job
satisfactionTeam members (and families) attend social activities
Establishing a Positive Leadership ClimateDetermine the
“health” of your teamIdentify climate areas you want to
influenceEstablish clear goals & objectives for each
areaExecute plan; leadership climate is created from the TOP
down
Actions You Can TakeCommunicate a sense of vision or
focusEstablish high, attainable, clearly understood
standardsEncourage competition against standards rather than
each otherAllow subordinates freedom to exercise
initiativeEstablish accountability at appropriate level
Show confidence in subordinatesEncourage & reward prudent
risk-takingAchieve high performance through positive
motivation and rewardsUnderwrite honest mistakesShare
decision making with subordinatesGive clear tasks with
boundaries of autonomy
Actions You Can Take

Actions You Can TakeListen to subordinates and seek
ideasDemonstrate concern about the welfare of
subordinatesEstablish and model high ethical
standardsPRACTICE WHAT YOU PREACH
Fundamentals of Communication and Leadership
*
Planning the Message
(Lussier & Achua. Leadership: Theory, Application, & Skills
Development)What is the goal of the message?Who should
receive the message?Will you send the message?When will the
message be transmitted?Where will the message be transmitted?
10

The Oral Message-Sending Process
Development)
Develop rapportHelps prepare the listener to receive the
message
State your communication objectiveWhat is the desired end
result?
Transmit your messageTell the receiver what is wanted
Check the receiver’s understanding
Ask direct questions and/or use paraphrasing
Get a commitment and follow-up
11
The Importance of Listening
Development)Failure to listen is a major reason leaders failFew
people are good listenersMost people have a passionate desire
to be heard
*
13
The Message-Receiving Process
Development)
ListeningPaying attentionAvoiding distractionsStaying tuned
inNot assuming and interruptingWatching nonverbal cuesAsking
questionsTaking notesConveying meaning
Checking UnderstandingParaphrasingWatching nonverbal cues
AnalyzingThinkingWaiting to evaluate until after listening

Feedback
Development)Is the process of verifying messages and
determining if objectives are being metForms of
feedbackQuestioningParaphrasingAllowing comments and
suggestionsAllows leaders to know how they and the
organization are progressing to meet objectivesUsed to measure
performanceGiving and receiving feedback must be an ongoing
process to be effective
*
Accepting Criticism
Development)To improve your performance and get ahead in an
organization, you have to be open to feedback (criticism)People
do not really enjoy being criticized, even when it is
constructiveWhen you get criticism:View it as an opportunity to
improveStay calmDon’t get defensiveDon’t blame others
*

Feedback: Reasons Why People
Do Not Ask Questions
Development)Receivers feel ignorantReceivers are
ignorantReceivers are reluctant to point out the sender’s
ignoranceReceivers have cultural barriers
*
How to Get Feedback on Messages
Development)Be open to feedbackBe aware of nonverbal
communicationAsk questionsUse paraphrasing
*
Communication & Leadership
Self Reflection (Self-Assessment 6-1 – Listening Skills, p.
188):
What are your strengths and weaknesses as a listener? How can
you improve your skills?
*

Effective Thinking
*
*
“Strategic thinking is an examination of the environment and is
an intuitive and creative process that results in the fusion of
issues, patterns, interrelationships, and opportunities.” (D.
McCauley, National Defense University)
“The ability to make a creative and holistic synthesis of key
factors affecting an organization and its environment in order to
obtain sustainable competitive advantage and long-term success.

Strategic thinking meshes anticipated requirements with future
organizational capabilities to ensure the organization “wins” in
the future.” (U.S. Army War College)
“If you are thinking about how to better posture your
organization to succeed in the future, then you are conducting
strategic thinking.” (CAPT D.E. Waters, USN, Ret.)
What is Strategic Thinking?
*
“…staffs that support strategic leaders…should be able to think
strategically in order to properly support their senior leaders.”
“ Strategic thinking requires both critical and creative thinking
to be effective. In order to think strategically, leaders and their
staffs must develop innovative strategic options and then
evaluate these ideas through effective critical thinking.”
(Ref: Waters, D.E., Understanding Strategic Thinking and
Developing Strategic Thinkers)
Why is Strategic Thinking Important?
*

Strategic Thinking
Reference: Meinhart, R.M, Leadership and Strategic Thinking.
Strategic ThinkingSystems thinking – a discipline of seeing
wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather
than things, for seeing patterns of change rather than static
“snapshots.” – Peter Senge
Thinking in time – the use of history or past experiences. An
understanding of why occurrences happened.
Ethical thinking – considering ethical dimensions of ambiguous,
complex issues to ensure that costly mistakes or blind spots do
not occur.
Critical thinking – the deliberate, conscious, and appropriate
application of reflective skepticism.
Creative thinking – the ability to produce novel ideas that are
valued by others.
*
Systems Thinking
(Peter Senge – The Fifth Discipline)“Systems thinking is a
discipline of seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing
interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of
change rather than static “snapshots.”The essence of systems
thinking (a shift in mind):Seeing interrelationships rather than
linear cause-effect chainsSeeing processes of change rather than
snapshots“Reality is made up of circles but we see straight

lines.”“The search for scapegoats…is a blind alley.”Reinforcing
and balancing feedbackDelaysSelf-fulfilling prophecy – vicious
versus virtuous cycles
*
Organizations and the System Concept
(Katz & Kahn, 1978)“An energetic input-output system in
which the energetic return from the output reactivates the
system.”“Transactions between the organization and its
environment.”“Systems theory is basically concerned with
problems of relationships, of structure, and of interdependence
rather than with the attributes of objects.”
*
Thinking in TimeThe use of history or past experiences. An
understanding of why occurrences happened.
Convergent thinking (thinking inward rather than thinking
outward)
“Having seen the future that we want to create, what must we
keep from our past, lose from the past, and create in our
present, to get there?”
Thinking in TimeThinking in time has three components
(Neustadt & May, 1986):Recognition that the future has no
place to come from but the past, hence the past has predictive
value.Recognition that what matters for the future is departures
from the past, alterations, changes.Continuous comparison from
the present to future to past and back.

“Strategic Thinking (Thinking in Time) connects the past,
present, and future and in this way uses both an institution’s
memory and its broad historical context as critical inputs into
the creation of the future” (Lawrence, 1999).
Thinking in TimeThe use of history can stimulate imagination:
Seeing the past can help one envision future alternatives.The
use of experience in the process of deciding what to do today
about the prospect for tomorrow.
What does the organization need to “decide today about the
prospect of tomorrow”? How can “seeing the past” help with
these decisions?
Ethical Thinking
Ethical Guidelines or PrinciplesGOLDEN RULE — Are you
treating others as you would want to be treated? THE GUT-
FEELING TEST — Body reactions such as a gut-feeling often
indicate the need for more thought. Intuition can give a sense of
right and wrong before our brains have thought it out.
PUBLICITY — Would you be comfortable if your reasoning
and decision were on the front page of tomorrow’s newspapers
or on the TV news? KID-ON-YOUR-SHOULDER — Would you
be comfortable if young children were observing you? Are you
practicing what you preach? THE ROLE-MODEL TEST —
What would a person you respect think or feel about a decision
you are proposing?
Other approaches:WORST-CASE SCENARIOS - It is sometimes

helpful to consider the worst case scenario. This may highlight
consequences or possibilities you had not thought of before.
CHANGING GOALS/METHODS - Consider whether ethically
questionable conduct can be avoided by modifying goals or
methods. CONSULTATION - Consider consulting with those
likely to be affected in order to get their input or consent. This
may avoid unethical options all together.
Ref: Holistic Education Network
*
Ethical Thinking
Three Types of Ethical ThinkingEnds-based thinking - deciding
to do whatever provides the greatest good for the greatest
number. This is known as the principle of utilitarianism. It
relies on being able to predict the consequences of different
actions. Rule-based thinking - deciding what to do based on a
rule that you believe should be a general principle that is always
followed. Rule-based thinking acknowledges that you can never
really know all the consequences of your actions and that it is
better to stick to one's principles. Care-based thinking -
deciding what to do based on the idea that this is what we would
want others to do to you. This is known as the principle of
reversibility and is at the center of most religious teachings.
Making ethical decisions is not about applying just one of these
ways of thinking, nor is it about applying all of them and
choosing the action that wins the majority. It is about creative
and reflective thinking to become aware of the complexity and
possibilities of an ethical issue. It is about using heart and head
- hopefully also with the wisdom of the soul.
Thinking ethically is not a purely logical rational process. In
the final analysis intuition might be a deciding factor in making
a decision.

Ref: Holistic Education Network
*
Critical Thinking
“The deliberate, conscious, and appropriate application of
reflective skepticism.”
“A well-cultivated critical thinker raises vital questions and
problems, gathers and assesses relevant information, and can
effectively interpret it; comes to well-reasoned conclusions and
solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought,
recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions,
implications, and practical consequences; and communicates
effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex
problems.” (Paul & Elder, Critical Thinking)
Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical
Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders
*
Critical Thinking
*
Reference: Gerras S.J., Thinking Critically about Critical
Thinking: A Fundamental Guide for Strategic Leaders

MGMT 560 – Organizational Leadership Ethics and Profes

MGMT 560 – Organizational Leadership Ethics and Profes

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