The document discusses the key elements and structure of a research article. It notes that a research article is the dominant genre of academic writing and must undergo peer review and revision to be published. It then outlines the most common structure for a research article, including an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results/discussion, conclusion, and references. Finally, it states that research articles are always written in a formal, academic style and discusses some common linguistic features, including hedges, boosters, and attitude markers, that authors use to present their topics and findings.

1. The Research Article and the writer's stance:
hedges, boosters, attitude markers
Goran Brkić, mag. educ. philol. angl.
gbrkic79@gmail.com

2. Every researcher, after conducting research, wants to publish
their findings to share them with the rest of the academic
community.
In order to do that, they must:
1. Write a research article and publish it in a respected
publication
2. The paper should follow certain established rules
regarding structure and language.
The Research Article

3. The Research
Article
The research article (RA) is the dominant
genre of academic writing
”The jewel in the crown of academic
communication.” (Hyland, 2009:78)
In order to be published, it needs to
undergo
peer review / revision
In order to contribute to the community,
it needs to have:
• novelty (bring new findings into the
field), and
• relevance (the information needs to be
important and relevant for the field).

4. The Research Article – structure
Most common structure of a RA:
• Abstract + keywords
• Introduction
• Literature review / theoretical background
• Methodology
• Results / Discussion
• Conclusion
• References
Check if the research article you have chosen has all of these elements.

5. Apart from the aforementioned structure, an academic article
is always written in a formal, academic style.
In the following slides, we are going to learn about some
common linguistic features of research articles.
Authors use these features in order to present their topic and
findings in a way to make the reader interested!
The Research Article

6. These LANGUAGE FEATURES are commonly divided into two
categories:
- STANCE (the writer’s textual "voice", the way the writers
present themselves to the audience)
- ENGAGEMENT (the ways that writers rhetorically recognize
the presence of their readers to actively pull them along with
the argument, include them as discourse participants, and
guide them to interpretations)
(Hyland, K. (2005a). ‘Stance and engagement: a model of interaction in academic discourse’. Discourse Studies, 6(2), 173–91.
The Research Article

7. Stance markers include:
- 1. Hedges
- 2. Boosters
- 3. Attitude markers
Stance

8. 1
HEDGES

9. Stance: hedges
1. Hedges
A feature of academic writing is the need to be cautious in one’s statements in order to distinguish between facts and
claims. This feature is termed 'hedging'. Hedging can be defined as the use of linguistic devices to show hesitation or
uncertainty and to display politeness and indirectness. Hedging is absolutely crucial in good academic writing and
hedged words are said to account for 1 in every 100 words.

10. Stance: hedges
1. Hedges
Scientists are very cautious about making conclusions and stating
facts, so they make sure their language is appropriate. An
important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious
language, often called “hedging” or “vague language“.
The language elements are "hesitant" and "cautious" rather than
"certain".
E.g.: We propose several possible reasons for this … and this may
be… and could mean… this appears to… there is a strong
tendency…

11. HEDGES – EXERCISE!
Decide which of the sentences in the following slide are
considered to be academically competent. Write down the
number of the sentence which has hedging language.

12. 1. Viewing a movie in which alcohol is portrayed appears to lead to higher total
alcohol consumption of young people.
2. Furthermore, this proves that humans are wired to imitate.
3. It is unquestionable that our survey proved that the portrayal of alcohol and
drinking characters in movies directly leads to more alcohol consumption in
young adult male viewers when alcohol is available within the situation.
4. Implications of these findings may be that, if moderation of alcohol
consumption in certain groups is strived for, it may be sensible to cut down on
the portrayal of alcohol in programmes aimed at these groups and the
commercials shown in between.
5. It definitely proves that a movie in which a lot of partying is involved triggers a
social process between two participants that affects total drinking amounts.
HEDGES – EXERCISE!

13. 1. Viewing a movie in which alcohol is portrayed appears to lead to
higher total alcohol consumption of young people.
4. Implications of these findings may be that, if moderation of alcohol
consumption in certain groups is strived for, it may be sensible to cut
down on the portrayal of alcohol in programmes aimed at these groups
and the commercials shown in between.
Good job! 
HEDGES – RESULTS!

14. EXERCISE 2
1. Hedges
Take a look at some of the most common hedges used in
academic texts (next slide).

15. • Introductory verbs: e.g., seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe,
doubt, indicate, suggest
• Certain lexical verbs: e.g., believe, assume, suggest
• Certain modal verbs: e.g., would, may, might, could
• Adverbs of frequency: e.g., often, sometimes, usually
• Modal adverbs: e.g., probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably, generally
• Modal adjectives: e.g., clear, probable, possible
• Modal nouns: e.g., assumption, possibility, probability
• That clauses e.g., It could be the case that... / It might be suggested that...
• To-clause + adjective: e.g., It may be possible to obtain…
• Source: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/hedge.htm

16. Rewrite the sentences using hedging language.
Example:
Climate change is caused by human activities.
It is generally believed that climate change is caused by human
activities.
OR
Climate change appears to be mostly caused by human activity.
EXERCISE 2

17. Try to do the same with these sentences:
1. Playing violent video games causes more aggression, bullying,
and fighting.
2. Eating in front of the television is closely related to obesity in
children.
EXERCISE 2

18. Stance: hedges
• Hedging: choice of using linguistic
elements which express possibility or
uncertainty (something is possible, rather
than certain)
• They allow writers to express something
as an opinion rather than a fact; they
imply that a claim is based on plausible
reasoning rather than certain knowledge
(Hyland, 2008).

19. Now, identify HEDGES in the research article you have chosen for
your exam!
Highlight them in BLUE!
This will be the first assignment in your final exam.
EXAM PREPARATION 1

20. 2
BOOSTERS

21. Stance: boosters
2. Boosters
Hedging has its benefits. Hedges suggest that the writer is careful, nuanced, and keen to
avoid generalizations. A text that contains hedging is an open text, a text that invites
debate and further research.
If you’re not careful, hedging can hurt your writing. It’s easy to come across as timid and
lacking in confidence. Hedging can also clutter up your sentences.
If hedges express doubt, boosters demonstrate confidence!
The danger with boosters is that they can make you seem cocky and pompous.
However, if you use them sparingly they can convey the right amount of self-assurance.
The selective use of boosters will convince your reader that you know your stuff and are
an expert in your field.

22. Stance: boosters
2. Boosters
Boosters: linguistic elements which express certainty (allow
writers to express their certainty in what they say).
Of course, certainly, indeed, always, undoubtedly, in fact, clearly,
actually, obviously, know, prove, conclusively, definitely, evidently…

23. BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 1
Decide if the following sentences have hedges (H) or boosters (B)!

24. HEDGES VS. BOOSTERS
Children reading less / digital media
Some would say that digital media is related to less reading among
children.
Without a doubt, the use of digital media has a negative impact on reading
among children.
BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 1

25. HEDGES VS. BOOSTERS
Children reading less / digital media
Some would say that digital media is related to less reading among
children.
Without a doubt, the use of digital media has a negative impact on reading
among children.
H
B
BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 1

26. HEDGES VS. BOOSTERS
Eating fast food = shorter life span
In most cases, eating a lot of fast food is likely / probably / may be related
to shorter life span.
Of course, eating a lot of fast food is known to shorten one’s life span.
BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 1

27. HEDGES VS. BOOSTERS
Eating fast food = shorter life span
In most cases, eating a lot of fast food is likely / probably / may be related
to shorter life span.
Of course, eating a lot of fast food is known to shorten one’s life span.
H
B
BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 1

28. Texts usually have examples of both hedges and boosters.
Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
1.
I would suggest that the font on the New York Times website may
be too small.

29. Please determine if the following passage contains hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
1.
I would suggest that the font on the New York Times website may
be too small.

30. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
2.
Science, in fact, tells us that too much sitting decreases the
metabolism rate.

31. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
2.
Science, in fact, tells us that tells us that too much sitting
decreases the metabolism rate.

32. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
3.
Police reports suggest that the robber was perhaps influenced by
listening to old ABBA records.

33. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
3.
Police reports suggest that the robber was perhaps influenced by
listening to old ABBA records.

34. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
4.
He demonstrated that pickles are certainly good on any burger.

35. Please determine if the following passage contains more hedges or boosters:
HEDGES AND BOOSTERS – EXERCISE 2
4.
He demonstrated that pickles are certainly good on any burger.

36. Now, identify BOOSTERS in the research article you have chosen
for your exam!
Highlight them in RED!
This will be the second assignment in your final exam.
EXAM PREPARATION 2

37. 3
ATTITUDE
MARKERS

38. Stance: 3. attitude markers
Attitude markers: linguistic elements which express the writer’s
affective attitude (emotional position).
I believe / remarkable / extraordinary / It is interesting to notice…
e.g. I believe that Dworkin’s model has remarkable resonance and
extraordinary potential power. The worry I have about this proposal… It is
interesting to notice that…

39. ATTITUDE MARKERS – EXERCISE 1
Read the following sentences and find attitude markers.

40. When asked if they would read more if required reading (lektira)
was abolished, a surprising 68% of students said that they would.
Interestingly, the same percentage of teachers said that they did
not agree with their students’ self-evaluation.
It is a little disappointing to see that the same students went to the
library once a month, and only borrowed books for their required
reading.
ATTITUDE MARKERS – EXERCISE 1

41. When asked if they would read more if required reading (lektira)
was abolished, a surprising 68% of students said that they would.
Interestingly, the same percentage of teachers said that they did
not agree with their students’ self-evaluation.
It is a little disappointing to see that the same students went to the
library once a month, and only borrowed books for their required
reading.
ATTITUDE MARKERS – EXERCISE 1

42. In some cases, you will find that the text has hedges, boosters, and attitude
markers.
Read the following sentences and identify all three markers.
HEDGES, BOOSTERS and ATTITUDE MARKERS –
EXERCISE 2

43. HEDGES, BOOSTERS and ATTITUDE MARKERS –
EXERCISE 2
These findings were, unfortunately, insufficient to prove our claim
that children read only when they have to.
This research is definitely important and it should be studied
further.
Hopefully, new findings would perhaps show that investing in
reading motivation is extremely important for the increase of
reading for pleasure among students.

44. HEDGES, BOOSTERS and ATTITUDE MARKERS –
EXERCISE 2
These findings were, unfortunately, insufficient to prove our claim
that children read only when they have to.
This research is definitely important and it should be studied
further.
Hopefully, new findings would perhaps show that investing in
reading motivation is extremely important for the increase of
reading for pleasure among students.

45. Now, identify ATTITUDE MARKERS in the research article you have
chosen for your exam!
Highlight them in green!
This will be the third assignment in your final exam.
EXAM PREPARATION 3

46. Thank you for your
attention!