This document discusses various methods of asexual plant propagation including cutting, budding, and grafting. It describes in detail:
1. The different types of cuttings - stem, root, and leaf cuttings - and provides examples of plants propagated through each method.
2. The main types of budding - shield, patch, chip, ring, and modified ring budding - and the plants commonly propagated using each technique.
3. The different grafting methods like veneer grafting and details the importance of matching scion and rootstock thickness and sealing the graft union.
Plants create their own food through the process of photosynthesis, making them autotrophs. Additionally, the process' end result is referred to as a photosynthate or photo-assimilate. In plants, the phloem is a conducting tissue that carries photosynthate (food) to every part of the plant. While storage or the point of use is referred to as the Sink, the source of production or manufacturing is referred to as the Source. The source and sink connection notion is explained in the slides. The mechanisms cover these and other crucial aspects of the topic.
The slides describing about the different techniques of seed production, as the seed is the basic part of any production program. Therefore, please provide review about these techniques.
Plants create their own food through the process of photosynthesis, making them autotrophs. Additionally, the process' end result is referred to as a photosynthate or photo-assimilate. In plants, the phloem is a conducting tissue that carries photosynthate (food) to every part of the plant. While storage or the point of use is referred to as the Sink, the source of production or manufacturing is referred to as the Source. The source and sink connection notion is explained in the slides. The mechanisms cover these and other crucial aspects of the topic.
The slides describing about the different techniques of seed production, as the seed is the basic part of any production program. Therefore, please provide review about these techniques.
To improve the knowledge about principle and practice of canopy management in...AmanDohre
To improve the knowledge about principle and practice of canopy management in fruit crop
Enhancing understanding of canopy management principles and practices in fruit crops is paramount for optimizing orchard productivity. This involves comprehending canopy architecture, growth patterns, and physiological processes influencing fruit production. Through targeted practices such as pruning, thinning, and training, canopy structure, light penetration, and airflow are optimized, promoting balanced vegetative growth, flowering, and fruit set. Moreover, knowledge of rootstock-scion interactions allows for tailored canopy management strategies, further enhancing fruit quality and yield. By honing canopy management expertise, growers can maximize resource utilization, mitigate disease susceptibility, and improve overall fruit crop sustainability and profitability.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
1. 1
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi
Vidyapeeth , Akola
COURSE TITLE – TROPICAL AND DRYLAND FRUIT
PRODUCTION
COURSE NO. – FSC 501
TOPIC – METHODS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
SUBMITTED BY – ADITYA D. INGOLE
HORTICULTURE ( FRUIT SCIENCE)
ROLL NO – PG19FSC-2222
SUBMITTED TO – Dr. S. R. PATIL
2. 2
Separationof a portionfrommotherplantandplantingitina mediumsuitablysothatit mayconstitute
a newplantsuccessfullyistermedascutting.TYPESOFCUTTING Dependinguponsource of origination,
cuttingisof three types:
(A) Stemcutting (B) Root cutting (C) Leaf cutting
(A) STEM CUTTING A portionof stemis takenforpropagation.
It is of four types:
(i) Hard wood cutting
(ii) Semi-hard wood cutting
(ii) Soft wood cutting
(iv)Herbaceous cutting
(i) Hard wood cutting.
In thismethod,one yearoldandmature shootsare selectedforthe purpose of propagation.The
selectedshootshouldbe healthyandshouldnotbe toovigorouslygrowing.The shootof longinternodal
lengthshouldnotbe selected.The shootgrowinginshade ininnerside of the tree isalsonotgood for
preparingcutting.The lengthof cuttingiskeptto 10 to 45 cm- The cuttingmust possessatleasttwoto
three buds.The lowercut ismade roundjustbelow the node andthe uppercut is givenaboutI to 2 cm
above the uppernode inslantingmanner.Cuttinginthismannerhelpsinidentifyinglowerandupper
portionof cutting(polarity).The Towerportionof cuttingisplantedinsoil.Grape,fig,pomegranate,
morus,and rosesare propagated throughhard woodcutting.The cuttingis takenduringNovember-
Februarybefore commencementof sprouting.
(ii) Semi-hard wood cutting.
In thistype of cutting 4 to 9 monthsoldshootof semi- hardnature isusedforraisingnew plants.
Shootsof 7 to 20 cm lengthare usedforpreparingcuttings.Basal leavesfromthe shootsare removed.
Terminal 2 to 4 leavesare leftintactwithroot,Mostlythistype of cuttingsispreparedduringrainy
METHODS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
CUTTING
3. 3
season.Highhumidityduringseasonpreventsdryingof cuttings.Mistchamberalsoprovidessuitable
growingconditionsforsuchtype of cuttings.Thistype of cuttingisusuallypracticedforevergreenplans
like mango,guava, jackfruit,lemon,aonlaetc.The cuttingsrespondwellaftertreatingwithrooting
hormone.Treatmentof IBA at the rate of 5000 ppm iseffective ininducingrootinginsuchtype of
cuttings.
(iii) Soft wood cutting.
Thistype of cuttingisnot practicedforfruits.Humidityrequirementbeingveryhigh,practicingthis
cuttingisnot possible inopencondition.Softwoodcuttingispracticedundermistchamber,Shootsof
2-3 monthsage are selectedforsoftwoodcuttings.The length of cuttingsiskeptto10-15 cm. Apple,
peach,guava andmany ornamental plantscanbe propagatedundermistchamberusingsoftwood
cuttings.
(iv) Herbaceous cutting.
Mostlyornamental plantsare plantedthroughherbaceouscuttings.Shootsof 1-2month age are
selectedforcuttings.Alternanthera,Coleus,Pilea,Eupatorium,Iresine etc.are propagatedby
herbaceouscutting.
(B) Root cutting
The plantscapable of producingsuckerare goodfor root cutting.Fruitplantslike apple.pear,guavaand
bael andforestspeciesare suitable forrootcuttingpropagation.Forpropagation,rootsof 2 to 3 cm
5. 5
"The processof connectingscion,whichisabud androotstockin a mannersuch that theymayunite
and growsuccessfullyasone plantistermedasbudding.Thus,the buddinghastwocomponents;bud
and budunitingpart.The bud whichdevelopsframeworkbranchesandflowersandfruitsistermedas
scionor scion.The portionoverwhichbudisunitedwhichprovidessupportive stemandrootsystemto
the plantis termedasroot-stockor stock.Buddingispracticedduringthe periodwhenactive sapflowis
goingon andthe plantisgrowingsuccessfully.Duringthisperiod,takingoutbudfromscionstick
becomeseasyandalsodue to continueddivisionof cambial cell,the chance of unionof budwith
rootstockincreases.Spring,summerandrainyseason,accordingly,March-April,May-JuneandJuly-
Septemberare consideredsuitable forbudding.Rootstockof 1to 2 yearage havingpencil thicknessis
selectedforthe purpose of budding-
Typesof budding
. 1.Shield budding.
In thismethod,boatshapedbudof 2.5 to 3.0 cm lengthisusedforbudding. If the is insertedby making
vertical incisiononrootstock,itistermedasshieldbudding. If T - shape incisionismade forinserting
budon rootstock,is termedshieldbudding. Sometimes,Inverted T- shape incisionismade toinsert
bud. It is termed asinverted T- budding. The buddingismade at10 to 25cm heightonrootstock. After
insertingbudinincisiononrootstock,itiswrappedair- tightlyusing300 gauge polythene tape leaving
the bud exposed thismethodisverysuccessfulforpropagatingrose,apple,pear. Peaches,apricot,
cherry,Sweetorangesetc. Shieldbuddingissuccessfulinthinskinnedtype plants
2 Patch budding.
Thismethodisverysuccessful forpropagatingplantshaving. Comparatively thickbark. Fruitplantslike
jackfruit. aonla. mango. jamun,chestnutetc. are propagatedbypatch budding. Inthismethod,
square or rectangularshape budistakenout! from scionshoot. Similarsize incisionismade on
rootstock. The budisplacedon rootstock. For placingbud,an incisionof 2-3cm size isprepared.
Budding
6. 6
Polythene tape iswrappedonbudleavingthe sproutingportionexposed. Wrappingprevents
desiccationof budandthus favorssprouting(Fig.10.2).
3 Chip budding.
Thismethodispracticedduringthe periodwhenthere isIackof up flow andbud doesnotslipouteasily
fromthe bark. AgainstPhylloxerainsect,grape varietiesare propagatedduringdormantseasonusing
chipbudding. DuringFebruary - March apple,pearandgrapescan be propagatedthroughthis
technique.The budistakenoutfromscionshoot alongwithwood. Similarsize incisionismade onthe
rootstock. The budisplacedon rootstockand itis wrappedwithpolythene tape .(Fig.10.3),
4. Ring budding.
Ber, peach andmulberrycan be propagatedusingthismethod. Inthismethodringshape barkof 2. 5 -
30 cm lengthcontainingabudis takenoutfrom. scionshoot. On terminal endof rootstock,incision
similarinsize of budismade , while takingoutbud, care istakenthat budis centrallylocated. The bud
woodismade fit onrootstock. For fittingbud. itis slipperdownwardbyrotatingitslowlyandslowlytill
it fitstightly. The budshoulditexactlywithoutanyvacantspace. Nowrappingiseequiredinthis
methodfig- 10. 4).
7. 7
5,Modified ring budding
In thismethod. Insteadof takingoutcomplete circularringof bark containingbud,the budwoodis
takenout fromscionshootby givingavertical slitinbudwood. On suitable portion - of – root stock
similar size istakenoutfromthe rootstock. The scionis fittedonrootstockandwrappedusing
polythene tape of 300guage. Thismethodissuccessful forpropagatingguava,ber,walnutandpecan
nut. Whenbudsprouts,the wrappedpolytheneiscutand removed. The portionof rootstockabove
budis removed. Inthismethodof budding,sometimesdue toleachingof rainwaterthroughrootstock
viaslitof Scionbud. rottingis noticed. Toavoidsuchtype of problemthe vertical slitof the budis
sealedusingparaffinwax (Fig.10.5
8. 8
6. Forkert budding .
Patch shape budof 2 - 3 cm lengthand0 . 5 - 1 . 0 cm widthistakenout fromscionshoot.Similarsize
incisionismade onrootstockat a heightofS10 10 cm . While makingincision,the vertical flapof the
Bark is leftintactwithlowerportionof the rootstock.The patchof barkcontainingthe budis fittedin
the incisionmade onthe rootstockThe bud iscoveredwithflapof the bark and thenwrappedusing
polythene tape .Afterabout15 10 20 days, the unioniscompletedandthe wrappedpolythene is
removed.The flapof the bark of rootstockis removed.The upperportionof the rootstockisremoved
in2 - 3 installments.Insub - tropical climate,where excessive temperature prevails,coveringthe bud
throughflapof the bark helpsinmaintainingmostconditionandkeepstemperature infavorable range .
Thus,the chance of unionenhances,Thismethodisuseful forpropagatingmango.jackfruit.cashewnut
etc . ( Fig. 10 . 6 ) ,
9. 9
Graftingis a technique of propagationinwhichscionstickandrootstockisconnectedina mannersuch
that theymayunite and subsequentlygrow anddevelopasasuccessful plant.Thus, itisclearthat
graftingutilizesrootstockandscionwhichultimatelyconstitutesone plant.The rootstockof 1-2 year
age havingpencil thicknessanddesiredattributesisselectedforgrafting.Onrootstock,the scionof
desirable varietyisgrafted.Generally,the scionshootof matchingthicknessasof rootstockisselected.
To get successinunionof grafting,the cambiumof boththe rootstockand scionshouldunite properly.
In temperate fruitsbettersuccessisachievedbygraftingjustbefore the endof dormantseason.
However,June-Julygraftinggivesbetterresultintropical andsub-tropical fruits.Afterperformingthe
graftingprocess,the unionportionof rootstockandscionshouldbe sealedimmediatelyusingpolythene
tape or wax.It preventsdryingordesiccationof graftedportionof plants.Whengraftstartsgrowing,the
portionof rootstockabove graft unionisremoved.All the shootsemergedfromrootstockfromlower
portionof graft unionshouldalsobe removedtime totime.
Typesof grafting
1. Veneer grafting.
Thismethodisusedfor propagatingmango.Inthismethod,aterminal shootof 10-15 cm lengthhaving
pencil thicknessisusedasascion.The swollenshootisusedasscion.About10 daysbefore grafting,the
scion-shootisdefoliatedtofacilitateswellingof bud.Shallow,downwardandinwardcutensuringV-
shape incisioninlowerportionof incisiononrootstockisprepared.Similarmatchingcutinslanting
mannerispreparedonlowerportionof scion.Bothrootstockand scionare fastenedtogetherusing300
gauge polythene tape of 0.5 cm width.DuringMay andSeptemberthissystemisquite successfuland
goodresultisobtained.Inabout3-4 weeks,unioniscompleted.Whenscionsproutscompletely,the
upperportionof rootstockabove graft unionisremovedin2-3installments (Fig.10.7).
2. Whip grafting.
Thisis verysimple techniqueof grafting.Generally,one yearoldrootstocksare usedandscionsof
matchingthicknessare used.Bothrootstockandscionare unitedand tiedusingpolythene tape.When
unioniscompleted,the polythene tape iscutotherwise itrestrictsthe growthatthe pointof unionand
such plantsbreakdue to wind.Itisusedfor propagatingwalnut,apple andpear(Fig.10.8).FIG. 10.7
GRAFTING
10. 10
3. Tongue grafting.
This ismodificationof whipgrafting.Inthismethod,aslantingcutsimilartowhipgraftingisprepared
on rootstockand scion.A secondcut is alsogiveninreverse directiononpreviouscutinrootstockand
scion.The secondcut is starteddownwardatabout one thirddistance fromtipand shouldcontinue to
about1/2 the lengthof firstcut.The stockand scionare insertedwhichinterlockeachother.While
matching,itis seenthatcambiumlayerof rootstockand scionmustmatch withbothcut surfaces.If not
so,due to unmatchingthicknessof rootstockandscion,itmust matchalong one side.Afteruniting
rootstockand scion,bothare fastenedusingpolythene tape.Thismethodsecurescontactwithsix layers
of wood,hence the chancesof unionincrease andthere isquickhealingingrafting.Thismethodisused
for propagatingapple,pearandwalnut(Fig.10.9).
11. 11
4. Cleft grafting.
It isone of the oldesttechniquesof topworkingtrees.Itisalsouseful forpropagatingsmall trees.
Mango, hazelnut,pecannut,grape etc.are propagatedthroughcleftgrafting.Incase of top working
tree,the use of this technique shouldbe limitedtobranchesof about2.5 to 10 cm diameter.The plant
specieswhichhasstraightgrainedwoodandsplits evenly are consideredideal forcleftgrafting.Onthe
stubto be grafted,adownwardvertical splitof 5 to 8 cm lengthisprepared.The vertical incisionis
made on twosidesof stock.The scionshootof 8 to 10 cm lengthandpencil thicknessisused.Matching
incisionispreparedonlowerportionof scion.The scionisinsertedinvertical slitsof rootstock.The
completedgraftisthoroughlywaxed.Incase of graftingsmall plants,rootstockof one yearoldand
pencil thicknessisselected.Itiscutback in terminal region.Vertical slitsof 2.5 to 3.0 cm lengthis
preparedonrootstock. Scionshootmatchingto thicknessof rootstockisselected.Onlowerportionof
scionmatchingincisionisgiven.The scionisinsertedinincisionmade onrootstock.Itiswrapped using
polythene tape.The sproutingstartsafter3-4 weeks.Afterthatthe wrappingisremoved(Fig.10.10).
5. Wedge grafting.
Thismethodisalsousedfor topworkingoldtree.V-wedgeshape incisionof about5cm lengthis
preparedonthe stub of the plant.Shallow anddownwardmatchingincisionispreparedonlower
portionof scion.The scionis insertedinrootstockfirmly.The incisedportionof rootstockiswaxed
property.
12. 12
6. Bridge grafting.
Thismethodispracticedinplantsin whichscionishealthyandsome portionof rootstocknearcollar
regionisdamaged.Inthis technique,the damagedportionof rootstockisscratched.Inhealthyportion
of rootstockincisionismade ontopand bottomportionof the stock. The scionportionof suitable
lengthisinsertedintoincision.Itisfixedusingnail andthensealedusingwax.The sproutedbudfrom
insertedstickshouldbe removedtime totime.Slowlyandslowly,itgrowsindiameterandcoverthe
damagedportion.Thismethodisuseful inrepairingdamagedwoodinapple,pear,cherry,walnutetc.
(Fig.10.11). FIG. 10.11
7 Epicotyls grafting.
It is alsoknownas stone grafting.Inthismethod,the seedsof mangoare sowninnurserybedand
coveredwith5 cm to 7 cm thicklayerof farmyard manure.While sowingseed,preference isgivento
sand bedwhichprovidesease inuprootingof seedlingsrequiredatthe time of grafting.Inabout15 to
20 days,seedsstartgermination.The germinated seedlingsof 7to 10 days ago,whenitsleavesremain
copperyincolor,are usedforgrafting.The seedlingisbeheadedataheightof 10 cm from groundlevel.
A vertical slitof 2.5 to 4 cm lengthisgivenonbeheadedportionof rootstock.Scionshootof 2 to 3
monthsage havingpencil thicknessisused.The leavesof scionisdefoliated10days before graftingto
facilitate sprouting.Afterunitingrootstockandscion,itiswrappedusingpolythenetape of 300 gauge .
The graftedplantsare thenmaintainedinotherbedsorpotsinnursery.Thismethodof graftingis
practicedduringJune-Julyduringwhichthe environmentremainssufficientlymoist(Fig.10.12).
13. 13
8. Soft wood grafting.
Thisis verysuccessful techniqueof in-situgrafting.Itiscommonlypracticedinmango.Inthismethod,
the seedsof mangoare sownat desireddistance inthe fieldduringrainyseason.Toensure germination,
2 to 3 seedsare sownin eachpit.Whenthe plantbecomesone yearoldandattainspencil thickness,itis
usedforgrafting.The graftingis done at permanentsite of plantinginthe fielditself.The processof
graftingisdone duringrainyseasonwhennew growthappearsonrootstock.Whennew growthleaves
start turningyellowfromcopperycolourgraftingisperformed.Scionshootof 10 to 15 cm length,3 to 5
monthsof age and pencil thicknessgirthisselected.At15 to 20 cm heightfromgroundlevel,the
rootstockis beheaded.A vertical slitof 2.5to 4.0 cm lengthisgivenonrootstock.Onscionshoot,similar
matchingcut ispreparedinslantingmanneronboththe surfacesinlowerportion.Itisinsertedin
incisiononrootstockandwrappedusingpolythene tape.Inabout3 to 4 weeks,sproutingstartsand
graft starts growing.The graftedplantdevelopsatitsownroot systemandshowsbettersurvival inthe
field(Fig. 10.13).
9. Inarching.
This iscalledasattached methodof grafting.Incontrastto othermethod,inthismethodthe scionis
detachedaftercompletionof union.Thismethodispracticedinmango,jackfruit,sapota,loquatand
custard apple.Inthismethod,the rootstockisgrowninpot or container.The rootstockisbroughtclose
to the scion.The rootstock andscionshootsof pencil thicknessare selected.Shallow cutof 2.5 to 4.0 cm
lengthispreparedonscion.Similarmatchingcutisalsogivenonrootstock.Both rootstock andscion are
broughtclose to eachotherand wrappedusingpolythene tape.Whenuniontakesplace,the upper
portionof rootstockis cut. The scionshootis detachedfrommotherplant.The unitedportioniskeptin
nurseryandcared till nextplantingseason.The processof inarchingispracticedduringJuly- August
duringwhichhighhumidityfavorsbetterunion(Fig.10.14).
14. 14
10. Double working.
In some instances,scioncultivarfailstogrow if grafteddirectlyoverthe rootstock.Toavertthis
situation,anintermediate stockisusedinbetweenrootstockandscion.Care istakenthatintermediate
stock iscompatible tobothrootstockand scionThe processof double workingisaccomplishedintwo
successive years.Duringfirstyear,graftingof interstockismade onrootstockand duringsecondyear
graftingof scioncultivarismade oninterstock /interstem/intermediate stock.Double workingisin
practice chieflyinpear.Beurre Hardyisthe mostwidelyused interstock.BesidesthisOldHome,Vicarof
Winkfield,PitmastonDuchess,Burre d'Amalis,MargueriteMarilatt,WilliamsBonChretien,Marie Louise,
Packham'sTriumpghand Thompsonare alsosuitable interstock.Toraise Bartlettvarietypear,OldHome
interstockisbuddedonthe Quince rootstock.Finally"Bartlett"scionisinserteddirectlyoverthe Old
Home.
15. 15
11. Top working.
It is the processof convertinganundesirable plantintodesirable type.Usuallyseedlingstandof fruit
plantsare consideredsuitablefortopworking.Tobeginwiththe process,the plantsare headedback
withinone meterheightfromgroundlevel duringspring.The new shootappearsinresponse of heading
back are selectedandvegetativepropagation(budding/grafting) methodisresortedduringJune-July.
While selectingshoot,itshouldbe takenintoaccountthatpencil thickshootsfitwell toundertake
propagationmethod.Insub-tropical regions,highsolarradiationcausessun-burninjurytothe
beheadedmainstem.Itis counter-checkedbywhite washingthe stem.Youngplantswithatrunk
diameterof 2.5-20 cm are consideredideal fortopworking.
It isa technique of propagationinwhichaportionof plantisforcedto produce adventitiousrootwhileit
still remainsattachedtomotherplant.Inthisprocess,a single portionof plantconstitutesrootand
shoot.Upon emergence of roots,the shootisseparatedfrommotherplant,survivedinnurseryforsome
time andthenplanted inthe field.
TYPES OF LAYERING
LAYERING
16. 16
1. Simple Layering
In thismethod,the groundtouchingportionof plantandsuckersemergingalongwithmainstemof the
plantsare usedforlayering.Generally,one yearoldshootisusedforlayer- ing.The shootisbent
downwardinthe soil usingpegor nail andtiedwiththe helpof rope to make it stayedinthe position.
The ground touchingportioniswounded.Inabout4 to 5 months,rootsemerge out.It isthenseparated
frommotherplantby giving2 or 3 cuts ininstallment.Guavaandhazelnutetc.can be propagatedeasily
throughthistechnique (Fig.10.15).
2. Serpentine or compound layering
Coveringthe branchesof plantsat theirnodeswithsoil throughoutitslengthbyalternate exposingof
internodal lengthof shootistermedascompoundlayering.Itispracticedinplantslike clematis,smilax,
and wisteriaandmuscadine grape.Girdlingof internodal spacesalsogivesbetterresult.A circularring
of barkmeasuring2.5 to 4.0 cm in size isremoved. Rootinghormonemaybe appliedoveritandthenit
iscoveredwithsoil.The budsexposedtoair,give rise toshootandportionof shoot coveredinthe soil
givesrise toroot. Whengrowthresumptiontakesplace inthe buriedportionof the shoots,itis
detachedandplantedinnursery.Whenadequate growthisthere,the plantisplantedinthe field(Fig.
10.16). FIG. 10.16
3. Mound layering or stooling
Thistype of layeringispracticedinplantsinwhichthe branchesare veryfirmand bendingis difficult.
For moundlayeringthe plantisprunedseverelyat2.5 cm above ground Level before the startof new
growth.Asa resultmanyshootsemerge outfromthe base of the plant.Whenthe shootbecomeslittle
sturdy,itis girdledatthe base,rooting hormone isappliedif neededanditiscoveredwithsoil toa
17. 17
heightof about15 to 20 cm.Dependinguponease of rooting,rootsemerge outinabout3 to 4 months.
Afterrooting,the shootisseparatedfrommotherplantandplantedinthe nursery.Itis practicedin
plantslike guava,apple,pear,quince,currantsandgooseberriesforthe propagationof clonal material
(Fig.10.17). FIG. 10.17
4. Trench layering
It is usedforthe propagationof apple,pearandcherry. Inthismethod,the branchof the plantis bent
downwardina horizontal positioninashallow trench.Whenthe shootdevelops,the base iscovered
with5 to 10 cm layerof soil.Coveringthe shoot withsoil givesetiolatingeffectandhelpsinrooting.The
rootedlayersare separatedfrommotherplantsandplantedinnursery.Trenchlayeringissuccessful in
woodyspecieswhichare noteasilypropagatedthroughstooling(Fig.10.18).
5. Tip layering
Tip layeringisanatural methodof reproductionof blackberriesandraspberries.Inthese plantsrooting
takesplace nearthe tipof the currentseasongrowth.The shoottip recurvesupwardtoproduce bendin
the stemfrom whichrootsdevelop.The topof the plantislayeredbymakinga hole 2 to 5 cm belowthe
18. 18
soil.The tiproots outand producesshoot.The rootedtipisseparatedfromplantalongwitholdshoot.
Oldshootact as handle alsoforhandlingnew rootedtip(Fig.10.19).
6. Air layering
It is alsoknownas Chinese layering,Potlayering,Marcotage or Gootee.Forthe purpose of air layering,
one yearold or previousseasonshootof pencil thicknessisselected.About5to 7 cm away fromthe
base of selectedshoot,agirdle of 2.5to 3.0 cm size,byremovingthe bark,isprepared.The girdled
portionof the shoot is wrappedusinggunnybagor withrear side of the blade.Thisprocesshelpsin
removal of phloemandultimatelypreventsthe formationof barkat the girdledportion.The girdled
portionisthencoveredusingmoistsphagnummossgrass.Coveringwithmossgrassretainsbetter
moisture atthe pointof air layering.The girdledportionisnow wrappedusingtransparentpolythene
tape and boththe endsof tape are tiedair-tightly. Dependinguponease of success,rootingappearsin
about2-3 months.Whenroot emergence isthere anditbecomesvisible fromthe transparentwrapped
tape,the layeredshootisseparatedfrommotherplantgiving2- 3 cuts ininstallments.The layered
plantsare plantedinnurseryunderpartial shade wherefrequentwateringisprovidedandhighhumidity
ismaintained.Usually,airlayeringispracticedinthe monthof July-August.Airlayeringispracticedin
litchi,lime,jackfruit cashew nut,guava,fortunella,ficus,crotons,monstera,philodendronetc.Incase of
hard-to- roottype plant,applicationof IBA at 3000-5000 ppmis practicable,(Fig.10.20).
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Trainingandpruningare importantorchardoperations.Boththe processesformanindispensable
operationhavingdirectbearingongrowthandvigorof plantsbesidesonyieldandqualityof fruits.
Properlytrainedandprunedplants sustainheavycropload andproduce bounteousharvestof quality.
Trainingreferstojudiciousremoval of parttodevelopapropershape of plantcapable of bearingheavy
crop load.Pruningisdefinedasthe judiciousremoval of partslike root,leaf-flower,fruitetc,toobtain
goodand qualitative yield.Thus,itcanbe conceivedthatthe trainingisrelatedtoshape andsize of
plantswhereaspruningisrelatedwithharvestingbetteryieldandmore sowithharvestingfruitsof
quality .Boththe processes of trainingandpruning.Worktogetherinmaintainingshape andsize of tree
and harvestingdesirableyield.
OBJECTIVES OF TRAINING
• To control andregulate shape of treessothat orchard cultural operations,harvestingetc.canbe
done easily.
• To develop strongframe workof tree .Tohave a bettercrotch angle betweenscaffoldbranchesof the
trees.
• To facilitate interceptionof sunraystoeachand everypartof trees.Toremove watersprout.
• To developabalance betweenvegetative andreproductive growth of tree
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
• Training should be started from very beginning age of the plant.
• Most of the fruit trees are trained through single stem system. However, being pro to insect attack,
fruits like pomegranate, fig and custard apple are trained through multi-ștemmed training system.
•In plants having prominent apical dominance, the terminal bud should be removed
•facilitate emergence of side shoots.Fromside shootsselectionismade forbettershootstobe retained
on the tree after training.
•The shoots having narrower crotch angle are discarded.
•Water sprout should be removed.
1. Central leader system
In thissystemthe mainstemof the tree is allowedtogrow uninterrupted.The first branch is allowed to
grow at 45 to 50 cm. heightfromgroundlevel andotherbranches are allowed to grow on main stem at
a distance of 15 to 20 cm. As the main stem grows continuously, in this system, the trees attain robust
shape. Due to less interception of light by lower branches, mostly they remain unproductive. The
bearingisconfinedintopportionof the trees.Furthermore,the robust shape of trees poses a problem
in harvesting of fruits and practicing spray operation etc. The very high shape of plants makes them
prone to winddamage also.Thismethodof training is not suitable for high altitude and hot arid places
where wind velocity is high (Fig. 11.1).
Training and pruning
20. 20
2. Open centre system
In this system, when the plant attains a height of 40 to 50 cm, it is beheaded. From the subsequent
vegetative growth,4-5brancheswell scattered, arranged and distributed all around the main stem are
selected.The tree,thus,trainedattainslessheight.There isbetterinterceptionof light by all the shoots
of the tree and all branches are capable of bearing flowers and fruits. This system facilitates easy
carryingout of operationslikeharvestingandsprayingonthe tree.Inthissystem, the plantstake a bowl
shape which provides a good base for settling of frost. Hence, open centre system of training is not
suitable for high altitude where frost observance is common (Fig. 11.2). FIG. 11
3. Modified leader system
This is intermediate form of central leader and open centre system and draws the benefits of both
systems.Inthissystem,the mainstemisallowed to grow for 4 to 5 years. After that, it is cut at a height
of 120 to 150 cm from ground level. On the main stem, the first shoot is selected at a height of 40 cm
fromthe groundand 4 to 5 brancheslocatedat a distance of 15 to 20 cm andplacedall aroundthe main
stemare selected.The planttrainedthroughthissystem, attainsmoderate height.Allretainedbranches
receive ample light and there is better production on the tree. This is very suitable method and
practiced in almost all regions. This system facilitates easy carrying out of orchard operations like
harvesting, and spray of plant protection chemicals, nutrients etc (Fig. 11.3).
