Faulty Arguments,Logical Fallacies and Poor Re.docx

Faulty Arguments,
Logical Fallacies
and
Poor Reasoning
Faulty ArgumentsThis PowerPoint contains some of the
common errors people make in reasoning. If you listen, you will
hear many of these fallacies in everyday conversation.The
“natural” cure and herbal medicine literature is rife with glaring
examples of poor argumentation.Study these generic examples
and you will be able to spot them in the assigned articles with
ease.
Poor Logic
Emotional AppealThis is an attempt to sway the listener by
getting him emotionally involved. Emotions shut down
reason!Sick or scared people are especially vulnerable.

Ad Hominem/ Personal AttackArguments of this kind focus on
the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit
positions by discrediting those who hold them. They attack the
arguers rather than the arguments.Politicians are often subjected
to ad hominem attacks
Bandwagon/ Ad PopulumThe difference between the two is that
the bandwagon fallacy places an emphasis on current fads and
trends, whereas the ad populum suggests that an idea must be
true simply because it is widely held.
Appeal to AuthorityFor example, an appeal to authority
argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a
perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the
question. The degree of support that such an appeal lends to a
claim varies depending on the particular authority in question,
the relevance of their expertise to the claim, and other factors,
but in all cases is limited.
Appeal to AuthorityAn appeal to authority argument seeks to
persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority,
thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. Celebrity
endorsements sell products.Even worse, celebrity endorsements
of political figures win votes. Yikes!
Faulty StatisticsMisunderstanding or misusing statistics to shore
up a weak argument.Example: “We must fund our schools

better! Half our children are below average on their math
tests!”People pull bogus statistics out of thin air to sound
impressive.
Research by ExegesisResearch by exegesis is using a book as an
infallible reference source.Usually it refers to the supposedly
infallible Bible, but not always.People cite Bible verses to
convince people that being gay is wrong.
Either/Or & Slippery SlopeSlippery slope arguments falsely
assume that one thing must lead to another. They begin by
suggesting that if we do one thing then that will lead to another,
and before we know it we’ll be doing something that we don’t
want to do.They conclude that we therefore shouldn’t do the
first thing. The problem with these arguments is that it is
possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on
to do the other things; restraint is possible.
Slippery Slope Example“If you go out with that kind of guy,
you will get pregnant and end up dropping out of
college.”Either you stay in school or you won’t get a good job.
Red HerringThe red herring is as much a debate tactic as it is a
logical fallacy. It is a fallacy of distraction, and is committed
when a listener attempts to divert an arguer from his argument
by introducing another topic. This can be one of the most
frustrating, and effective, fallacies to observe.The fallacy gets
its name from fox hunting, specifically from the practice of

using smoked herrings, which are red, to distract hounds from
the scent of their quarry. Just as a hound may be prevented from
catching a fox by distracting it with a red herring, so an arguer
may be prevented from proving his point by distracting him
with a tangential issue.
Red Herring Example“You may think that he cheated on the
test, but look at the poor man! How would he feel if you made
him take it again?”This red herring also includes an appeal to
pity.
Straw ManThe straw man fallacy occurs when a statement
misrepresents or invents an opponent's view (sometimes even
the opponent is invented) in order to easily discredit it.The
straw man argument is intended to give the appearance of
successfully refuting the original argument, thus creating the
impression that it has refuted a position that someone actually
holds. A straw man is constructed expressly for the purpose of
knocking it down.
Straw Man Examples
(1) Trinitarianism holds that three equals one.
(2) Three does not equal one.
Therefore:
(3) Trinitarianism is false.(Trinitarianism does not actually say
that 3 =1)
Can you find the straw man in this?: Republicans attack
Democrats for spending too much tax money.”

TestimonialPersonal statements and anecdotal stories are
mistaken for scientific proof.Example: “I lost 100 pounds on
Diet drink and you can too!”
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the QuestionAn argument is
circular if its conclusion is among its premises, if it assumes
(either explicitly or not) what it is trying to prove. Such
arguments are said to beg the question.“We’re all good
Christians here…” (1) The Bible affirms that it is inerrant. (2)
Whatever the Bible says is true. Therefore: 3) The Bible is
inerrant.
More Examples of Circular ReasoningTypical examples of
circular arguments include rights or claims.I have a right to
choose whether to have an abortion or not, therefore abortion
should be allowedThe unborn has a right to life, therefore
abortion is immoral.Having a right to X is the same as other
people having an obligation to allow you to have X, so each of
these arguments begs the question, assuming exactly what it is
trying to prove.
Non SequiterLiterally this means, “It does not follow”Ex.
Giving up our nuclear arsenal in the 1980's weakened the
United States' military.Giving up nuclear weaponry also
weakened China in the 1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try
to outlaw pistols and rifles in the United States today

Equivocation
1) Nothing is better than eternal happiness.
2) A ham sandwich is better than nothing.
Therefore:
3)A ham sandwich is better than eternal happiness.
(Nothing means different things.)
“I didn’t have sex with her” (She performed a sex act on me,
but hey…)
False Dilemma
The bifurcation fallacy is committed when a false dilemma is
presented, i.e. when someone is asked to choose between two
options when there is at least one other option available.
(1) Either a Creator brought the universe into existence, or the
universe came into existence out of nothing.
(2) The universe didn’t come into existence out of nothing
(because nothing comes from nothing).
Therefore:
(3) A Creator brought the universe into existence.
False Dilemma Example
“Do I trust the word of a madman and forget the lessons of
September the 11th, or take action to defend America? Given
that choice, I will defend America every time.—
Bush 9/3/04
Hasty Generalization:

(Jumping to conclusions)Ex. "Susan failed Biology 101.Herman
failed Biology 101. Jose failed Biology 101. I therefore
conclude that most students who take Biology 101 will fail it."
Glittering GeneralitiesUse attractive, but vague words that make
speeches and other communications sound good, but in practice
say nothing in particular.Example: We are fighting for truth and
freedom!
Prejudice & StereotypesAny statement that starts (or implies)
with “All…” or “Most…” or impliesAsian women are such poor
drivers!Men are dogs.
Faulty AnalogyA faulty or weak analogy tries to relate two
disparate things.
An expert suggests that a watch and the universe are similar
(both display order and complexity), and therefore infers from
the fact that watches are the product of intelligent design that
the universe must be a product of intelligent design too.
DogmatismThis is a tendency to express strongly held opinions
in a way that suggests they should be accepted without
question.“I believe that women should stay at home and raise
the children or else our moral values in this country will go to
hell!”

Post HocThe Latin phrase post hoc ergo propter hoc means,
literally, after this therefore because of this.The post hoc
fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because one thing
occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.
Mere temporal succession, however, does not entail causal
succession. Just because one thing follows another does not
mean that it was caused by it.
Post Hoc ExampleNestle, the makers of the breakfast cereal
Shredded Wheat, once ran an advertising campaign in which the
key phrase was this: “People who eat Shredded Wheat tend to
have healthy hearts.”
Another Post Hoc Example(1) Most people who are read the last
rites die shortly afterwards.
Therefore: (2) Priests are going around killing people with
magic words!
Tu Quoque
(Two Wrongs Don’t Make a Right)The tu quoque fallacy is
committed when it is assumed that because someone else has
done a thing there is nothing wrong with doing it. This fallacy
is classically committed by children who, when scolded,
respond with, “So and so did it too!” with the implied
conclusion that there is nothing wrong with doing whatever it is
that they have done.Do you remember the A&F tee shirt that
read, “Two Wongs don’t make a white” ?

Tu Quoque Example
(1) The Romans kept slaves.
Therefore:
(2) We can keep slaves too.
Ex. “But Susie did it….., why can’t I?”
JargonTechnical and hard to understand language is often used
to persuade unsuspecting people that a product is scientifically
proven to be effective.A good rule of thumb is that if you can’t
understand it and it was written for the public, then you aren’t
supposed to understand it! Someone is counting on you NOT
understanding anything.
Occam’s RazorWilliam of Ockham was a medieval (ca 1300)
English philosopherHe proposed that if 2 theories explain the
same thing, always choose the simplest.We know this today as
K.I.S.S. (keep it simple, stupid)
Faulty Arguments,
Logical Fallacies
and
Poor Reasoning

Faulty ArgumentsThis PowerPoint contains some of the
common errors people make in reasoning. If you listen, you will
hear many of these fallacies in everyday conversation.The
“natural” cure and herbal medicine literature is rife with glaring
examples of poor argumentation.Study these generic examples
and you will be able to spot them in the assigned articles with
ease.
Poor Logic
Emotional AppealThis is an attempt to sway the listener by
getting him emotionally involved. Emotions shut down
reason!Sick or scared people are especially vulnerable.
Ad Hominem/ Personal AttackArguments of this kind focus on
the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit
positions by discrediting those who hold them. They attack the
arguers rather than the arguments.Politicians are often subjected
to ad hominem attacks
Bandwagon/ Ad PopulumThe difference between the two is that
the bandwagon fallacy places an emphasis on current fads and
trends, whereas the ad populum suggests that an idea must be
true simply because it is widely held.

Appeal to AuthorityFor example, an appeal to authority
argument seeks to persuade by citing what someone else, a
perceived authority, thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the
question. The degree of support that such an appeal lends to a
claim varies depending on the particular authority in question,
the relevance of their expertise to the claim, and other factors,
but in all cases is limited.
Appeal to AuthorityAn appeal to authority argument seeks to
persuade by citing what someone else, a perceived authority,
thinks on the subject, as if that resolves the question. Celebrity
endorsements sell products.Even worse, celebrity endorsements
of political figures win votes. Yikes!
Faulty StatisticsMisunderstanding or misusing statistics to shore
up a weak argument.Example: “We must fund our schools
better! Half our children are below average on their math
tests!”People pull bogus statistics out of thin air to sound
impressive.
Research by ExegesisResearch by exegesis is using a book as an
infallible reference source.Usually it refers to the supposedly
infallible Bible, but not always.People cite Bible verses to
convince people that being gay is wrong.
Either/Or & Slippery SlopeSlippery slope arguments falsely

assume that one thing must lead to another. They begin by
suggesting that if we do one thing then that will lead to another,
and before we know it we’ll be doing something that we don’t
want to do.They conclude that we therefore shouldn’t do the
first thing. The problem with these arguments is that it is
possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on
to do the other things; restraint is possible.
Slippery Slope Example“If you go out with that kind of guy,
you will get pregnant and end up dropping out of
college.”Either you stay in school or you won’t get a good job.
Red HerringThe red herring is as much a debate tactic as it is a
logical fallacy. It is a fallacy of distraction, and is committed
when a listener attempts to divert an arguer from his argument
by introducing another topic. This can be one of the most
frustrating, and effective, fallacies to observe.The fallacy gets
its name from fox hunting, specifically from the practice of
using smoked herrings, which are red, to distract hounds from
the scent of their quarry. Just as a hound may be prevented from
catching a fox by distracting it with a red herring, so an arguer
may be prevented from proving his point by distracting him
with a tangential issue.
Red Herring Example“You may think that he cheated on the
test, but look at the poor man! How would he feel if you made
him take it again?”This red herring also includes an appeal to
pity.

Straw ManThe straw man fallacy occurs when a statement
misrepresents or invents an opponent's view (sometimes even
the opponent is invented) in order to easily discredit it.The
straw man argument is intended to give the appearance of
successfully refuting the original argument, thus creating the
impression that it has refuted a position that someone actually
holds. A straw man is constructed expressly for the purpose of
knocking it down.
Straw Man Examples
(1) Trinitarianism holds that three equals one.
(2) Three does not equal one.
Therefore:
(3) Trinitarianism is false.(Trinitarianism does not actually say
that 3 =1)
Can you find the straw man in this?: Republicans attack
Democrats for spending too much tax money.”
TestimonialPersonal statements and anecdotal stories are
mistaken for scientific proof.Example: “I lost 100 pounds on
Diet drink and you can too!”
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the QuestionAn argument is
circular if its conclusion is among its premises, if it assumes
(either explicitly or not) what it is trying to prove. Such
arguments are said to beg the question.“We’re all good
Christians here…” (1) The Bible affirms that it is inerrant. (2)

Whatever the Bible says is true. Therefore: 3) The Bible is
inerrant.
More Examples of Circular ReasoningTypical examples of
circular arguments include rights or claims.I have a right to
choose whether to have an abortion or not, therefore abortion
should be allowedThe unborn has a right to life, therefore
abortion is immoral.Having a right to X is the same as other
people having an obligation to allow you to have X, so each of
these arguments begs the question, assuming exactly what it is
trying to prove.
Non SequiterLiterally this means, “It does not follow”Ex.
Giving up our nuclear arsenal in the 1980's weakened the
United States' military.Giving up nuclear weaponry also
weakened China in the 1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try
to outlaw pistols and rifles in the United States today
Equivocation
1) Nothing is better than eternal happiness.
2) A ham sandwich is better than nothing.
Therefore:
3)A ham sandwich is better than eternal happiness.
(Nothing means different things.)
“I didn’t have sex with her” (She performed a sex act on me,
but hey…)
False Dilemma

The bifurcation fallacy is committed when a false dilemma is
presented, i.e. when someone is asked to choose between two
options when there is at least one other option available.
(1) Either a Creator brought the universe into existence, or the
universe came into existence out of nothing.
(2) The universe didn’t come into existence out of nothing
(because nothing comes from nothing).
Therefore:
(3) A Creator brought the universe into existence.
False Dilemma Example
“Do I trust the word of a madman and forget the lessons of
September the 11th, or take action to defend America? Given
that choice, I will defend America every time.—
Bush 9/3/04
Hasty Generalization:
(Jumping to conclusions)Ex. "Susan failed Biology 101.Herman
failed Biology 101. Jose failed Biology 101. I therefore
conclude that most students who take Biology 101 will fail it."
Glittering GeneralitiesUse attractive, but vague words that make
speeches and other communications sound good, but in practice
say nothing in particular.Example: We are fighting for truth and
freedom!

Prejudice & StereotypesAny statement that starts (or implies)
with “All…” or “Most…” or impliesAsian women are such poor
drivers!Men are dogs.
Faulty AnalogyA faulty or weak analogy tries to relate two
disparate things.
An expert suggests that a watch and the universe are similar
(both display order and complexity), and therefore infers from
the fact that watches are the product of intelligent design that
the universe must be a product of intelligent design too.
DogmatismThis is a tendency to express strongly held opinions
in a way that suggests they should be accepted without
question.“I believe that women should stay at home and raise
the children or else our moral values in this country will go to
hell!”
Post HocThe Latin phrase post hoc ergo propter hoc means,
literally, after this therefore because of this.The post hoc
fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because one thing
occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.
Mere temporal succession, however, does not entail causal
succession. Just because one thing follows another does not
mean that it was caused by it.
Post Hoc ExampleNestle, the makers of the breakfast cereal
Shredded Wheat, once ran an advertising campaign in which the
key phrase was this: “People who eat Shredded Wheat tend to

have healthy hearts.”
Another Post Hoc Example(1) Most people who are read the last
rites die shortly afterwards.
Therefore: (2) Priests are going around killing people with
magic words!
Tu Quoque
(Two Wrongs Don’t Make a Right)The tu quoque fallacy is
committed when it is assumed that because someone else has
done a thing there is nothing wrong with doing it. This fallacy
is classically committed by children who, when scolded,
respond with, “So and so did it too!” with the implied
conclusion that there is nothing wrong with doing whatever it is
that they have done.Do you remember the A&F tee shirt that
read, “Two Wongs don’t make a white” ?
Tu Quoque Example
(1) The Romans kept slaves.
Therefore:
(2) We can keep slaves too.
Ex. “But Susie did it….., why can’t I?”
JargonTechnical and hard to understand language is often used
to persuade unsuspecting people that a product is scientifically
proven to be effective.A good rule of thumb is that if you can’t
understand it and it was written for the public, then you aren’t

supposed to understand it! Someone is counting on you NOT
understanding anything.
Occam’s RazorWilliam of Ockham was a medieval (ca 1300)
English philosopherHe proposed that if 2 theories explain the
same thing, always choose the simplest.We know this today as
K.I.S.S. (keep it simple, stupid)

Faulty Arguments,Logical Fallacies and Poor Re.docx

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