A brief discussion of some of the basic logical fallacies:
Dicto Simpliciter
Hasty Generalization
Post Hoc
Contradictory Premises
Ad Misericordiam
False Analogy
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact
Poisoning the Well
Bandwagon Appeal
Begging the Question
Red Herring
Non Sequitur
Slippery Slope
Either/Or Argument
Equivocation
The term refers to the practice of contextualizing thoughts, ideas and life experiences in a Filipino ideal. These are words or phrases that are usually grammatically incorrect or are almost always results of transliteration.
Want to learn how to listen effectively? Wondering how to improve your active listening skills? Find out the 10 steps to listening greatness by viewing this presentation.
Questions? Tweet @AngelaLaGamba.
A brief discussion of some of the basic logical fallacies:
Dicto Simpliciter
Hasty Generalization
Post Hoc
Contradictory Premises
Ad Misericordiam
False Analogy
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact
Poisoning the Well
Bandwagon Appeal
Begging the Question
Red Herring
Non Sequitur
Slippery Slope
Either/Or Argument
Equivocation
The term refers to the practice of contextualizing thoughts, ideas and life experiences in a Filipino ideal. These are words or phrases that are usually grammatically incorrect or are almost always results of transliteration.
Want to learn how to listen effectively? Wondering how to improve your active listening skills? Find out the 10 steps to listening greatness by viewing this presentation.
Questions? Tweet @AngelaLaGamba.
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V Upon completion of thi.docxMARRY7
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Display competence in the art of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
2. Determine the purpose of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
3. Compare and contrast the logic of college as it is and as it should be.
4. Assess the logic of the four modalities of communication.
5. Appraise the criteria for evaluating an author's reasoning by using the elements of thought.
6. Identify how one should assess one's progress in learning.
7. Describe the strategies for self-assessment.
8. Apply the generic model to various applied majors
Unit Lesson
This lecture continues with the discussion of rhetorical devices.
Downplayers
A downplayer is a word that is inserted in a sentence that undermines something that is being discussed. Let’s take a look at two
sentences that mean the same thing in their deepest structure, but that have radically different connotations due to one word.
“Brent got a B on his exam.”
“Brent only got a B on his exam.”
By inserting the word “only,” the person saying sentence two has downplayed Brent’s achievement. Most people would be
happy, or at least satisfied, with a grade of B on an exam. However, the second sentence seems to diminish Brent’s
accomplishment by indicating that a grade of B on the exam does not meet his or her expectations of Brent. You can think of
downplayers as using scare quotes “” in verbal language. Let’s look at some more examples.
“Yeah, Ellen just got her ‘degree’,”
In this case, the person seems to indicate that Ellen’s degree is not really a degree. The person is attempting to cast suspicion on
Ellen’s accomplishment.
Friend #1: “I hear that the teacher for critical thinking is great.”
Friend #2: “Oh yeah, he’s a great ‘teacher’.”
It seems that Friend #2 does not think that the teacher for critical thinking performs very well and has cast doubt on the
teacher’s abilities by downplaying
the teacher’s pedagogy. Be on the lookout for the use of downplayers. Do not let anyone downplay accomplishments by using
disingenuous words. Always remind yourself of the facts. If Brent got a B on a difficult organic chemistry exam, then one should
give credit where credit is due and not try to discredit his accomplishment in a devious manner.
Ridicule
Ridicule occurs when someone tries to cast suspicion on another by making fun of the person or personally embarrassing the
person in front of others. We are often told that this form of interaction is a high school phenomenon, but most of us realize
that this form of interaction can occur at any time, and often in the most inappropriate contexts.
Employee to Boss: “According to the research that our team put together, it seems that a marketing campaign targeted towards
18-35 year old women would be in the best interests of the company.”
Boss: “What do you know? You are just an inte ...
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Name
Institution
Date
Emotionally Loaded Language
This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality.
Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly.
Appeal to ignorance
This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa.
Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive.
Inconsistency
A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.
1Running Head FALLACY JOURNAL2FALLACY JOURNALName.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Running Head: FALLACY JOURNAL
2
FALLACY JOURNAL
Name
Institution
Date
Emotionally Loaded Language
This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality.
Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly.
Appeal to ignorance
This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa.
Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive.
Inconsistency
A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.
Introduction to Philosophy 101 HomeworkSection 3 Deductive Argum.pdffazilfootsteps
Introduction to Philosophy 101: Homework
Section 3: Deductive Arguments and Standard Form/Short Answer
Directions: Put the following deductive arguments into standard form and determine whether the
arguments are of the form modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, or hypothetical
syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
1.
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
Form:
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
1.
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
Form:
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
1.
2.
________________________________________________________
3.
Form:
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
5. Why does Socrates claim that he is the wisest in all of Athens?
6. Explain Socrates’ idea of truth. Does truth exist?
7. Explain Dqescartes’ method of doubt and the rational truth he discovers.
8. According to Berkeley, “if a tree falls in the woods, does it make a sound?” Explain this in
terms of his philosophy.
9. When referring to the theory of Dualism, what is the problem of interaction?
10. Briefly define Physicalism.
Solution
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
Form: modus ponens
P: Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles
Q: that eating beef is morally wrong.
If P Q and P are true, then Q is true, by modus ponens.
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
Form:disjunctive syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
Form: modus tollens
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
The Sophists were orators, public speakers, mouths for hire in an oral culture. They were gifted
with speech. They were skilled in what becomes known as Rhetoric. They were respected,
feared and hated. They had a gift.
Faulty Arguments,Logical Fallacies and Poor Re.docxmydrynan
Faulty Arguments,
Logical Fallacies
and
Poor Reasoning
Faulty ArgumentsThis PowerPoint contains some of the common errors people make in reasoning. If you listen, you will hear many of these fallacies in everyday conversation.The “natural” cure and herbal medicine literature is rife with glaring examples of poor argumentation.Study these generic examples and you will be able to spot them in the assigned articles with ease.
Poor Logic
Emotional AppealThis is an attempt to sway the listener by getting him emotionally involved. Emotions shut down reason!Sick or scared people are especially vulnerable.
Ad Hominem/ Personal AttackArguments of this kind focus on the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit positions by discrediting those who hold them. They attack the arguers rather than the arguments.Politicians are often subjected to ad hominem attacks
Bandwagon/ Ad PopulumThe difference between the two is that the bandwagon fallacy places an emphasis on current fads and trends, whereas the ad populum suggests that an idea must be true simply because it is widely held.
Appeal to AuthorityFor example, an appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. The degree of support that such an appeal lends to a claim varies depending on the particular authority in question, the relevance of their expertise to the claim, and other factors, but in all cases is limited.
Appeal to AuthorityAn appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. Celebrity endorsements sell products.Even worse, celebrity endorsements of political figures win votes. Yikes!
Faulty StatisticsMisunderstanding or misusing statistics to shore up a weak argument.Example: “We must fund our schools better! Half our children are below average on their math tests!”People pull bogus statistics out of thin air to sound impressive.
Research by ExegesisResearch by exegesis is using a book as an infallible reference source.Usually it refers to the supposedly infallible Bible, but not always.People cite Bible verses to convince people that being gay is wrong.
Either/Or & Slippery SlopeSlippery slope arguments falsely assume that one thing must lead to another. They begin by suggesting that if we do one thing then that will lead to another, and before we know it we’ll be doing something that we don’t want to do.They conclude that we therefore shouldn’t do the first thing. The problem with these arguments is that it is possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on to do the other things; restraint is possible.
Slippery Slope Example“If you go out with that kind of guy, you will get pregnant and end up dropping out of college.”Either you stay in school or you won’t get a good job.
Red HerringThe red herring ...
Faulty Arguments,Logical Fallacies and Poor Re.docxssuser454af01
Faulty Arguments,
Logical Fallacies
and
Poor Reasoning
Faulty ArgumentsThis PowerPoint contains some of the common errors people make in reasoning. If you listen, you will hear many of these fallacies in everyday conversation.The “natural” cure and herbal medicine literature is rife with glaring examples of poor argumentation.Study these generic examples and you will be able to spot them in the assigned articles with ease.
Poor Logic
Emotional AppealThis is an attempt to sway the listener by getting him emotionally involved. Emotions shut down reason!Sick or scared people are especially vulnerable.
Ad Hominem/ Personal AttackArguments of this kind focus on the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit positions by discrediting those who hold them. They attack the arguers rather than the arguments.Politicians are often subjected to ad hominem attacks
Bandwagon/ Ad PopulumThe difference between the two is that the bandwagon fallacy places an emphasis on current fads and trends, whereas the ad populum suggests that an idea must be true simply because it is widely held.
Appeal to AuthorityFor example, an appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. The degree of support that such an appeal lends to a claim varies depending on the particular authority in question, the relevance of their expertise to the claim, and other factors, but in all cases is limited.
Appeal to AuthorityAn appeal to authority argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. Celebrity endorsements sell products.Even worse, celebrity endorsements of political figures win votes. Yikes!
Faulty StatisticsMisunderstanding or misusing statistics to shore up a weak argument.Example: “We must fund our schools better! Half our children are below average on their math tests!”People pull bogus statistics out of thin air to sound impressive.
Research by ExegesisResearch by exegesis is using a book as an infallible reference source.Usually it refers to the supposedly infallible Bible, but not always.People cite Bible verses to convince people that being gay is wrong.
Either/Or & Slippery SlopeSlippery slope arguments falsely assume that one thing must lead to another. They begin by suggesting that if we do one thing then that will lead to another, and before we know it we’ll be doing something that we don’t want to do.They conclude that we therefore shouldn’t do the first thing. The problem with these arguments is that it is possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on to do the other things; restraint is possible.
Slippery Slope Example“If you go out with that kind of guy, you will get pregnant and end up dropping out of college.”Either you stay in school or you won’t get a good job.
Red HerringThe red herring ...
This presentation poster infographic delves into the multifaceted impacts of globalization through the lens of Nike, a prominent global brand. It explores how globalization has reshaped Nike's supply chain, marketing strategies, and cultural influence worldwide, examining both the benefits and challenges associated with its global expansion.
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Una ricerca de il Club degli Investitori, in collaborazione con ToTeM Torino Tech Map e con il supporto della ESCP Business School e di Growth Capital
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Seminar on gender diversity spillovers through ownership networks at FAME|GRAPE. Presenting novel research. Studies in economics and management using econometrics methods.
Lecture slide titled Fraud Risk Mitigation, Webinar Lecture Delivered at the Society for West African Internal Audit Practitioners (SWAIAP) on Wednesday, November 8, 2023.
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2. LOGIC
● Branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis
of arguments
● Studies and elaborates on good argumentation.
● Study of correct thinking and reasoning
3. Fallacy
Group of statement that appear
to be arguments, but fail to
support the conclusion.
Eg: There is no hope in the
Philippine government, because the
Philippines is a tropical country.
4. 1. Argumentum ad Hominem
“Attacking the Person”
Hominem came from Latin word “homo”
which means man. This fallacy literally means
hitting the person below the belt instead of
focusing on the issue at hand.
Examples:
“How can we believe him when
he talks about social distancing,
he is a lawyer who is a liar.”
“Of course he believes that the
government is flawed, he is a
rebel and a Communist!”
Attacking the person presenting
the argument instead of the
argument itself.
5.
6. 2. Argumentum ad Baculum
(Appeal to Force)
Baculum is a Latin word which means
scepter or stick. A scepter is a symbol
of authority. Normally it is the Pope
who carries it in his hands. This is
committed when a person uses threat
or force to advance an argument.
Using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument.
Examples:
“TV Patrol is the best news
program on TV. If you don’t
believe me, I won’t let you watch
the TV.”
“If this peace agreement will not
be signed by the government,
then we will have no recourse
but to go to war.”
7. 3. Argumentum ad Misercordiam
(Appeal to Pity)
Misercordiam came from Latin word
Misericordia which means pity or
compassion. A person uses emotion
such as pity to convince someone
Using emotions such as pity or
sympathy.
Examples:
“Forgive me officer, there are lot of
boarders in this apartment including
myself. Only the owner was issued a
quarantine pass. We don’t have food,
we can’t give our ATM to the owner.
That’s why I went out. So I did not
violate the Bayanihan Act Heal as One.”
“All these charges are baseless; this is
just plain harassment- can’t you see
how this is affecting my family?”
8. 4. Argumentum ad Populum
“Appeal to people”/
Bandwagon fallacy
Populum is the Latin word for people.
Most of TV commercials are guilty of
this argument which exploit people’s
vanity, desires, etc.
The idea is presented acceptable
because a lot of people accept it.
Examples:
“I’m sure you want to have an i phone.
Almost 80% of your schoolmates are
using it.”
“Every boy your age already has a
girlfriend, you should go find one!”
9. 5. Argumentum ad Tradition/ Antiquitatem
“Appeal to Tradition”
Traditio means tradition. Advancing
an idea since it has been practice for a
long time.
The idea is acceptable because it has
been true for a long time.
“this is the way it has always been
done”
Examples:
“All of us in the family, from our
ancestors up to now, are devout
Catholics, so it is only right that you will
be baptized as a Catholic.“
“Marriage should be between a man and
a woman. It has been so for a long time
in this country; it should remain so today
and in the future.”
10. 6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
“Appeal to Ignorance”
Ignorantiam a Latin word for ignorance.
Whatever has been proven false must be
true and vice versa
Committed when a person could not give
a counter argument or if he/she could
not present any evidences or witnesses
to prove or disprove the statement of
another, his/ her assertions are correct
and the opponent is wrong.
Examples:
“According to Zecharia Sitchin, the author
of the book Cosmic Code, Adam was the
first test tube baby. Since nobody proves
otherwise, therefore it is true.”
“I am sure that the students have
understood the instructions perfectly
well because no one raised a hand to ask
anything on them.”
11. 7. Petitio Principii
(Begging the Question)
A fallacy in which a conclusion is taken
for granted in the premises
Assuming the thing or idea to be
proven is true
Also known as “circular argument”
Examples:
“I have the right to free speech, therefore
you cannot stop me from talking.”
“What is a declarative sentence? It is a
sentence that declares.”
“Cheating is wrong because it is immoral”
12.
13. 8. Hasty Generalization
This fallacy is committed when one
reaches a generalization based on
insufficient evidence
Example:
“Our neighbor who is a police officer
was convicted of being a drug dealer,
therefore, all police officers are drug
dealers. “
14. 9. Cause-and-effect
(Post Hoc, Ergo, Propter Hoc)
Assuming that the effect is related to a
cause because both events occur one
after the other.
Assuming a “cause-and-effect”
relationship between unrelated
events.
Examples:
“Ever since you bought that sweater, everything
has been going wrong in your life. You should get
rid of it.”
“Jen comes to class just as the bell rings every
day. Jen’s arrival at class causes the bell to ring.”
“She became an old maid because she used to
sing while cooking.”
15. 10. Fallacy of Composition
Infers that something is true of a part, is
true of a whole
Assuming that what is true of a part is
true for the whole.
Individual to all
Examples:
“You are a doctor, therefore you came
from a family of doctors.”
“These cases of robbery in this district
have convinces me that the city has
become a den of thieves and criminals”
16. 11. Fallacy of Division
Infers that something is true of the
whole, must also be true on its parts
Assuming that what is true for the
whole is true for its parts.
All to individual
Examples:
“Your family is smart, therefore you are
smart.”
“You come from a family of doctors and
intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this
course!”
17. 12. Fallacy of Equivocation
Using the same term in a different
situation with different meaning.
Calling two different things by the same
name.
Resulting from the use of a particular
word/ expression in multiple senses
throughout an agreement leading to a
false conclusion.
Examples:
“Humans walk by their legs. The table has
legs. Therefore the table walks by its
legs.”
“A ruler measures 12 inches, Mayor Isko
Moreno is a ruler; therefore, Mayor Isko
is 12 inches.”
18. Occurs when one attempts to apply
a general rule to an irrelevant
situation.
Example:
Cutting people with knives is a crime.
Surgeons cut people with knives.
Surgeons are criminals.
13. Fallacy of Accident
14. Argumentum ad
Verecundiam
(Argument from Authority)
Committed when a person uses a
name of a popular celebrity or name
of an expert to put more weight in
the assertion being made.
Example:
“My assignment in Chemistry is not
wrong. Ms. Aguirre, my English
teacher who is known internationally
as a novelist, confirmed my answer.”